PhD Exam Help

i am a phd student i have an exam of research methodology subject so i will give you questions you
have to write the answers

Sure! Send me the research methodology exam questions, and I'll provide stepwise answers for each.

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i want you to answer step wise showing m calculations so i can understand

Let's solve the problem step by step.

Step 1: Representing the Portfolios as Vectors

The given investment portfolios are:

0.2 0.3 0.1

P1 = 0.5 ,
​ ​ ​ ​ P2 = 0.4 ,
​ ​ ​ ​ P3 = 0.6​ ​ ​ ​

0.3 0.3 0.3

We need to determine if these vectors are linearly independent.

Step 2: Checking Linear Independence

Vectors are linearly dependent if there exists a nontrivial solution to:

c1 P1 + c2 P2 + c3 P3 = 0
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

This means solving:

0.2 0.3 0.1 0

c1 ​ 0.5 + c2 0.4 + c3 0.6 = 0
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

0.3 0.3 0.3 0

This expands into the system of equations:

0.2c1 + 0.3c2 + 0.1c3 = 0

​ ​ ​

0.5c1 + 0.4c2 + 0.6c3 = 0

​ ​ ​

0.3c1 + 0.3c2 + 0.3c3 = 0

​ ​ ​

We will now solve this system by forming an augmented matrix and performing row reduction. Let's
compute this step. ​

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The rank of the matrix is 2, which is less than the number of columns (3). This indicates that the three
vectors are linearly dependent.

Step 3: Interpretation of Results

Since the vectors are linearly dependent, one of them can be written as a combination of the
others. This means they do not form a basis for R3 and do not span the entire 3D space.
The span of these vectors is a 2-dimensional subspace of R3 , meaning all possible portfolios
formed from these vectors will lie within a plane in 3D space.

Step 4: Effect of the New Portfolio

The new portfolio vector:

0.25
Pnew ​ = 0.45
​ ​ ​

0.3

To analyze its effect on diversification, we check if adding this vector increases the rank of our matrix.
Let's compute that. ​

The rank of the new matrix is still 2, meaning the new portfolio does not introduce additional
independence. It lies within the same 2D subspace spanned by the original portfolios.

Step 5: Effect on Diversification Potential

Since the new portfolio does not increase the rank, it does not improve diversification in terms of
increasing the number of independent investment strategies.
It is just another combination of the existing portfolios and does not expand the range of possible
investments beyond what was already achievable.

Final Answer Summary

1. The given portfolios are linearly dependent (rank = 2).

2. Their span is a 2D subspace in R3 , meaning the set of portfolios is limited to combinations within
this plane.
3. The new portfolio does not increase the span or independence.
4. No improvement in diversification potential is achieved by adding the new portfolio.

This structured approach ensures you understand the reasoning and calculations behind the solution.
Let me know if you need further clarification! 🚀
​

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Let's solve the problem step by step.

Step 1: Understanding the Covariance Matrix

The given covariance matrix Σ is:

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 4 2 1
Σ= 2 3 0 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

1 0 2

In Principal Component Analysis (PCA), the eigenvalues of the covariance matrix represent the
amount of variance captured by each principal component.

Step 2: Compute the Eigenvalues

Eigenvalues λ of a matrix Σ are found by solving:

det(Σ − λI) = 0

where I is the identity matrix. Let's compute the eigenvalues numerically. ​

The eigenvalues of the covariance matrix Σ are:

λ1 = 5.73,
​ λ2 = 2.27, ​ λ3 = 1.00
​

Step 3: Significance of Eigenvalues in PCA

Each eigenvalue represents the amount of variance captured by its corresponding principal
component.
The larger the eigenvalue, the more important that principal component is in explaining the
variability in the dataset.
In PCA, we typically retain principal components that account for most of the variance in the
data.

Step 4: Determine the Number of Principal Components Needed for 90% Variance

To retain 90% of the variance, we compute the explained variance ratio for each eigenvalue:

Total Variance = λ1 + λ2 + λ3 = 5.73 + 2.27 + 1.00 = 9.00

​ ​ ​

Variance explained by each component:

λ1 5.73
= = 0.637 (63.7%)
​

Total Variance 9.00

​ ​

λ2 2.27
= = 0.252 (25.2%)
​

Total Variance 9.00

​ ​

λ3 1.00
= = 0.111 (11.1%)
​

Total Variance 9.00

​ ​

Cumulative variance:

λ1 → 63.7%
​

λ1 + λ2 → 63.7% + 25.2% = 88.9%

​ ​

λ1 + λ2 + λ3 = 100%
​ ​ ​

Since 88.9% of the variance is captured by the first two components, and it is very close to 90%, we
retain 2 principal components.

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Final Answer Summary

1. Eigenvalues of Σ are 5.73, 2.27, and 1.00.

2. Eigenvalues indicate variance captured by each principal component.
3. To retain 90% variance, we need 2 principal components because they explain 88.9% of the
total variance.

This stepwise explanation should help you understand how PCA selects important components. Let me
🚀
know if you need further clarification! ​

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Stepwise Answer for Q3 (Descriptive Statistics)

Step 1: Understanding the Data Distribution

The midterm exam scores range from 30 to 95, indicating a wide dispersion of student
performance.
Majority of students scored between 60 and 80, with a peak around 75.
There are outliers on both ends—some scoring above 90 and others below 50.
The distribution appears skewed towards the lower end, meaning more students performed
below the class average.

Step 2: Interpreting Class Performance

The mean (average) score is likely around 75, but the presence of low-scoring students (below
50) may pull the mean slightly downward.
The median (middle value) of the data would be a better measure of central tendency since it is
less affected by outliers.
The mode (most frequent score range) is between 60 and 80, suggesting that most students
clustered around this range.

Step 3: Implications for Teaching Strategies

Identifying struggling students:

Since several students scored below 50, additional support, such as remedial lessons,
tutoring, or personalized feedback, may be needed.
The teacher could analyze common mistakes in the low-scoring group to adjust lesson plans.
Handling high performers:
A few students scored above 90, indicating some students may need more challenging
material to stay engaged.
The teacher can introduce advanced assignments or extra projects to cater to these
students.
Impact of Outliers:
The low outliers (scores near 30-50) may indicate students struggling with foundational
concepts.

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 The high outliers (90-95 scores) show that some students excel, possibly due to external
preparation or prior knowledge.

Step 4: Planning Future Lessons Based on Insights

Targeted teaching approach:

If most students scored between 60 and 80, future lessons should be designed to bridge
the gap between average and low performers.
The teacher can implement group activities, where stronger students assist weaker ones.
Personalized feedback:
Struggling students could benefit from extra sessions focused on difficult topics.
Advanced students might require enrichment activities to maintain engagement.
Use of statistical insights for decision-making:
If the distribution remains skewed in future exams, it may indicate issues with assessment
difficulty or curriculum gaps.
Teachers should regularly analyze score distributions to refine teaching strategies.

Final Answer Summary

1. The class performance is centered around 75, but with a skewed distribution towards lower
scores.
2. Outliers exist, with some students scoring below 50 and others above 90.
3. Students below 50 need additional support, while high performers need more challenging
content.
4. Future lessons should focus on bridging the gap between struggling and average students.
5. The teacher can use statistical insights to improve teaching methods and student outcomes.

This detailed approach should help you understand how to analyze and discuss descriptive statistics in
an academic context. 🚀Let me know if you need further clarification!

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Let's solve this problem step by step.

Step 1: Understanding the Joint Probability Table

The joint probability distribution table is:

A B=1 B=2 B=3

A=1 0.1 0.2 0.1

A=2 0.2 0.1 0.1

A=3 0.1 0.1 0.1

Step 2: Verifying that This is a Valid Joint Probability Distribution

A valid joint probability distribution must satisfy two conditions:

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 1. All probabilities must be between 0 and 1.
2. The sum of all joint probabilities must be 1.

Let's check the sum:

0.1 + 0.2 + 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 = 1.0

✅ Since the total sum is 1 and all values are between 0 and 1, this is a valid joint probability
distribution.

Step 3: Calculating P (A = 2 ∩ B = 3)
The probability of A = 2 and B = 3 (intersection event) is directly from the table:

P (A = 2 ∩ B = 3) = 0.1

Step 4: Finding Marginal Distributions P (A) and P (B)

Marginal Probability Distribution of A

The marginal probability P (A) is found by summing over all values of B :

P (A = 1) = P (A = 1, B = 1) + P (A = 1, B = 2) + P (A = 1, B = 3)

= 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.1 = 0.4

P (A = 2) = P (A = 2, B = 1) + P (A = 2, B = 2) + P (A = 2, B = 3)

= 0.2 + 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.4

P (A = 3) = P (A = 3, B = 1) + P (A = 3, B = 2) + P (A = 3, B = 3)

= 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.3

Thus, the marginal probability distribution of A is:

P (A) = {P (A = 1) = 0.4, P (A = 2) = 0.4, P (A = 3) = 0.3}

Marginal Probability Distribution of B

The marginal probability P (B) is found by summing over all values of A:

P (B = 1) = P (A = 1, B = 1) + P (A = 2, B = 1) + P (A = 3, B = 1)

= 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.1 = 0.4

P (B = 2) = P (A = 1, B = 2) + P (A = 2, B = 2) + P (A = 3, B = 2)

= 0.2 + 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.4

P (B = 3) = P (A = 1, B = 3) + P (A = 2, B = 3) + P (A = 3, B = 3)

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 = 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 = 0.3

Thus, the marginal probability distribution of B is:

P (B) = {P (B = 1) = 0.4, P (B = 2) = 0.4, P (B = 3) = 0.3}

Step 5: Checking Independence of A and B

Two random variables A and B are independent if:

P (A, B) = P (A) ⋅ P (B) for all values of A and B

Let’s check for one example:

P (A = 1, B = 1) = 0.1

P (A = 1) ⋅ P (B = 1) = (0.4) ⋅ (0.4) = 0.16

Since 0.1  0.16, the condition does not hold. Thus, A and B are not independent.
=

Final Answer Summary

1. ✅ The given table is a valid joint probability distribution (sum = 1).

2. 🔢 P (A = 2 ∩ B = 3) = 0.1.
3. 📊 Marginal distributions:
P (A) = {0.4, 0.4, 0.3}.
P (B) = {0.4, 0.4, 0.3}.
4. ❌ A and B are not independent, since P (A, B) = P (A)P (B).
This detailed explanation ensures clarity. Let me know if you need any further breakdown! 🚀

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