SCIENCE

- it mixes food with gastric juices that contain enzymes

to break down proteins and lipids.
> Hydrochloric acid - kills bacteria in the stomach. >
Chymes - food found in the stomach.
5. Small Intestine

8
- is a little over 5 meters long and lies in the
abdominal cavity surrounded by the large intestine. - the
chemical digestion of food is completed and most of the
absorption of nutrients takes place.
Digestive System > Villi - lining of intestine walls has finger-like
projections to increase surface area. Each villus contains
Human Digestive System blood capillaries that enable it to absorb water, glucose,
- it is the body system responsible for the process of amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and fatty acids.
Digestion or the breaking down of food into smaller
components that can be absorbed into • Duodenum
the bloodstream. - is the first part of the small intestine.
> Mechanical Digestion - that occurs in the mouth when - it is located between the stomach part of the small
food is physically broken up into smaller pieces. intestine, or jejunum.
> Chemical Digestion - that takes place in the > After foods mix with stomach acid, they move into the
gastrointestinal tract when the digestive enzymes break duodenum, where they mix with bile from the
down the food into small molecules. gallbladder and digestive juices from the pancreas.
> The absorption of vitamins, minerals, and other
Role of Digestion nutrients begins in the duodenum.
Provide energy and necessary nutrients for bodily
processes such as: • Jejunum
• Movement • Growth - it is the middle section of the small intestine and is
• Repair • Reproduction about 2 meters long.
- absorption of important nutrients such as sugars, fatty
Parts of Digestive System acids, and amino acids.

1. Mouth • Ileum
- where food is chewed and broken down to - is the last part of the small intestine.
smaller pieces for easier digestion. - it connects to the cecum (first part of the large
- called mechanical digestion. intestine) and helps to further digest food coming from
- Initial chemical digestion starts also in the mouth. > the stomach and other parts of the small intestine.
Enzymes – are molecules that speed up chemical - absorbs nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates,
reactions called enzymes. fats, proteins) and water from food so they can be used
> Amylase – an enzyme present in saliva helps break by the body
down carbohydrates, which are large
complex molecules, into simple ones that can be used by 6. Large Intestines
the body. - absorption of water continues until the familiar
semisolid consistency of feces is achieved.
2. Pharynx - mineral salts, vitamins, and some drugs are also
- muscular walls function in the process of swallowing, absorbed into the blood capillaries from the large
and it serves as a pathway for the movement of food intestine.
from the mouth to the - is about 5 feet (150 cm) long, and is divided into five
esophagus. major segments.
> The constrictive circular muscles of the pharynx’s > Rectum - is the last anatomic segment before the anus.
outer layer play a big role in peristalsis. > Ascending and descending colon - are supported by
> A series of contractions will help propel ingested food peritoneal folds called mesentery.
and drink down the intestinal tract safely. > Right colon - consists of the cecum, ascending colon,
> The inner layer’s longitudinal muscles, on the other hepatic flexure and the right half of the transverse colon.
hand, will widen the pharynx laterally and lift it upward, > Left colon - consists of the left half of the transverse
thus allowing the swallowing of ingested food and drink. colon, splenic flexure, descending colon, and sigmoid.

3. Esophagus 7. Rectum
- is 20 cm long. - is a straight, 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to
> Peristalsis - secreting mucus and moving food from the anus.
the throat to the stomach using muscle movement. - to receive stool from the colon, let you know that
there is stool to be evacuated (pooped out) and to hold
4. Stomach the stool until evacuation happens.
- it is a J-shaped muscular bag that stores the food and > When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum,
breaks it down into tiny pieces. sensors send a message to the brain.
> The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be - this organ stores and concentrates the bile produced in
released or not. the liver which will be then used in the digestion of
lipids.

8. Anus Digestive Processes

- is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch-long
canal consisting of the pelvic floor muscles and the two A. Ingestion
anal sphincters (internal and external). - is the first process that happens in digestive system.
- the lining of the upper anus is able to detect rectal - it is the journey of taking in food or any substance
contents. into the body through the mouth.
- it lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas or
solid. B. Digestion
- is the second process involved in digestive system.
Accessory Organ of the Human Digestive System - it is the process that involves break down of large food
molecules into smaller molecules for easy absorption of
1. Teeth the cells.
- are responsible for the mechanical digestion of food in
the mouth – a process called mastication. > Both chemical and mechanical digestions begin
> Mastication – the act of chewing food. immediately in the mouth. While the food is in the
- are classified into four types and each performs mouth, the teeth cut, crush, and break it apart into tiny
specific functions. pieces while the tongue helps mix food with saliva
> Incisors - chisel-shaped frontal teeth which is secreted by the salivary glands forming into a moist
specialized in cutting. ball called bolus so it can be easily swallowed. This
> Canine - fang-like teeth which is are best for piercing process is known as mastication or chewing considered
and tearing. as a mechanical digestion, which is the initial
> Premolars and molars - are the teeth responsible for stage of digestion.
crushing and grinding.
> A series of wavelike muscle contractions known as
2. Salivary Glands peristalsis push and transport foods and liquids in
- are present in the oral cavity and pour their secretions small sections to the stomach.
into the mouth.
> Saliva is the combined secretions from the salivary C. Absorption
glands and the small mucus-secreting glands of the - is the third process that happens in the digestive
lining of the oral cavity. system.
> About 1.5 liters of saliva is produced daily. - it is the process of passing the soluble food molecules
> Salivary glands and saliva work as chemical digestion in the wall of the small intestine through the villi
of polysaccharides. - it also increases the amount of surface area the villi.
> Saliva contains the enzyme amylase that begins the available for the absorption of nutrients.
breakdown of complex sugars, reducing them to the
disaccharide maltose. D. Assimilation
> Dry food entering the mouth is moistened and - is the fourth process that occurs in the digestive
lubricated by saliva before it can be made into a bolus system.
ready for swallowing. - it is the movement of digested food nutrients into the
blood vessels of the small intestine through diffusion and
3. Pancreas use of nutrients into the body cells through the
- produces the correct chemicals in the proper quantities, microvilli – microscopic cellular membrane projections
at the right times, to digest the foods we eat. that serves to expand the surface area for diffusion and
- secretes enzymes that work in tandem with bile from also to lessen any increase in volume.
the liver and gallbladder to help break down substances
for proper digestion and absorption. E. Egestion
> These enzymes include trypsin and chymotrypsin to - is the last process that occurs in the digestive system.
digest proteins; amylase for the digestion of - it is the release of undigested food collected in the
carbohydrates; and lipase to break down fats. rectum called feces and pushed out of the body through
the anus by defecation.
4. Liver
- is the largest gland in the body, weighing between 1 Introduction to Genetics
and 2.3 kg.
- it is situated in the upper part of the abdominal cavity. Genetics
- directly affects digestion by producing bile. - is a branch of biology concerned with the study of
> Bile - helps digest fat. genes, and heredity in organisms.
5. Gall Bladder Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)
- is a small, thin-walled sac located beneath the liver.
- Austrian monk who formulated fundamental laws of
heredity in early 1860s Alleles - various forms of the same gene.
- father of Genetics Dominant trait - is a trait that is always expressed or
- experiments involves cross pollinating pea plants shown.
(Pisum sativum)
- studied science and mathematics at University of Recessive trait - is a trait that is covered up or seems to
Vienna disappear.
- gathered documented mathematical data from his
experiments Example:

Cross- Pollination
- requires the removal of the male stamen (makes pollen)
on 1st flower and transferring the pollen from a different
flower to the first one.

Self-Pollination
- involves having the pollen (male sperm) be directly Gene Representation
deposited on the female section of the flower. • The name of the dominant trait determines what letter
is used to represent the gene.
Law of Dominance • Use a capital of the first letter of the dominant trait to
- “the dominant trait dominates or prevents the represent the dominant gene.
expression of the recessive trait.” • Use a small version of the first letter of the dominant
- one-Trait Inheritance- MONOHYBRID trait for the recessive gene.
• Mendel performed cross-breeding experiments
between true-breeding plants Example 1: Right-handedness is the dominant trait so
• True-breeding – parents with a certain trait consistently use R for the dominant gene and use R for the recessive
pass that trait to every offspring (homozygous) gene for Left-handedness.
• Chose varieties that differed in only one trait Example 2: Tall is the dominant trait so we use T and we
(monohybrid cross) use t for the recessive gene for Short.
.
Law of Segregation Genotype
“states that during gamete formation, members of - is the genetic makeup of an organism.
a gene pair or allele separate.” - combination of genes the organism has
Example: A pea plant, with green pod, has the genotype Example: TT, CC, cc
GG is crossed to a pea plant yellow pod with genotype
gg. What are the possible gametes. Phenotype
• Each individual has two factors for each trait. - is the physical trait of an organism.
• The factors segregate during gamete formation. Example: Tall, Curly, Short
• Each gamete contains only one factor from each pair of
factors. Homozygous (Pure)
• Fertilization gives each new individual two factors for - the organism inherits two of the same gene
each trait. > Pure Dominant - the individual only has genes for the
dominant trait.
Law of Independent Assortment Example: CC- Homozygous curly haired individual
- states that “the expression of one particular trait
does not affect the expression of another trait.” > Pure Recessive - the individual only has genes for the
recessive trait.
Traits - specific characteristic that is unique. Example: cc- Homozygous straight- haired individual
Heredity - the passing on of traits from
one generation to the next. Heterozygous (Mixed)
- the organism inherits two different traits.
Genetics Information - has one dominant gene and one recessive gene for a
DNA – the material from which chromosomes are trait.
constructed - the result is the dominant gene is the one expressed, or
Gene – a segment od a chromosome (made up of DNA) shown.
Chromosomes – contain all genetic material Example: Cc- Heterozygous curly haired individual
Cell Nucleus – where chromosomes “live”
Punnet Square
Genes vs. Alleles
▪ While both chromosomes have the same genes, they
can have different forms of these genes.
▪ For example, in the chromosome to the left one form of
the gene for eye color will give you blue eyes and the - is a way to show the possible combinations of genes
other form will give you brown eyes. that offspring of parents could have.
Steps in making a Punnet Square
1. Construct a grid of two perpendicular lines
2. Put the genotype of one parent across the top and the
other along the left side.
3. Fill in the boxes by copying the column and row head-
letters down and across into the empty space.

Example: A genotype of BB crossed with bb.

• Notice only one letter goes above each box

• It does not matter which parent’s genotype goes on
either side. Result:
• There are 16 offspring from the cross of both
Example: hybrid/heterozygous round, yellow seed pea plants.
• The genotypes are:
o 1 RRYY - homozygous round, yellow seed
o 2 RRYy - homozygous round, heterozygous yellow
seed
o 1 RRyy - homozygous round, green seed
o 2 RrYY - heterozygous round, homozygous yellow
seed
o 4 RrYy - heterozygous round, yellow seed
o 2 Rryy - heterozygous round, homozygous green seed
o 1 rrYY - homozygous wrinkled, homozygous yellow
seed
o 2 rrYy - homozygous wrinkled, heterozygous yellow
seed
o 1 rryy - homozygous wrinkled, green seed
• The genotypic ratio: 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
Monohybrid Cross • The phenotypes are:
- is used by geneticists to observe how homozygous 9 - round, yellow seed 3 - wrinkled, yellow seed
offspring express heterozygous genotypes inherited from 3 - round, green seed 1 - wrinkled, green seed
their parents. • The phenotypic ratio: 9:3:3:1

Example: In fruit flies, the allele for normal wings is Hierarchical Taxonomic System of
dominant to the allele for short wings. Suppose a
heterozygous normal male fly mate with a homozygous Classification
recessive short winged female.
Classification
- is the process of arranging organisms, both living
and extinct, into groups based on similar characteristics.
- the science of naming and classifying organisms is
called taxonomy. The term is derived from the Greek
taxis (“arrangement”) and nomos (“law”).
Genotype Father: Nn
Genotype Mother: nn Carolus Linnaeus
Genotype Ratio (GR): 2Nn;2nn or 1:1 - the system is based on the classification method
Phenotypic Ratio (PR): 2 Normal Wings: 2 Short Wings introduced in 1758 by Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish
or 1:1 botanist regarded as the founder of modern taxonomy.

Dihybrid Cross Levels of Classification

- aside from Gregor Mendel’s study on inheritance of - taxonomists classify organisms into a structural
one pair of genes or alleles, he also studied the hierarchy—a multi-level system in which each group is
inheritance of two pairs of genes or alleles. nested, or contained, within a larger group.
- a cross that involves two pairs of genes or alleles is - commonly used today is based on the Linnean system
called dihybrid cross (Di means two) . and has eight levels of taxa; from the most general to the
- an easy way to do the dihybrid cross is through the use most specific, these are domain, kingdom, phylum, class,
of Punnett square. order, family, genus, and species.
1. Domain Example:
- is the highest rank in biological classification.
- there are three domains—Archaea, Bacteria, and
Eukarya.
> The Archaea and the Bacteria each contain prokaryotes
(single-celled organisms that lack a true nucleus) but
differ in structural, genetic, and biochemical
characteristics.
> The domain Eukarya contains eukaryotes—organisms
whose cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.

2. Kingdom Writing the Scientific Name

- it is the taxonomic rank after domain. • The scientific name based on the binomial system of
- here are the six-kingdom classification: Archaebacteria, classification is composed of two names, where the first
Eubacteria, Protist, Fungi, Plant, and Animal kingdoms. name as based on its genus and second name refers to
the species where the organism belongs. Both names are
3. Phylum in Latin or latinized.
- ranks below the kingdom and above the class in
taxonomy. Scientific names are written either:
> Organisms are classified in a phylum or division based > italicized (e.g., Panthera leo) or
largely on general body plan. > underlined (e.g., Panthera leo), with only the first letter
> For example, members of the Phylum Arthropoda have of the genus written in uppercase.
external skeletons, segmented bodies, and jointed legs.
Insects, crabs, and arachnids are examples of arthropods.

4. Class
- members of a class share more characteristics with
each other than they do with other organisms in the same
phylum.
> Example of class is Mammalia.

5. Order
- a taxonomic rank used in classifying organisms,
generally below the class, and comprised of families
sharing a set of similar nature.

6. Family
- consists of several genus.
> Members of the same taxonomic family are more
closely related to each other than they are to other
members of the same order.

7. Genus
- composed of the smallest group of various species.
- the groups of organisms in a genus share many
structural similarities and are very closely related.

8. Species
- is a group of organisms that can reproduce.
- this means that only members of an equivalent species
can mate and produce fertile offspring.
> The species is the most fundamental unit in taxonomy
and ranks at the base of the biological classification
hierarchy.