Question ID bf0c8b48

Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: bf0c8b48
The following text is adapted from George Eliot’s 1871–72 novel Middlemarch.

[Mr. Brooke] had travelled in his younger years, and was held in this part of the country to have
contracted a too rambling habit of mind. Mr. Brooke’s conclusions were as difficult to predict as the
weather.

As used in the text, what does the word “contracted” most nearly mean?
A. Restricted

B. Described

C. Developed

D. Settled
Question ID e3d3d5f1
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: e3d3d5f1
Critics have asserted that fine art and fashion rarely ______ in a world where artists create timeless works for
exhibition and designers periodically produce new styles for the public to buy. Luiseño/Shoshone-Bannock
beadwork artist and designer Jamie Okuma challenges this view: her work can be seen in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art and purchased through her online boutique.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. prevail

B. succumb

C. diverge

D. intersect
Question ID bfad2097
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: bfad2097
Investigating whether shared false visual memories—specific but inaccurate and widely held recollections of
images such as product logos—are caused by people’s previous ______ incorrect renditions of the images,
researchers Deepasri Prasad and Wilma Bainbridge found that, in fact, such memories are often not
explained by familiarity with erroneous versions of the images.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?
A. compliance with

B. exposure to

C. criteria for

D. forfeiture of
Question ID deb55365
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Words in Context Hard

ID: deb55365
While most animals are incapable of passing somatic mutations—genetic alterations that arise in an
organism’s nonreproductive cells—on to their offspring, elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) presents an
intriguing ______: in a 2022 study, researchers found that elkhorn coral produced offspring that inherited
somatic mutations from a parent.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical and precise word or phrase?

A. hypothesis

B. affinity

C. anomaly

D. corroboration
Question ID 6a9bf335
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 6a9bf335
Studying late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century artifacts from an agricultural and domestic site in
Texas, archaeologist Ayana O. Flewellen found that Black women employed as farm workers utilized hook-
and-eye closures to fasten their clothes at the waist, giving themselves a silhouette similar to the one that
was popular in contemporary fashion and typically achieved through more restrictive garments such as
corsets. Flewellen argues that this sartorial practice shows that these women balanced hegemonic ideals of
femininity with the requirements of their physically demanding occupation.

Which choice best states the main purpose of the text?

A. To describe an unexpected discovery that altered a researcher’s view of how rapidly fashions among
Black female farmworkers in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Texas changed during the period

B. To discuss research that investigated the ways in which Black female farmworkers in late nineteenth- and
early twentieth-century Texas used fashion practices to resist traditional gender ideals

C. To evaluate a scholarly work that offers explanations for the impact of urban fashion ideals on Black
female farmworkers in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Texas

D. To summarize the findings of a study that explored factors influencing a fashion practice among Black
female farmworkers in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Texas
Question ID 674aae7d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Text Structure and Hard
Purpose

ID: 674aae7d
Astronomers are confident that the star Betelgeuse will eventually consume all the helium in its core and
explode in a supernova. They are much less confident, however, about when this will happen, since that
depends on internal characteristics of Betelgeuse that are largely unknown. Astrophysicist Sarafina El-Badry
Nance and colleagues recently investigated whether acoustic waves in the star could be used to determine
internal stellar states but concluded that this method could not sufficiently reveal Betelgeuse’s internal
characteristics to allow its evolutionary state to be firmly fixed.

Which choice best describes the function of the second sentence in the overall structure of the text?

A. It describes a serious limitation of the method used by Nance and colleagues.

B. It presents the central finding reported by Nance and colleagues.

C. It identifies the problem that Nance and colleagues attempted to solve but did not.

D. It explains how the work of Nance and colleagues was received by others in the field.
Question ID 4d671b68
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Central Ideas and Hard
Ideas Details

ID: 4d671b68
Algae living within the tissues of corals play a critical role in keeping corals, and the marine ecosystems they
are part of, thriving. Some coral species appear brown in color when healthy due to the algae colonies living
in their tissues. In the event of an environmental stressor, the algae can die or be expelled, causing the corals
to appear white. To recover the algae, the bleached corals then begin to produce bright colors, which block
intense sunlight, encouraging the light-sensitive algae to recolonize the corals.

What does the text most strongly suggest about corals that produce bright colors?
A. These corals have likely been subjected to stressful environmental conditions.

B. These corals are likely more vulnerable to exposure from intense sunlight than white corals are.

C. These corals have likely recovered from an environmental event without the assistance of algae colonies.

D. These corals are more likely to survive without algae colonies than brown corals are.
Question ID e4466b2f
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Central Ideas and Hard
Ideas Details

ID: e4466b2f
The following text is adapted from Countee Cullen’s 1926 poem “Thoughts in a Zoo.”

They in their cruel traps, and we in ours,

Survey each other’s rage, and pass the hours
Commiserating each the other’s woe,
To mitigate his own pain’s fiery glow.
Man could but little proffer in exchange
Save that his cages have a larger range.
That lion with his lordly, untamed heart
Has in some man his human counterpart,
Some lofty soul in dreams and visions wrapped,
But in the stifling flesh securely trapped.

Based on the text, what challenge do humans sometimes experience?

A. They cannot effectively tame certain wild animals because of a lack of compassion.

B. They cannot focus on setting attainable goals because of a lack of motivation.

C. They quickly become frustrated when faced with difficult tasks because of a lack of self-control.

D. They have aspirations that cannot be fulfilled because of certain limitations.

Question ID e0d51f42
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences Hard

Ideas

ID: e0d51f42
Ancestral Puebloans, the civilization from which present-day Pueblo tribes descended, emerged as early as
1500 B.C.E. in an area of what is now the southwestern United States and dispersed suddenly in the late
1200s C.E., abandoning established villages with systems for farming crops and turkeys. Recent analysis
comparing turkey remains at Mesa Verde, one such village in southern Colorado, to samples from modern
turkey populations in the Rio Grande Valley of north central New Mexico determined that the latter birds
descended in part from turkeys cultivated at Mesa Verde, with shared genetic markers appearing only after
1280. Thus, researchers concluded that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A. conditions of the terrains in the Rio Grande Valley and Mesa Verde had greater similarities in the past than
they do today.

B. some Ancestral Puebloans migrated to the Rio Grande Valley in the late 1200s and carried farming
practices with them.

C. Indigenous peoples living in the Rio Grande Valley primarily planted crops and did not cultivate turkeys
before 1280.

D. the Ancestral Puebloans of Mesa Verde likely adopted the farming practices of Indigenous peoples living
in other regions.
Question ID 66b10ad8
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Inferences Hard

Ideas

ID: 66b10ad8
A team of biologists led by Jae-Hoon Jung, Antonio D. Barbosa, and Stephanie Hutin investigated the
mechanism that allows Arabidopsis thaliana (thale cress) plants to accelerate flowering at high
temperatures. They replaced the protein ELF3 in the plants with a similar protein found in another species
(stiff brome) that, unlike A. thaliana, displays no acceleration in flowering with increased temperature. A
comparison of unmodified A. thaliana plants with the altered plants showed no difference in flowering at 22°
Celsius, but at 27° Celsius, the unmodified plants exhibited accelerated flowering while the altered ones did
not, which suggests that ______

Which choice most logically completes the text?

A. temperature-sensitive accelerated flowering is unique to A. thaliana.

B. A. thaliana increases ELF3 production as temperatures rise.

C. ELF3 enables A. thaliana to respond to increased temperatures.

D. temperatures of at least 22° Celsius are required for A. thaliana to flower.

Question ID 7424ea31
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: 7424ea31
Text 1
Fossils of the hominin Australopithecus africanus have been found in the Sterkfontein Caves of South Africa,
but assigning an age to the fossils is challenging because of the unreliability of dating methods in this
context. The geology of Sterkfontein has caused soil layers from different periods to mix, impeding
stratigraphic dating, and dates cannot be reliably imputed from those of nearby animal bones since the
bones may have been relocated by flooding.
Text 2
Archaeologists used new cosmogenic nuclide dating techniques to reevaluate the ages of A. africanus
fossils found in the Sterkfontein Caves. This technique involves analyzing the cosmogenic nucleotides in the
breccia—the matrix of rock fragments immediately surrounding the fossils. The researchers assert that this
approach avoids the potential for misdating associated with assigning ages based on Sterkfontein’s soil
layers or animal bones.

Based on the texts, how would the researchers in Text 2 most likely respond to the underlined portion in Text
1?
A. They would emphasize the fact that the A. africanus fossils found in the Sterkfontein Caves may have
been corrupted in some way over the years.

B. They would contend that if analyses of surrounding layers and bones in the Sterkfontein Caves were
combined, then the dating of the fossils there would be more accurate.

C. They would argue that their techniques are better suited than other methods to the unique challenges
posed by the Sterkfontein Caves.

D. They would claim that cosmogenic nuclide dating is reliable in the context of the Sterkfontein Caves
because it is applied to the fossils directly.
Question ID fda65f0a
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Craft and Structure Cross-Text Hard

Connections

ID: fda65f0a
Text 1
Soy sauce, made from fermented soybeans, is noted for its umami flavor. Umami—one of the five basic
tastes along with sweet, bitter, salty, and sour—was formally classified when its taste receptors were
discovered in the 2000s. In 2007, to define the pure umami flavor scientists Rie Ishii and Michael O’Mahony
used broths made from shiitake mushrooms and kombu seaweed, and two panels of Japanese and US
judges closely agreed on a description of the taste.

Text 2
A 2022 experiment by Manon Jünger et al. led to a greater understanding of soy sauce’s flavor profile. The
team initially presented a mixture of compounds with low molecular weights to taste testers who found it
was not as salty or bitter as real soy sauce. Further analysis of soy sauce identified proteins, including
dipeptides, that enhanced umami flavor and also contributed to saltiness. The team then made a mix of 50
chemical compounds that re-created soy sauce’s flavor.

Based on the texts, if Ishii and O’Mahony (Text 1) and Jünger et al. (Text 2) were aware of the findings of both
experiments, they would most likely agree with which statement?

A. On average, the diets of people in the United States tend to have fewer foods that contain certain
dipeptides than the diets of people in Japan have.

B. Chemical compounds that activate both the umami and salty taste receptors tend to have a higher
molecular weight than those that only activate umami taste receptors.

C. Fermentation introduces proteins responsible for the increase of umami flavor in soy sauce, and those
proteins also increase the perception of saltiness.

D. The broths in the 2007 experiment most likely did not have a substantial amount of the dipeptides that
played a key part in the 2022 experiment.
Question ID fb9a720d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Command of Hard

Ideas Evidence

ID: fb9a720d

Average Number of Individuals

Reporting Directly to CEOs
Average number of individuals

7
directly reporting to CEO

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
5 1 8
199 200 200
– 6– 1–
991 9 0
1 19 20
Years

managers
department leaders

Considering a large sample of companies, economics experts Maria Guadalupe, Julie Wulf, and Raghuram
Rajan assessed the number of managers and leaders from different departments who reported directly to a
chief executive officer (CEO). According to the researchers, the findings suggest that across the years
analyzed, there was a growing interest among CEOs in connecting with more departments in their
companies.

Which choice best describes data from the graph that support the researchers’ conclusion?
A. The average numbers of managers and department leaders reporting directly to their CEO didn’t fluctuate
from the 1991–1995 period to the 2001–2008 period.

B. The average number of managers reporting directly to their CEO was highest in the 1996–2001 period.

C. The average number of department leaders reporting directly to their CEO was greater than the average
number of managers reporting directly to their CEO in each of the three periods studied.
D. The average number of department leaders reporting directly to their CEO rose over the three periods
studied.
Question ID 0eeef1e7
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Command of Hard

Ideas Evidence

ID: 0eeef1e7

Percentage of Ondo State

Small-Scale Farmers Who Are
Female, by Main Crop Grown
60
55
50
as a percentage of total

45
Female farmers

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
ndo ndo ndo
O lO hO
rth ra ut
no nt so
ce
Ondo State region

cereals
root crops
non–root vegetables

Geographer Adebayo Oluwole Eludoyin and his colleagues surveyed small-scale farmers in three locations in
Ondo State, Nigeria—which has mountainous terrain in the north, an urbanized center, and coastal terrain in
the south—to learn more about their practices, like the types of crops they mainly cultivated. In some regions,
female farmers were found to be especially prominent in the cultivation of specific types of crops and even
constituted the majority of farmers who cultivated those crops; for instance, ______

Which choice most effectively uses data from the graph to complete the example?
A. most of the farmers who mainly cultivated cereals and most of the farmers who mainly cultivated non–
root vegetables in south Ondo were women.
B. more women in central Ondo mainly cultivated root crops than mainly cultivated cereals.

C. most of the farmers who mainly cultivated non–root vegetables in north and south Ondo were women.

D. a relatively equal proportion of women across the three regions of Ondo mainly cultivated cereals.
Question ID b355bef7
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Information and Command of Hard

Ideas Evidence

ID: b355bef7

Weight of Three Aerial Robots

550
500
450
400
Weight (grams)

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Robot

Ultra-Fast Robot Hand

Permanent Magnet Hand
Yale Model T

Aerial robots vary considerably in their holding force; the Ultra-Fast Robot Hand, for example, has a holding
force of 56 newtons, more than twice that of the Permanent Magnet Hand and more than four times that of
the Yale Model T. Since an aerial robot must lift its own weight along with its cargo, engineer Jiawei Meng
and colleagues used a ratio of each robot’s holding force to the robot’s weight to calculate payload capacity,
with higher ratios corresponding to greater capacity, concluding that the Ultra-Fast Robot Hand has a higher
payload capacity than the Yale Model T.

Which choice best describes data in the graph that support Meng and colleagues’ conclusion?
A. The Ultra-Fast Robot Hand and the Yale Model T each weigh more than 450 grams.

B. The Ultra-Fast Robot Hand and the Yale Model T each weigh more than the Permanent Magnet Hand
does.

C. The Yale Model T has a lower holding force than the Permanent Magnet Hand despite weighing more.

D. The Ultra-Fast Robot Hand weighs only slightly more than the Yale Model T does.
Question ID a243dfaa
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, Hard

Conventions and Sense

ID: a243dfaa
When they were first discovered in Australia in 1798, duck-billed, beaver-tailed platypuses so defied
categorization that one scientist assigned them the name Ornithorhynchus paradoxus: “paradoxical bird-
snout.” The animal, which lays eggs but also nurses ______ young with milk, has since been classified as
belonging to the monotremes group.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. they’re

B. their

C. its

D. it’s
Question ID 9aa19bef
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, Hard

Conventions and Sense

ID: 9aa19bef
In 2016, engineer Vanessa Galvez oversaw the installation of 164 bioswales, vegetated channels designed to
absorb and divert stormwater, along the streets of Queens, New York. By reducing the runoff flowing into city
sewers, ______

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. the mitigation of both street flooding and the resulting pollution of nearby waterways has been achieved
by bioswales.

B. the bioswales have mitigated both street flooding and the resulting pollution of nearby waterways.

C. the bioswales’ mitigation of both street flooding and the resulting pollution of nearby waterways has been
achieved.

D. both street flooding and the resulting pollution of nearby waterways have been mitigated by bioswales.
Question ID 638832ee
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Form, Structure, Hard

Conventions and Sense

ID: 638832ee
In 1994, almost 200 years after the death of Wang Zhenyi, the International Astronomical ______ the
contributions of the barrier-breaking 18th-century astronomer and author of “Dispute of the Procession of the
Equinoxes,” naming a crater on Venus after her.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. Union would finally acknowledge

B. Union to finally acknowledge

C. Union, having finally acknowledged

D. Union, finally acknowledging

Question ID a1a0066e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: a1a0066e
In paleontology, the term “Elvis taxon” gets applied to a newly identified living species that was once
presumed to be extinct. Like an Elvis impersonator who might bear a striking resemblance to the late musical
icon Elvis Presley himself, an Elvis taxon is not the real thing, ______ is a misidentified look-alike.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. however but it

B. however it

C. however, it

D. however. It
Question ID 22030ce1
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 22030ce1
In 1955, Indian Bengali filmmaker Satyajit Ray released his first movie, Pather ______ quiet black-and-white
drama about a family in rural India, Ray’s film was quite different from the loud, colorful action-romance
movies that were popular at the time.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?

A. Panchali a

B. Panchali, which was a

C. Panchali, a

D. Panchali. A
Question ID 971ed23e
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Standard English Boundaries Hard

Conventions

ID: 971ed23e
Joshua Hinson, director of the language revitalization program of the Chickasaw Nation in Oklahoma, helped
produce the world’s first Indigenous-language instructional app, Chickasaw ______ Chickasaw TV, in 2010;
and a Rosetta Stone language course in Chickasaw, in 2015.

Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A. Basic; in 2009, an online television network;

B. Basic; in 2009, an online television network,

C. Basic, in 2009; an online television network,

D. Basic, in 2009, an online television network,

Question ID e5e5f6f6
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Expression of Ideas Transitions Hard

ID: e5e5f6f6
When designing costumes for film, American artist Suttirat Larlarb typically custom fits the garments to each
actor. ______ for the film Sunshine, in which astronauts must reignite a dying Sun, she designed a golden
spacesuit and had a factory reproduce it in a few standard sizes; lacking a tailor-made quality, the final
creations reflected the ungainliness of actual spacesuits.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?

A. Nevertheless,

B. Thus,

C. Likewise,

D. Moreover,
Question ID 9dcc184d
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Expression of Ideas Transitions Hard

ID: 9dcc184d
Plato believed material objects to be crude representations of unseen ideal forms. In his view, such abstract,
nonmaterial forms are the ultimate source of knowledge. Aristotle disagreed, positing that knowledge is best
obtained through direct engagement with the material world; ______ sensory experience of the material is the
ultimate source of knowledge.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?

A. regardless,

B. admittedly,

C. in other words,

D. meanwhile,
Question ID f99639a1
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Expression of Ideas Transitions Hard

ID: f99639a1
When one looks at the dark craggy vistas in Hitoshi Fugo’s evocative photo series, one’s mind might wander
off to the cratered surfaces of faraway planets. ______ it’s the series’ title, Flying Frying Pan, that brings one
back to Earth, reminding the viewer that each photo is actually a close-up view of a familiar household object:
a frying pan.

Which choice completes the text with the most logical transition?
A. Consequently,

B. Alternatively,

C. Ultimately,

D. Additionally,
Question ID 64595457
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Expression of Ideas Rhetorical Hard

Synthesis

ID: 64595457
While researching a topic, a student has taken the following notes:
The magnificent frigatebird (fregata magnificens) is a species of seabird that feeds mainly on fish, tuna, squid, and
other small sea animals.
It is unusual among seabirds in that it doesn’t dive into the water for prey.
One way it acquires food is by using its hook-tipped bill to snatch prey from the surface of the water.
Another way it acquires food is by taking it from weaker birds by force.
This behavior is known as kleptoparasitism.

The student wants to emphasize a similarity between the two ways a magnificent frigatebird acquires food.
Which choice most effectively uses relevant information from the notes to accomplish this goal?
A. A magnificent frigatebird never dives into the water, instead using its hook-tipped bill to snatch prey from
the surface.

B. Neither of a magnificent frigatebird’s two ways of acquiring food requires the bird to dive into the water.

C. Of the magnificent frigatebird’s two ways of acquiring food, only one is known as kleptoparasitism.

D. In addition to snatching prey from the water with its hook-tipped bill, a magnificent frigatebird takes food
from other birds by force.
Question ID 990bd995
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Expression of Ideas Rhetorical Hard

Synthesis

ID: 990bd995
While researching a topic, a student has taken the following notes:
A thermal inversion is a phenomenon where a layer of atmosphere is warmer than the layer beneath it.
In 2022, a team of researchers studied the presence of thermal inversions in twenty-five gas giants.
Gas giants are planets largely composed of helium and hydrogen.
The team found that gas giants featuring a thermal inversion were also likely to contain heat-absorbing metals.
One explanation for this relationship is that these metals may reside in a planet’s upper atmosphere, where their
absorbed heat causes an increase in temperature.

The student wants to present the study’s findings to an audience already familiar with thermal inversions.
Which choice most effectively uses relevant information from the notes to accomplish this goal?
A. Heat-absorbing metals may reside in a planet’s upper atmosphere.

B. The team studied thermal inversions in twenty-five gas giants, which are largely composed of helium and
hydrogen.

C. Researchers found that gas giants featuring a thermal inversion were likely to contain heat-absorbing
metals, which may reside in the planets’ upper atmospheres.

D. Gas giants were likely to contain heat-absorbing metals when they featured a layer of atmosphere warmer
than the layer beneath it, researchers found; this phenomenon is known as a thermal inversion.
Question ID 542f0235
Assessment Test Domain Skill Difficulty

SAT Reading and Writing Expression of Ideas Rhetorical Hard

Synthesis

ID: 542f0235
While researching a topic, a student has taken the following notes:
Ducklings expend up to 62.8% less energy when swimming in a line behind their mother than when swimming alone.
The physics behind this energy savings hasn’t always been well understood.
Naval architect Zhiming Yuan used computer simulations to study the effect of the mother duck’s wake.
The study revealed that ducklings are pushed in a forward direction by the wake’s waves.
Yuan determined this push reduces the effect of wave drag on the ducklings by 158%.

The student wants to present the study and its methodology. Which choice most effectively uses relevant
information from the notes to accomplish this goal?
A. A study revealed that ducklings, which expend up to 62.8% less energy when swimming in a line behind
their mother, also experience 158% less drag.

B. Seeking to understand how ducklings swimming in a line behind their mother save energy, Zhiming Yuan
used computer simulations to study the effect of the mother duck’s wake.

C. Zhiming Yuan studied the physics behind the fact that by being pushed in a forward direction by waves,
ducklings save energy.

D. Naval architect Zhiming Yuan discovered that ducklings are pushed in a forward direction by the waves of
their mother’s wake, reducing the effect of drag by 158%.