Chapter 13: Agrarian Reform

This chapter delves into the complex history of land ownership and agrarian reform in
the Philippines, tracing its evolution from precolonial times to the post-war period.

1. Precolonial Period:

- Land was communally owned and administered by the barangay chief (datu).

- The population was divided into the warrior class (datu and timawa) and the laborer
class (oripun or alipin).

- The produce of the land was shared among the community.

2. Spanish Colonial Period:

- The encomienda system was introduced, granting Spanish loyalists the right to collect
tribute and draft labor from the inhabitants of a specific area.

- The encomenderos were responsible for protecting and Christianizing the population.

- The Spaniards also engaged in town-building, assigning land for housing and
cultivation to Filipino families.

- The encomienda system was eventually abolished due to widespread abuses

committed by the encomenderos.

- Spaniards, including friars, and the native principalia (descendants of former datu
rulers) began claiming lands as their private property.

3. American Colonial Period:

- The opening of the Philippines to world trade led to an increase in the value of land
and the rise of haciendas.
- Hacienda-owning friar orders and principalia expanded their landholdings through
purchase or landgrabbing, dispossessing small farmers.

- The hacienda system introduced agricultural tenancy, with hacenderos hiring inquilinos
(land managers) and kasama (tenant farmers) to work their lands.

- Poverty and hacendero abuses fueled social unrest in the form of banditry and
peasant revolts.

- American administrators attempted to improve the conditions of small farmers and

tenants by expropriating friar lands, implementing land registration, and initiating the
Homestead Program.

- These efforts had limited impact, and local hacenderos who held high positions in
government remained untouched.

- Large-scale peasant uprisings, such as the Colorums and Sakdalistas, erupted in the
1920s and 1930s.

- Commonwealth President Manuel Quezon launched a social justice program aimed at

uplifting the common people and implementing land reform.

- Quezon’s efforts were cut short by the Japanese invasion in 1941.

4. Postwar Period:

- President Manuel Roxas (1946-1948) acknowledged the evils of the tenancy system
and proposed several reforms, but his untimely death prevented their implementation.

- The Huk Rebellion, led by Luis Taruc, raged in the countryside of Central Luzon during
the late 1940s and early 1950s.

- President Diosdado Macapagal (1961-1965) introduced the first comprehensive

agrarian reform program, the Agricultural Land Reform Code (Republic Act No. 3844) in
1963.

- The code aimed to abolish the tenancy system and redistribute land to small farmers.

- It also included a Bill of Rights for Agricultural Labor, guaranteeing rights such as
self-organization, minimum wage, and protection against suspension or lay-off.

- The program faced setbacks due to Congress’s failure to enact funding for its
implementation.
 5. Martial Law Era:

- President Ferdinand Marcos declared Martial Law in 1972 and proclaimed the entire
country as a land reform area through Presidential Decree No. 2.

- Presidential Decree No. 27 (1972) aimed to emancipate tenant farmers by transferring

land ownership to them.

- Landowners were allowed to retain a limited amount of land, while tenants could
purchase a portion to be paid through amortization.

- The program was limited in scope and had problems in its implementation.

6. The Corazon Aquino Administration:

- President Corazon Aquino (1986-1992) launched the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform

Program (CARP) through Proclamation No. 131 and Executive Order No. 229.

- CARP aimed to distribute all public and private agricultural lands to tenants, making it
the broadest agrarian reform program to date.

- The government established the Agrarian Reform Fund to finance the program’s
implementation.

- The program faced challenges such as corruption scandals, budgetary shortages, and
allegations of lack of political will.

7. Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988 (Republic Act No. 6657):

- This law provided the legal basis for CARP.

- It defined the scope of the program, including all public and private agricultural lands,
and established retention limits for landowners.

- It prioritized the distribution of rice and corn lands, idle or abandoned lands, and lands
owned by the government.
- It also addressed the rights of indigenous communities to their ancestral lands.

- The law aimed to promote social justice, industrialization, and the establishment of
owner-cultivatorship of economic-size farms.

Key Takeaways:

- The history of agrarian reform in the Philippines is marked by a long struggle for land
ownership and social justice.

- The government’s efforts to address the land problem have been met with both
successes and failures.

- The issue of agrarian reform remains a complex and challenging one, with ongoing
debates about its implementation and effectiveness.

Assessment Questions:

- Research a major local revolt caused by agrarian problems and analyze its causes,
participants, and significant events.

- Compare and contrast the agrarian reform programs of Presidents Macapagal and
Aquino, highlighting the improvements of CARP over the earlier program.

- Discuss the current status of agrarian reform in the Philippines, including new laws or
amendments, government priorities, challenges to implementation, and the present
conditions of Filipino farmers.

Chapter 14: Economic Nationalism

This chapter explores the economic climate of the postwar Philippines, focusing on the
emergence of economic nationalism as a response to the dominance of foreign,
particularly American, interests in the country’s economy.
 1. Postwar Economic Climate:

- The Philippines faced significant challenges after World War II, including the need for
rehabilitation and the issue of collaboration.

- President Roxas addressed the collaboration issue by issuing an Amnesty

Proclamation for all collaborators and war criminals in 1948.

- To address the issue of war damage, postwar presidents sought economic aid from
the United States.

- The Bell Trade Act and Rehabilitation Act of 1946 were the US government’s
response, providing $800 million in cash and in-kind aid.

- The Bell Trade Act, however, granted American citizens and corporations equal rights
with Filipinos in exploiting the country’s natural resources, sparking controversy.

- The opposition argued that the act violated the 1935 Philippine Constitution, but
President Roxas and Vice President Quirino accepted it to facilitate the country’s
rehabilitation.

- The economic climate after the war was characterized by the dominance of foreign,
especially American, businesses.

2. The Rise of Economic Nationalism:

- Criticism of the foreign economic dominance emerged from a small group of

politicians, including Senator Claro M. Recto and Carlos P. Garcia.

- President Magsaysay, despite initial skepticism, eventually acknowledged the need for
economic reforms.

- The Laurel-Langley Agreement, an amendment to the Bell Trade Act negotiated in

1955, granted full parity rights to American businesses in the Philippines.

- The agreement expired in 1975.

- Senator Recto’s speeches and the growing awareness of Filipino nationalism led to
the enactment of the Retail Trade Nationalization Law of 1954, which took effect in
1964.
- President Garcia, succeeding Magsaysay in 1957, ushered in an era of economic
nationalism through his “Filipino First Policy,” which aimed to prioritize and protect
Filipino products, interests, and business engagement.

3. The Filipino First Policy:

- President Garcia’s policy aimed to achieve economic independence by empowering

Filipino participation in the national economy.

- It emphasized collaboration with foreign capital on a joint venture basis, welcoming

friendly and understanding foreign investors.

- Garcia’s policy also addressed economic stabilization measures, including the

imposition of a margin fee on foreign exchange sales, which helped strengthen the peso
and improve the country’s balance of payments.

4. Economic Nationalism through the Retail Trade Nationalization Act of 1954:

- The law aimed to protect Filipino retail businesses by restricting foreign ownership and
limiting the issuance of licenses to foreigners.

- The law took effect ten years after its enactment, in 1964, while the Bell Trade Act and
Laurel-Langley Agreement remained in effect until 1975.

5. Economic Independence and the 1935 Constitution:

- The 1935 Constitution provided for the economic independence of the Philippines,
limiting the ownership of land, businesses, corporations, and the exploitation of natural
resources to Filipino citizens.

- The passage of the Bell Trade Act and Laurel-Langley Act forced the government to
amend the constitution.

6. Claro M. Recto and Economic Nationalism:

- Senator Recto was a vocal critic of foreign dominance in the Philippine economy,
advocating for economic nationalism.

- He argued that economic nationalism was essential for achieving economic

independence and addressing issues like poverty, unemployment, and trade
imbalances.

- Recto emphasized the importance of industrialization to break the cycle of

dependence on manufacturing nations.

Key Takeaways:

- The postwar Philippines faced a complex economic landscape, characterized by the

dominance of foreign interests.

- The concept of economic nationalism emerged as a response to this dominance,

advocating for greater Filipino control over the country’s economy.

- Different presidents implemented various policies, including the Filipino First Policy
and the Retail Trade Nationalization Law, to promote economic independence and
protect Filipino businesses.

- The debate over economic nationalism continues to be relevant in the Philippines

today, with ongoing discussions about the role of foreign investment and the need for
sustainable economic growth.

Assessment Questions:

- Compare and contrast the economic policies of President Magsaysay and President
Garcia, highlighting the differences in their approaches to economic nationalism.

- Analyze the arguments for and against the Bell Trade Act and the Laurel-Langley
Agreement, considering their impact on the Philippine economy.

- Discuss the role of Senator Claro M. Recto in promoting economic nationalism. How
did his ideas influence the political landscape of the postwar Philippines?
Chapter 15: An Independent Foreign Policy

This chapter delves into the complexities of Philippine foreign policy in the post-war era,
examining its evolution from a heavily US-aligned stance towards a more independent
approach.

1. The Postwar Challenge:

- The Philippines faced a significant challenge in defining its foreign policy after gaining
independence from the US in 1946.

- The previous chapter discussed the issue of economic nationalism, which is closely
intertwined with foreign policy.

- The economic climate and security are fundamental pillars of foreign policy, influencing
how the Philippine government interacts with the international community.

- The Philippines, heavily devastated by the war, sought economic aid from the US,
leading to the controversial Bell Trade Act and Rehabilitation Act.

- These agreements, while providing aid, were criticized for strengthening the US’s
influence on the Philippines, leading to accusations of subservience.

2. Early Criticisms and Calls for Independence:

- Many political critics, including Senators Claro M. Recto and Lorenzo Tañada, voiced
their opposition to the US-aligned foreign policy.

- Recto famously delivered a speech titled “Our Mendicant Foreign Policy” in 1951,
criticizing the Philippines’ dependence on US aid and its subservient stance.

- Tanada, in his speech “The Folklore of Colonialism,” explored the colonial roots of
Philippine foreign policy and called for a more independent approach.
- The Foreign Service Act of 1952 (Republic Act No. 708) was enacted to strengthen the
Department of Foreign Affairs and its personnel, aiming to improve the Philippines’
capacity for independent diplomacy.

- However, despite this act, critics continued to express concerns about the Philippines’
foreign policy, describing it as “neocolonial” and lacking true independence.

3. The Evolution of Foreign Policy:

- The 1991 Philippine Foreign Service Act amended the 1952 law, establishing the
“three pillars” of Philippine foreign policy:

- Preservation and enhancement of national security

- Promotion and attainment of economic security

- Protection of the rights and promotion of the welfare and interest of Filipinos overseas

- This shift towards a more independent foreign policy was further emphasized by the
1987 Constitution, which explicitly stated that the Philippines shall pursue an
independent foreign policy, prioritizing national sovereignty, territorial integrity, and
national interests.

- The post-EDSA People Power Constitution provided a clear direction for the
Philippines to pursue a more independent and self-determined foreign policy.

4. The 1935, 1973, and 1987 Constitutions:

- The 1935 Constitution, while aiming for economic independence, did not explicitly
address foreign policy.

- The 1973 Constitution under Marcos, while renouncing war as an instrument of

national policy, still emphasized a policy of peace and cooperation with all nations.

- The 1987 Constitution, however, explicitly declared the Philippines’ pursuit of an

independent foreign policy, highlighting national sovereignty and self-determination as
paramount considerations.
 5. Key Takeaways:

- The Philippines’ foreign policy in the post-war era has been a complex journey,
evolving from a heavily US-aligned stance to a more independent approach.

- The debate over the balance between national interests and international alliances
continues to be a central theme in Philippine foreign policy.

- The three pillars of Philippine foreign policy, as outlined in the 1991 Foreign Service
Act, provide a framework for a more independent and self-determined approach.

- The 1987 Constitution, with its emphasis on national sovereignty and

self-determination, serves as a cornerstone for the Philippines’ pursuit of an
independent foreign policy.

Assessment Questions:

- Analyze the arguments presented by Claro M. Recto and Lorenzo Tanada regarding
the Philippines’ foreign policy in the post-war era. What were their main criticisms, and
what alternative foreign policies did they propose?

- Compare and contrast the foreign policy provisions of the 1935, 1973, and 1987
Constitutions. How did these provisions evolve over time, and what do these evolutions
tell us about the changing priorities of the Philippine government?

- Discuss the current state of Philippine foreign policy. How does it reflect the principles
of independence and self-determination outlined in the 1987 Constitution? What
challenges does the Philippines face in pursuing a more independent foreign policy?

Chapter 16: National Minorities

This chapter delves into the complex history and ongoing struggles of national
minorities and indigenous peoples (IPs) in the Philippines. It explores the diverse
communities that existed before colonization, their experiences under Spanish and
American rule, and the continuing challenges they face today.
 1. Defining National Minorities, Indigenous Cultural Communities (ICCs), and
Indigenous Peoples (IPs):

- National Minorities: Refer to groups numerically inferior to the dominant population,

possessing distinct ethnic, religious, or linguistic characteristics. They are nationals of
the state but hold a non-dominant position, often facing marginalization and deprivation
of rights.

- Indigenous Cultural Communities (ICCs) and Indigenous Peoples (IPs): These terms
are often used interchangeably. The United Nations defines IPs as groups with historical
continuity to pre-colonial societies, who consider themselves distinct from the dominant
sectors of society. They are often characterized by their unique cultures, traditions, and
customary laws.

2. The Diverse National Minorities of the Philippines:

- Muslims: Comprising about 5% of the Philippine population, Muslims have a long

history in the country dating back to the 13th century. They are often referred to as
“Moro,” a term that was initially used by the Spanish but later reclaimed by Muslims as a
symbol of resistance against Western colonialism.

- Indigenous Peoples (IPs): These groups include the Lumads of Mindanao, the Igorots
of the Cordillera, the Mangyans of Mindoro, the Ati of Visayas, the Aeta of Central
Luzon, the Bajau of Mindanao and Sulu, and various groups in Palawan and Panay.

- Other National Minorities: The term “national minority” is inclusive, encompassing

groups who may not identify as ICCs or IPs, such as some Muslims in Mindanao.

3. Historical Context and Challenges:

- Pre-colonial Period: Prior to colonization, diverse communities with independent

political, economic, social, and cultural systems thrived throughout the Philippines.

- Spanish Colonization: The Spanish imposed a single political and religious authority,
disrupting traditional systems and leading to the marginalization of many communities.
- American Colonization: The Americans further stripped indigenous communities of
their rights to ancestral domains, contributing to ongoing land disputes and conflicts.

- Modern Challenges: National minorities and IPs continue to face various challenges,
including:

- Armed Conflicts: Many communities are caught in the crossfire of armed conflicts,
leading to displacement, loss of life, and disruption of traditional ways of life.

- Lack of Access to Basic Services: Many communities lack access to basic needs
such as healthcare, education, and livelihood opportunities.

- Land Grabbing: Indigenous lands are often targeted for development projects, leading
to displacement and loss of ancestral domains.

- Cultural Erosion: The influence of modernization and globalization threatens the

preservation of indigenous cultures and traditions.

4. Government Efforts and Challenges:

- Legal Frameworks: The Philippine government has enacted laws to protect the rights
of national minorities and IPs, including the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997
(IPRA) and the provisions for autonomous regions in the 1987 Constitution.

- Autonomous Regions: The creation of autonomous regions in Muslim Mindanao and

the Cordillera aims to provide these communities with a degree of self-governance and
control over their territories.

- Challenges: Despite these efforts, the implementation and enforcement of these laws
have been inconsistent, leading to ongoing struggles for minorities and IPs.

5. Key Takeaways:

- The history of national minorities and IPs in the Philippines is marked by colonization,
marginalization, and ongoing struggles for recognition and rights.

- The diverse communities of the Philippines have rich cultural traditions and unique
perspectives on their place in the nation.
- The government has taken steps to address the issues faced by minorities and IPs,
but challenges remain in implementing and enforcing these laws effectively.

- The pursuit of peace, justice, and self-determination for national minorities and IPs is a
crucial aspect of building a more inclusive and equitable society in the Philippines.

Assessment Questions:

- Compare and contrast the experiences of Muslims and indigenous peoples in the
Philippines under Spanish and American rule.

- Analyze the challenges faced by indigenous peoples in preserving their cultures and
traditions in the face of modernization and globalization.

- Discuss the effectiveness of government efforts to protect the rights of national

minorities and IPs, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of existing legal
frameworks and policies.

- Explore the concept of “Bangsamoro” as an aspiration for self-determination and

autonomy for Muslim Filipinos in Mindanao.