Diseases of Endocrine ●

●
Non-insulin dependent diabetes
Adult-onset diabetes

Causes:

Type I Diabetes ● Insulin Resistant

● Pancreas makes extra insulin at first, but over time
● High blood sugar level (hyperglycemia) – cannot keep up and cannot make enough insulin
>200 mg/dL to keep blood glucose at normal levels
● shaking, sweating, anxiety, hunger, difficulty
Treatments:
concentrating, weight loss, fatigue, increased thirst,
urinating often ● Same as type I
● Insulin dependent diabetes
● Juvenile onset diabetes

Causes: Grave’s Disease

● Insulin deficiency because body does not naturally ● Enlarged thyroid, protrusion of eyes, lumpy reddish
produce insulin skin on lower legs, excessive reactions to stimuli,
● Often caused by inherited immune disorder that period of hyperactivity and fatigue, tremors
destroys pancreatic cells ● Symptoms usually develop slowly over a long
Treatments: period.

● Insulin injections Causes:

● Monitor blood glucose levels ● Autoimmune disorder caused by bacterial infection
● Exercise & Healthy diet leading to overproduction of hormones in the
thyroid

Type II Diabetes Treatment:

● High blood sugar level (hyperglycemia) – ● Antithyroid Drugs

>200 mg/dL ● Surgery (removal of thyroid)
● Same symptoms as type I
Dwarfism Treatment:

● Iodine in diet
● Someone shorter than 4’10” ● Hormone replacement pills for thyroid hormones

Causes:
● Achondroplasia-a genetic condition that causes Acromegaly
growth factors to not be registered by the bones.
● Enlargement of the hands, feet, nose, lips and ears,
● Human growth hormone (HGH) deficiency-many
heart, kidney, skull
reasons for this including genetics, stress and
● Protruding brow and lower jaw, gaps between lower
malnutrition.
teeth
● Headaches and visual disturbances.
Treatment:
Causes:
● Hormone therapy if growth hormone deficiency.
● PT and braces if the condition causes pain ● Overproduction of growth hormones is caused by a
benign tumor of the pituitary gland
● Tumors produce excess growth hormones and, as
they expand, compress surrounding brain tissues,
Hypothyroidism/Goiter such as the optic nerves

● Poor muscle tone, fatigue, increased sensitivity to Treatment:

cold, constipation, depression, pale and dry skin,
● Surgery, drug therapy, or radiation therapy
decreased sweating, weight gain
● Goiters can develop
● Later - slow speech, deep puffy face, low body
temperature and abnormal menstrual cycles Hirsutism
Causes: ● Excessive hair on the body (both men and women)
● Iodine Deficiency
● Autoimmune disorder where antibodies attack the
thyroid
Causes:
● Increased levels of male hormones in body or
sensitivity of hair follicles to male hormones

Treatments:
● Drugs to reduce hormone levels
● Wax, shave, hair removal
Endocrine System G. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
● Responsible for making follicles
around the egg cell & development of
➔ Helps you cope with changes in your environment
sperm in males
➔ Gland–an organ that produces a secretion for use
2. Thyroid Gland– H-shaped organ under the larynx
elsewhere
A. Thyroxin(e)
➔ Exocrine Gland–secretion passes through a duct to
● Controls the body’s metabolism
the site (ex: salivary, sweat and mammary glands)
● Tetraiodothyronine (T4)
➔ Endocrine Gland–ductless because they secrete
their product directly into the bloodstream ● Increase oxygen consumption
➔ Hormones– a chemical messenger; “Target Cells” B. Calcitonin
● Triiodothyronine (T3)
● Storage of Calcium (Ca) and
ENDOCRINE GLANDS Phosphorus (P) in the blood plasma
and bones
1. Pituitary Gland– master of the ductless glands 3. Parathyroid Gland– 4 small pea sized glands
A. Oxytocin attached to the back of the thyroid gland
● Responsible for contraction of uterine A. Parathyroid Hormone
muscles ● Controls the Calcium levels in your
B. Vasopressin body and normalizes bone growth
● Increase blood pressure & decreases 4. Thymus Gland– 2 lobes located at the upper part of
urine flow; antidiuretic hormone (ADH) the chest
C. Growth Hormone A. Thymosin
● Somatotrophic hormone ● Manufactures WBC and antibodies
● Essential for normal growth B. Promine
D. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) ● Promotes growth
● Controls adrenal glands C. Retine
E. Prolactin ● Retards growth
● Initiates milk production 5. Adrenal Gland
F. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) A. Adrenal Cortex
● Stimulates the formation of ovarian ● Secretes corticoids
hormones & release of a mature egg
 ● Regulates metabolism
● Influence growth and
development
● Control production of blood
cells
B. Adrenal Medulla
● Secretes adrenalin
● Raises BP and increases the heartbeat
and body temp
● Promotes the conversion of sugar in
the body
C. Noradrenalin/Norepinephrine
● Supplements the action and complex
functions of the nervous system
6. Pancreas– secreting cells are found in the islet of
Langerhans
A. Glucagon
● Converts glycogen to glucose
B. Insulin
● Controls storage of sugar in the liver
7. Male Gonads
A. Testes
● Secretes androgen and testosterone
● Prostate Gland– produce a thin watery
alkaline secretion that mixes with the
sperm
● Cowper’s Gland/ Bulbourethral– add
fluids and protection to the semen
8. Female Gonads
A. Ovaries
● Secretes estrogen and progesterone
SCIENCE 3RD QUARTER REVIEWER GRADE 10
BY: FMBP
The Male Reproductive System
Testes- male reproductive organs are oval bodies with fine tubules enclosed in a tough
fibrous sheath.
Scrotum- body or pouch where the testes hang in
seminiferous tubule- tubules in the testes that can produce sperm
 The minute spaces between the seminiferous tubules are filled with cells that produce
the testosterone.
Epididymis-The tubules empty into a mass of tubes along the sides of the testes; A The Human Sperm Cell or Spermatozoa
temporary storage place for sperm. Head- is a flattened, oval-shaped part that is propelled by the lashing motion of the tail.
Urethra- is a tube that allows urine and semen to pass from the body When the sperm penetrates an ovum during fertilization, the tail separates from the rest of
Vas deferens- which receive them, carry them up and deliver them into the urethra. the sperm.

Seminal vesicle- Near the urethra is a side pouch that secretes a fluid that makes up most The head, neck, and connecting piece enter the ovum and the zygote is formed.
of the components of the semen.
Prostate gland- produces a thin, watery alkaline secretion that mixes with the sperm and The Female Reproductive System
other secretions to form the semen.
 Produce egg cells through oogenesis.
 During sexual excitement or orgasm, semen pumps out through the urethra wherein  Produce egg cells through oogenesis.
there is a sphincter (muscle) that blocks the urine.  Provide nutrients for the development of the embryo.
Bulbourethral gland or Cowper’s gland- can secrete a thick and clear mucus that  Produce hormones that promote the development of secondary sex characteristics such
lubricates and neutralizes any traces of acidic urine in the urethra. as the growth of pubic hair, development of the breasts, and the feminine form, which
include wider hips for childbirth and fat deposition in areas like the thighs and arms.
Penis is a mass of erectile tissue (blood spaces surrounded by a fibrous case) arranged in
three columns.
• The skin of the penis is loose and freely movable to make intercourse easier
• Foreskin or prepuce- covers the sensitive head of the penis.
 During sexual excitement, much blood is pumped into the erectile tissue at the same
time that the outflow through the veins is partially blocked. Thus, the penis becomes
firm and erect and becomes bigger in size.
SCIENCE 3RD QUARTER REVIEWER GRADE 10
BY: FMBP
Ovaries- pair of gonads that are almond-shaped and located on each side of the pelvic Breasts- are essentially mixing factories that absorb water, sugar, and other substances
cavity from the blood and mix them to make milk.
- It can develop eggs or ova and produce female hormones. Nipple- is an erectile structure having 25 or more small openings and surrounded by a
darkened area, the areola.
Estrogen- is responsible in a high-pitched voice, for the absence of beard, development of
breasts, widening of pelvis, and ripening of egg.
Fallopian tubes- are paired, tubular, and muscular organs that run from the uterus towards
the ovary.
- It serves as a passageway of eggs from the ovary to the uterus.
Uterus- is a pear-shaped mass of solid muscles w/ a small, flat, central cavity.
- It is where the fertilized ovum is implanted, after passing through the fallopian
tubes where it is likely fertilized.
- Where the zygote develops.
Cervix- a small end structure of the uterus that dips downward onto the top of the vagina.
- Also, it is the opening to the uterus. Male Reproductive Hormone
Vagina- is the birth canal leading from the uterus to the external opening of the
reproductive tract.
Hormones Descriptions Roles
- It receives the penis of the male during mating.

Made in the interstitial For the secondary sexual

cells of the testes. characteristics that develop in
Testosterone
the male during the adolescence
period.

For the release of It stimulates FSH and LH

Gonadotropin- follicle-stimulating secretion.
releasing hormone (FSH) and
hormone luteinizing hormone
(GnRH) (LH) from the anterior
pituitary gland.

Accessory Organs of the Female Reproductive System

SCIENCE 3RD QUARTER REVIEWER GRADE 10
BY: FMBP

Released by the Stimulates spermatogenesis and testicular growth.

Follicle- anterior pituitary
stimulating gland. Its presence in
hormone males is necessary for Follicle- Produced by the It stimulates the development of the
(FSH) the maturation of stimulating pituitary gland during maturing ovarian follicle and controls
spermatozoa. hormones the first half of the ovum production in the female.
(FSH) menstrual cycle.
Produced by the Stimulates the production of testosterone.
Luteinizing anterior pituitary
Hormones gland. It causes the
(LH) synthesis of Produced by It stimulates the ovaries to produce
testosterone. gonadotropic cells in the progesterone.
anterior pituitary gland
in the brain. It triggers ovulation (the release of a
Luteinizing mature ovum from the ovary)
Female Reproductive Hormone Hormones (LH)

Hormones Descriptions Roles It promotes the development of the

corpus luteum.

Produced primarily by It promotes the maturation and release

the ovaries in the non- of an ovum in every menstrual cycle.
Estrogen pregnant women.
It is responsible for the development of
female secondary sexual characteristics.

Produced by the corpus To prepare the endometrium (lining of

luteum in the ovary. the uterus) for the reception and
Progesterone development of the fertilized ovum.
Suppresses the production of estrogen
after ovulation has occurred.

Gonadotropin- Responsible for the It causes the release of two important Effects of Hormones at the Onset of Puberty
releasing release of follicle- hormones, the Follicle-stimulating
hormone stimulating hormone hormone and Luteinizing hormone from
(GnRH) (FSH) and luteinizing the pituitary gland.
hormone (LH) from the
pituitary gland.
SCIENCE 3RD QUARTER REVIEWER GRADE 10
BY: FMBP
 Estrogen also stimulates the release of LH from the pituitary gland, which in turn
controls the production of progesterone. High levels of progesterone then inhibit the further
release of LH.
Testosterone (Male) Estrogen (Female)

Regulate sexual drive Regulate the menstrual cycle.

Deepening of voice Broadening of the pelvis

Growth of facial, axillary, and pubic Growth of pubic and axillary hair
hair

Muscle mass and strength Development of breasts

Positive
Negative
Production of red blood cells and Further development of the uterus and vagina Feedback
sperm
Feedback

2. Positive Feedback  This occurs when you want something to happen quickly, not for
Feedback Mechanism
maintenance or for a long period of time; it functions to amplify the change.
- Processes that trigger other activities or processes and are used by organisms to
 As a fruit ripens, it produces ethylene which is given off. The gas is sensed by nearby
maintain specific internal conditions.
fruit which triggers its ripening. It goes on until more fruits are ripe.
- The process through which the level of one substance influences the level of
another substance  At the time of the baby's birth, there is a dilation of the walls of the uterus that causes a
contraction that encourages further stretching.
 In the menstrual cycle, the estrogen hormone promotes the secretion of other hormones
Types of Feedback Mechanism
that will lead to ovulation.
1. Negative Feedback  These are actions or processes that attempt to maintain a target
 Lactation, the child's feeding stimulates milk production which causes further feeding.
level.
 Ovulation, to dominant follicle releases estrogen which stimulates LH and FSH release
 Occurs to reduce the change or output; the result of the reaction is reduced to bring the
system back to a stable state. to promote further follicular growth.

 If you get too hot, your body cools you down by sweating. The sweat takes a lot of heat
and as it leaves your skin, you cool down. Phases of the Menstrual Cycle
 FSH stimulates the ovaries to release estrogen. High levels of estrogen then prevent the 1. Follicular Phase- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted from the
further production of FSH. anterior pituitary and stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles.
SCIENCE 3RD QUARTER REVIEWER GRADE 10
BY: FMBP
a. The dominant follicle produces estrogen, which inhibits FSH secretion
(negative feedback) to prevent other follicles from growing.
b. Estrogen acts on the uterus to stimulate the thickening of the endometrial layer
(uterine wall).

2. 2. Ovulation- Midway through the cycle (~ day 14), estrogen stimulates the
anterior pituitary to secrete hormones (positive feedback).
a. This positive feedback results in a large surge of luteinizing hormone (LH) and
a lesser surge of FSH.
b. LH causes the dominant follicle to rupture and release an egg (secondary
oocyte) – this is called ovulation.

3. Luteal Phase  The ruptured follicle develops into a slowly degenerating corpus
luteum.
a. The corpus luteum secretes high levels of progesterone, as well as lower levels
of estrogen.
b. Estrogen and progesterone act on the uterus to thicken the endometrial lining
(in preparation for pregnancy). Estrogen and progesterone also inhibit the
secretion of FSH and LH, preventing any follicles from developing.
4. Menstruation  If fertilization occurs, the developing embryo will implant in the
endometrium and release hormones to sustain the corpus luteum.
a. If fertilization doesn’t occur, the corpus luteum eventually degenerates. When
the corpus luteum degenerates, estrogen and progesterone levels drop, and the
endometrium can no longer be maintained.
b. The endometrial layer is sloughed away and eliminated from the body as
menstrual blood (menstruation).
c. As estrogen and progesterone levels are now too low to inhibit the anterior
pituitary, the cycle can now begin again.
 The Male Reproductive System
• The male reproductive organs are the two testes, which
are oval bodies consisting of fine tubules enclosed in a
tough fibrous sheath.
• Testes are hang in a body or pouch called the scrotum.
• These tubules, in the testes, are called seminiferous
tubule that can produce sperm.
• The tubules empty into a mass of tubes along the sides of
the testes called epididymis, a temporary storage place
for sperm.
• The minute spaces between the seminiferous tubules are
filled with cells that produce the testosterone.
• From the epididymis, sperm travel through another tube,
called the vas deferens, which receive them, carries
them up and delivers them into the urethra.
• Near the urethra is a side pouch, the seminal vesicle,
secretes a fluid that makes up most of the components of
the semen.
• The prostate gland produces a thin, watery alkaline
secretion that mixes with the sperm and other secretions
to form the semen.
• During sexual excitement or orgasm, semen pump out
through the urethra wherein there is a sphincter
(muscle) that blocked the urine.
• Bulbourethral gland or Cowper’s gland can secrete a
thick and clear mucus that lubricates and neutralizes
any traces of acidic urine in the urethra.
• The urethra carries sperm and urine out of the body.
• Penis is a mass of erectile tissue (blood spaces
surrounded a fibrous case) arranged in three columns.

• During sexual excitement, much blood is pumped into the

erectile tissue at the same time that the outflow through
the veins is partially blocked. Thus, the penis becomes
firm and erect and becomes bigger in size.

• The skin of the penis is loose and freely movable to make

intercourse easier, the foreskin or prepuce, w/c covers
the sensitive head of the penis.
 The Human Sperm Cell or Spermatozoa
• The head is a flattened, oval-shaped part that is
propelled by the lashing motion of the tail.
• When the sperm penetrates an ovum during fertilization,
the tail separates from the rest of the sperm.
• The head, neck and the connecting piece enter the
ovum and the zygote is formed.
 The Female Reproductive System
• Produce egg cells through oogenesis.
• Receive the sperm cells and provide a place where
fertilization of the egg can take place.
• Provide nutrients for the development of the embryo.

• Produce hormones that promote the development of

secondary sex characteristics such as growth of pubic
hair, development of the breasts and the feminine form,
w/c include wider hips for childbirth and fat deposition in
areas like the thighs and arms.
• A pair of gonads called ovaries. Almond shaped and located
on each side of the pelvic cavity. Ovaries can develop egg or
ova and producing female hormones.
• Estrogen is responsible in high-pitched voice, the absence of
beard, development of breasts, widening of pelvis and
ripening of egg.
• Fallopian tubes are paired, tubular and muscular organs
that run from the uterus towards the ovary. It serves as
passageway of eggs from the ovary to the uterus.
• The uterus is a pear-shaped mass of solid muscles w/ a
small, flat, central cavity. It is where the fertilized ovum is
implanted, after passing through the fallopian tubes where it
is likely fertilized. Where zygote develops.
• Cervix, small end structure of the uterus and dips
downward onto the top of the vagina. Also, it is the
opening to the uterus.

• The vagina is the

birth canal leading
from the uterus to the
external opening of
the reproductive
tract. It receives the
penis of male during
mating.
 Accessory Organs of the Female Reproductive
System
• The breasts are essentially mixing factories that absorb
water, sugar and other substances from the blood and
mix them together to make milk.
• The nipple is an
erectile structure
having 25 or more
small openings and
surrounded by a
darkened area, the
areola.
 Male Reproductive Hormone
Hormones Descriptions Roles
Made in the interstitial For the secondary
cells of the testes. sexual characteristics
Testosterone that develop in the
male during
adolescence period.
For the release of
follicle-stimulating It stimulates FSH and
Gonadotropin
hormone (FSH) and LH secretion.
Releasing Hormone
luteinizing hormone
(GnRH)
(LH) from the anterior
pituitary gland.
 Hormones Descriptions Roles
Released by the Stimulates
anterior pituitary spermatogenesis
Follicle-Stimulating gland. Its presence and testicular
Hormone (FSH) in males is necessary growth.
for the maturation
of spermatozoa.
Produced by the Stimulates the
anterior pituitary production of
Luteinizing
gland. It causes the testosterone.
Hormones (LH)
synthesis of
testosterone.
 Female Reproductive Hormone
Hormones Descriptions Roles
Produced primarily by the It promotes the
ovaries in the non- maturation and release of
pregnant women. an ovum in every
menstrual cycle.
Estrogen
It is responsible for the
development of female
secondary sexual
characteristics.
 Hormones Descriptions Roles
Produced by the To prepare the
corpus luteum in the endometrium (lining
ovary. of the uterus) for the
reception and
development of the
fertilized ovum.
Progesterone
Suppresses the
production of
estrogen after
ovulation has
occurred.
 Hormones Descriptions Roles
Responsible for the It causes the release of
release of follicle- two important hormones,
Gonadotropin Releasing stimulating hormone the Follicle-stimulating
Hormone (GnRH) (FSH) and luteinizing hormone and Luteinizing
hormone (LH) from the hormone from the
pituitary gland. pituitary gland.

Produced by the pituitary It stimulates

Follicle-Stimulating
gland during the first half development of the
Hormones (FSH)
of menstrual cycle. maturing ovarian follicle
and controls ovum
production in the female.
 Hormones Descriptions Roles
Produced by It stimulates the ovaries
gonadotropic cells in to produce
the in the anterior progesterone.
pituitary gland in the
brain.
Luteinizing Hormones It triggers ovulation (the
(LH) release of a mature
ovum from the ovary)

It promotes the
development of the
corpus luteum.
 Effects of Hormones at the Onset of Puberty
Testosterone (Male) Estrogen (Female)
Regulate sexual drive Regulate the menstrual cycle
Deepening of voice Broadening of the pelvis
Growth of facial, axillary, and Growth of pubic and axillary
pubic hair hair
Muscle mass and strength Development of breasts
Production of red blood cells Further development of
and sperm uterus and vagina
 Feedback Mechanism

 Processes that trigger other activities or processes and are

used by organisms to maintain specific internal conditions.

 The process through which the level of one substance

influences the level of another substance.
 Types of Feedback Mechanism
1. Negative Feedback  these
are actions or process that
attempt to maintain a target
level.
 Occurs to reduce the
change or output; the result of
the reaction is reduced to
bring the system back to a
stable state.
 If you get too hot, your body cools us down by sweating. The sweat
takes a lot of heat and as it leaves your skin, you cool down.
 FSH stimulates the ovaries
to release estrogen. High levels
of estrogen then prevent the
further production of FSH.

 Estrogen also stimulates the

release of LH from the pituitary
gland, which in turn controls
the production of
progesterone. High levels of
progesterone then inhibit the
further release of LH.
 2. Positive Feedback  this
occurs when you want something
to happen quickly, not for
maintenance or for long period of
time; it functions to amplify the
change.
 As a fruit ripens, it produces
ethylene which is given off. The gas is
sensed by nearby fruit which triggers
its ripening. It goes on until more
fruits are ripe.
 At the time of baby birth, there is a dilation of the walls of the uterus
that causes a contraction that encourages further stretching.
 In the menstrual cycle, the
estrogen hormone promotes the
secretion of other hormones that
will lead to ovulation.

 Lactation, the child feeding

stimulates milk production
which causes further feeding.

 Ovulation, to dominant follicle

releases estrogen which
stimulates LH and FSH release to
promote further follicular growth.
 Phases of the Menstrual Cycle
1. Follicular Phase  Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted
from the anterior pituitary and stimulates growth of ovarian follicles.
 The dominant follicle produces
estrogen, which inhibits FSH secretion
(negative feedback) to prevent other
follicles growing.

 Estrogen acts on the uterus

to stimulate the thickening of
the endometrial layer (uterine
wall).
2. Ovulation  Midway through the cycle (~ day 14), estrogen
stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete hormones (positive
feedback).
 This positive feedback results
in a large surge of luteinizing
hormone (LH) and a lesser surge
of FSH.

 LH causes the dominant follicle

to rupture and release an egg
(secondary oocyte) – this is called
ovulation.
 3. Luteal Phase  The ruptured
follicle develops into a slowly
degenerating corpus luteum.

 The corpus luteum secretes high

levels of progesterone, as well as
lower levels of estrogen.

 Estrogen and progesterone act on the uterus to thicken the

endometrial lining (in preparation for pregnancy). Estrogen and
progesterone also inhibit secretion of FSH and LH, preventing any
follicles from developing.
4. Menstruation  If fertilization occurs, the developing embryo
will implant in the endometrium and release hormones to
sustain the corpus luteum.
If fertilization doesn’t occur, the corpus luteum eventually
degenerates. When the corpus luteum degenerates, estrogen
and progesterone levels drop, and the endometrium can no
longer be maintained.
 The endometrial layer is sloughed away and eliminated from
the body as menstrual blood (menstruation).
 As estrogen and progesterone levels are now too low to
inhibit the anterior pituitary, the cycle can now begin again.
Sexually Transmitted Infections
(STI)

Can be transmitted from one

person to another through
semen, vaginal fluid and blood.
 Common Sexually Transmitted
Infections
BACTERIA SKIN
VIRUS
PARASITES

HIV - AIDS
Chlamydia
Herpes
Gonorrhea
Genital and
Syphilis Pubic Lice
Anal Warts
Scabies
 CHLAMYDIA
Causative Agent: Chlamydia trachomatis

• abnormal vaginal discharge

• burning sensation when peeing
• discharge from their penis
• pain and swelling in one or both testicles
• ectopic pregnancy
• infertility
• neonatal conjunctivitis
 GONORRHEA
Causative Agent: Neisseria gonorrhea
• Genital or rectal discharge of unusual color, smell or quantity,
sometimes with pus.
• Scrotal and testicular swelling
• Pelvic inflammation with abdominal pain (PID)
• Dysuria or a white, yellow, or green urethral discharge
that usually appears one to fourteen days after infection
• Infertility
• Neonatal conjunctivitis
 SYPHILIS
Causative Agent: Treponema pallidum

• Genital or rectal sores or blisters; sometimes on the mouth and

face.
• Blindness
• Deformities of unborn babies
• Still birth
• Chancre, painless ulcerations
 HERPES
Causative Agent: herpes simplex virus type 2

• Genital or rectal sores or blisters; sometimes on the mouth and

face.
• Bladder problems
• New born infections
 GENITAL & ANAL WARTS
Causative Agent: Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)

• Small, flesh-colored bumps or have a cauliflower-

like appearance
• Itching or discomfort in the genital area
• Bleeding during intercourse
• Cervical and anal cancer in women
• Penile and anal cancer in men
• Problems during pregnancy
 SCABIES
Causative Agent: Sarcoptes scabiei

• Genital or anal itching, possible blister or sores from bites

• Impetigo, bacterial skin infection
 PUBIC LICE
Causative Agent: Pthirus pubis
• Genital or anal itching, possible blister or sores from bites
• May spread to other body parts such as legs, chest,
armpits, beard and eyelashes
HIV and AIDS
 Brief HIV Situation
2016 estimates from the DOH
show that62% of new HIV
infections come from young There is an
people, 15 to 24 years old. increasing
number of
people with
HIV in the
Philippines.
 Immune System
• Collection of cells and substances that
defends the body against foreign substances
called ANTIGENS (virus, bacteria, or other
germs).

• Helps to keep the body healthy.

• When antigens enter a human body, our

immune system produces antibodies in the
blood to fight the antigens.
 Immune System
• Can be compared to an army guarding the
state and protecting it from foreign invasion.

• It is composed of white blood cells that

perform the role of an army, called T-
lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes.

• Among the T-lymphocytes are cells called

Cluster of Differentiation 4 (CD4).
 What is HIV?
• Human Immunodeficiency Virus or HIV

• Attacks the CD4 cells and weakens the

immune system

• Once HIV enters the cell, it uses this cell

to make copies of itself - a process
known as replication.
Over time, when HIV destroys the CD4 and
as HIV increases in the body, the immune
system becomes even weaker. This makes
it difficult for the body to fight infections.
When there are many infections present at
the same time and the immune system can
no longer defend the body from antigens,
this condition is called…

Acquired Immuno-Deficiency
Syndrome or AIDS.
 Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome (AIDS)
• is a condition of person infected with
HIV.
• The immune system is already weak or
destroyed and the body can no longer
fight off common infections.

Remember!
HIV infection MAY LEAD to AIDS
but a person with HIV DOES NOT
NECESSARILY have AIDS.
H
This virus can only
uman: infect HUMAN
BEINGS.

I
mmunodeficiency:
The effect of the virus is to create a
deficiency, a failure to work properly,
within the body’s immune system.

V irus: It is incapable of reproducing by

itself. It reproduces by taking
over the machinery of the human
cell.
A cquired: It’s a condition transmitted from
person to person, but cannot be
passed through genes.

I
It affects the body’s immune
mmune: system; the part of the body which
usually works to fight off germs
such as bacteria and viruses.

D eficiency: It makes the immune system

deficient (meaning it may
not work properly anymore)

S yndrome: Someone with AIDS may experience a

wide range of signs and symptoms due
to different diseases and opportunistic
infections
Illustrating the Effects of
HIV on Our Body
I am CD4!
I will
defend Yey!
you!

I am going
to hurt Oh no, you
you! won’t!
Go CD4!
 Another
I will make
one No, You’re
Body sick
you won’t! doing well
CD4!

You’re not gonna

win, CD4 You’ve
I can
got to
defend
win this!
myself!
Attack! Why Oh
can’t I noooo!
defend
myself?

I win! This isn’t

happening!

Goodbye
body!
 No! Where Time to
We’re
are you CD4? Attack
going to
Body
get you!!!
again!!!

I can’t
protect
myself. You
win…
 Question

Do all people with HIV also

have AIDS?
 Answer
NO.
- Not all people with HIV have AIDS.
- AIDS develop when HIV weakens the
immune system and no longer allows it
to defend the body from infection.
Again, HIV infection MAY LEAD to
AIDS. But person with HIV does not
necessarily have AIDS.
 Question

Can a person without HIV

have AIDS?
 Answer

NO.
- AIDS develops from HIV infection.
 SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
OF HIV AND AIDS
• HIV infection has NO
specific signs and
symptoms.

• Therefore, a person may

already be infected with
HIV even if he looks
physically healthy and
well.

• The only way to know if

a person has HIV is to
get an HIV test.
 SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
OF HIV AND AIDS
• Symptoms often begin to appear
in the latter stage of HIV
infection.

• These symptoms are not

because of HIV itself but are due
to certain infections caused by
the ANTIGENS that may attack
the body.

• A person with HIV eventually

becomes weak and his or her
body cannot fight these
infections.
These infections that attack
people with HIV are often curable
when immediately treated with
proper medications

but HIV infection itself cannot be

cured.
Consult a doctor immediately
for further diagnosis if someone
experiences any of the symptoms
described below.
 SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
OF OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS
Daily fever of
Thrush
more than two
a thick whitish coating of the
weeks/
tongue or mouth that is caused by a
night sweats
yeast infection and sometimes
Tuberculosis/Pneumonia accompanied by a sore throat
cough present for more
than 2 weeks Long periods
of frequent
diarrhea of
more than 2
weeks
Quick weight loss
of more than 10
pounds that is not
because of
increased physical
exercise or dieting
 Question

Can a person with HIV get

cured?
 Answer
Currently, there is NO CURE for HIV
that would eliminate the presence of
the virus within the human body .

And there is also NO VACCINE to

prevent it. A person who gets
infected with HIV will have it for life.
However, a person with HIV can be TREATED with
Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) using medicines called
Antiretrovirals (ARV).

How They Work?

• Slow down the replication of the virus

• Prevent the CD4 cells to be destroyed. Having

enough CD4 cells allows the immune system to
fight infections.
 Antiretroviral Therapy (ART)

• This strengthens the immune system to

prevent different infections from
attacking the body.
• Without ARV, a person with HIV may die
of infections within 5-10 years.

• Taking ARV every day will prolong the

life of a person with HIV.
Antiretroviral Therapy (ART)
Antiretroviral Therapy (ART)
 Question

Is HIV a deadly virus?

 Answer
YES. HIV is a deadly virus.
- HIV infection lowers the body’s immune system and
makes a person very prone to infection.

- If the infections are severe or not treated, these

infections can lead to death.

- However, if these infections are treated early, these

infections can be cured and would not end in death.

- Taking ARV prevents the immune system from

becoming weak.
Transmission and
Prevention
of HIV Infection
For HIV transmission to occur, there are
three FOURs that you must remember:

• 4 BODY FLUIDS that can transmit HIV

• 4 PRINCIPLES of HIV transmission

• 4 WAYS to transmit HIV

HIV Transmission requires the exchange
of body fluids containing the virus

4 BODY FLUIDS

Blood
Semen
Vaginal fluids
Breast milk
For HIV to be successfully transmitted
from a person with HIV to another
person, it must meet the 4 PRINCIPLES:

E-S-S-E
4 PRINCIPLES: E-S-S-E
From the term HUMAN
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) itself, HIV
needs to be transmitted from one
person to another person.

It cannot be transmitted through

mosquitoes or other animals.
The principles of E-S-S-E are fulfilled
and the virus is transmitted through

4 WAYS
Ways of Acquiring HIV True False
Coughing or sneezing
Breastfeeding by an HIV positive mother
Shaking the hand of a person with HIV
Sharing utensils, food, or drinks
Transfusion of unsafe blood
Hugging
Sexual intercourse without using a condom
Mosquito bites
Sharing HIV-contaminated syringes/needles
Using public toilets
Swimming
Kissing
Eating food with drops of HIV-contaminated blood
 REMEMBER!
HIV infection does not just happen.

HIV is NOT transmitted through

everyday contact with people at work,
home, school, or anywhere else.

Therefore, we should not be afraid to

interact with a person living with HIV.
The
ABCDE
of HIV
Prevention
Remember these icons!

Abstinence
Abstinence from sexual intercourse

Sexual Abstinence or
“Hindi Pakikipagtalik”

The MOST EFFECTIVE METHOD of

preventing HIV
 Remember these icons!

Be faithful
Be Faithful to one partner who is also
faithful to you.

Having sexual intercourse with several

people puts you at higher risk of having
HIV.
 Remember these icons!

Correct and consistent

condom use
- Correct and consistent use of condoms is a reliable
method to prevent the spread of HIV, as well as other
sexually transmitted infection (STI).

- One of the most widely available and highly

effective HIV prevention tools

- Condoms also prevent unplanned pregnancy.

- However, abstinence remains more effective than

the use of condoms in preventing pregnancy, HIV
infection, and STI
 CORRECT
 Condom use is a skill.
 There is a correct way to use condoms.
 They have expiration dates so always check the package.
 Do not store condoms in your wallet for a prolonged
period of time and do not expose them to direct sunlight.

CONSISTENT
 Condoms must be used in EACH sexual act during ANY
type of sexual intercourse (vaginal, anal, and oral) and
with ALL sex partners.
 Male condoms are used more often in the Philippines
but female condoms are also available.
 Remember these icons!

Do not use drugs or drink

alcohol
 Drugs and alcohol may affect your
thinking and decisions.

 They may make you do things that you

might regret later on.

 Injecting drugs using a needle used by

an HIV positive person presents a very
high risk of HIV transmission.
 Remember these icons!

Education and early

detection
 There is no better protection than proper knowledge.
 Get the facts on HIV and do not be embarrassed to
share what you have learned with your friends.
 Sharing your knowledge may allow you to save a
friend’s life.

 Aside from getting proper knowledge about STI and HIV, it is also
important to know if you are infected by getting tested for HIV.

 There are many public and private facilities which offer HIV
testing. Social Hygiene Clinics (SHC), sometimes referred to as
City Health Office (CHO) or Reproductive Health and Wellness
Center (RHWC) offer free HIV testing and treatment, and can be
found in most cities.

 Pregnant mothers are encouraged to get tested for HIV. Early

diagnosis of HIV will allow the mother to get antiretroviral
therapy (ART) to prevent transmitting HIV to her unborn child.

 Knowing your HIV status early will allow you to protect

yourself and others. Do not be shy or scared to get an HIV
test.
 DNA & RNA
• DNA molecule is composed of 3 types of component
molecule: phosphate group, sugar (deoxyribose) and
nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G)
• 3 molecules that form the basic building block of DNA,
the nucleotides – 1 phosphate group, 1 sugar
molecule and 1 of the 4 bases. A-T and G-C.
• RNA is single stranded; sugar is ribose; RNA has A-U
and G-C.
• Types of RNA: mRNA, rRNA, tRNA
 Basis of DNA RNA
Comparison
No. of Strands Double strand Single strand
Location in
the Cell Nucleus Cytoplasm

Type of Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

Nitrogenous
Base Pair A – T & G - C A – U & G -C
 REPLICATION
• The structure of the DNA provides a mechanism for
making accurate copies of the molecule. The process
of making copies of DNA is called replication.
• When DNA replicates, two identical copies of DNA
molecules are produced, which are exactly the same
as the original.
1. An enzyme called helicase breaks the bond between
nitrogenous bases. The two strands of DNA split.

2. The bases attached to each strand then pair up with

the free nucleotides found in the cytoplasm.

3. The complementary nucleotides are added to each

strand by DNA polymerase to form new strands. 2 new
DNA molecules, each w/a parent strand and each w/a
new strand are formed.
• The DNA replication is known as semi-conservative
replication, bec.one of the old strands is conserved in
each new molecule.
 TYPES of RNA
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) brings information from the
DNA in the nucleus to the protein manufacturing area,
the cytoplasm. mRNA becomes the template of
information to make proteins.

• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) hold tightly into the mRNA using

its information to assemble the amino acids in correct
order.

• Transfer RNA (tRNA) supplies amino acids to the

ribosome to be assembled as protein.
 TRANSCRIPTION
• The sequence of nucleotides in DNA directs the order
of nucleotides in mRNA in a process called
transcription.
• Transcription is the
process by which
the information in
DNA is copied
into messenger
RNA (mRNA) for
protein
production.
1. RNA polymerase enzyme binds and opens the DNA
molecule that will be transcribed.

2. As the DNA molecule opens, the RNA polymerase

slides along the DNA strand and links free RNA
nucleotides that pair w/the nitrogenous bases of the
complementary DNA strand.
3. When the process of base-pairing is completed, the
RNA molecule breaks away as the DNA strands rejoin.
The RNA leaves the nucleus and goes to the cytoplasm.
 TRANSLATION
• The process of converting the information in mRNA into
a sequence of amino acids that make a protein is
known as translation.
• In translation, each set of 3 nucleotides in an mRNA
molecule codes for one amino acid in a protein. This
explains why each set of 3 nucleotides in the mRNA is
called codon.

• A codon (triplet code) is a sequence of three DNA or

RNA nucleotides that corresponds with a specific
amino acid or stop signal during protein synthesis.
• Each codon specifies a particular amino acid. Thus,
the sequence of codons in the mRNA determines the
sequence of amino acids in the protein.
1. As translation begins, mRNA binds to a ribosome. Then,
tRNA molecules, each carrying a specific amino acid,
approach the ribosome. The tRNA anticodon pairs w/the
first mRNA (start) codon adenine-uracil-guanine (AUG),
to form the initiation complex. The 2 molecules
temporarily join together.

2. Usually, the first codon on mRNA is AUG, w/c codes for

the amino acid methionine. AUG signals the start of
protein synthesis. Then, the ribosome slides along the
mRNA to the next codon.
3. A new tRNA molecule carrying an amino acid pairs w/the
second mRNA codon.

4. When the first and second amino acids are in place, an

enzyme joins them by forming a peptide bond between
them.

5. As the process continues, a chain of amino acids is formed

until the ribosome reaches a stop codon on the mRNA
strand. The polypeptide chain is released and protein
synthesis is complete.
Important Key Concepts
• Proteins such as enzymes are mostly amino acids
chained together in a certain order.
• Each group of 3 nucleotide bases represents a codon
in a DNA or mRNA that corresponds to a specific
amino acid or a start/stop signal.
• This code is picked up by the mRNA and is carried from
the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
• The codon has its complement anticodon in tRNA.
• Each amino acid that will form the protein molecule to
be synthesized is determined by the codon on the
mRNA.
• Changes in the protein structure or level of expression may lead
to changes in cellular properties and behavior, as a result, the
organism is affected.
• Mutation  a relatively permanently change in hereditary
material that involves either a change in chromosome structure
or number or a change in the nucleotide sequence of gene’s
codons.
• It can occur in reproductive cells (can pass to offspring) and
body cells.
• Mutations affect the reproductive cells of an organism by
changing the sequence of nucleotides within a gene in a sperm
or an egg cell.
• If these cells are fertilized, then the mutated gene becomes a
part of the genetic makeup of the offspring.
2 Types of Mutations in Gamete Cells
• Gene Mutation  a permanent change in the DNA sequence
that makes up a gene.

• Chromosomal Mutation  occurs at the chromosome level

resulting in gene deletion, duplication or rearrangement that
may occur during the cell cycle and meiosis. It maybe caused by
parts of chromosomes breaking off or rejoining incorrectly.
 • When is mutation inherited? Why are mutations in sex cells
heritable?

• In most cases, there is only a small difference between DNA

sequences in the defective gene and a normal one. This
difference is enough to cause serious and often fatal diseases.
These disease-causing genes are the result of a mutation that
may be passed from one generation to the another if present in
gametes.
• A recessive gene causes sickle-cell anemia, where most of the
RBC stiffen and become sickle-shape in affected people, thus
the diseased cells carry less oxygen than normal cells.
• A. Point Mutation  where a change in a single base pair occurs.
A change in nitrogenous base in a protein may yield a different
amino acid and a corresponding change in the protein structure and
function.
• It may be also an insertion or deletion that shifts the codon “reading
frame”, or the repeated sequences.
THE DOG BIT THE CAT
THE DOG BIT THE CAR
• B. Frameshift Mutation  a number of nucleotides not divisible by
3 is inserted or deleted so as to change the reading frame of some
triplet codons during genetic translation.
• 1 or more nucleotides can also be added to, or deleted from, a
gene.
THE DOG BIT THE CAT
THE DOB ITT HEC AT
• C. Substitution Mutation  is the replacement of one DNA base
w/another.
• The substituted amino acid may drastically alter the protein’s shape,
changing its function.
THE DOG BIT THE CAT
THA DOG BIT THE CAR
1. Translocation  occurs when a piece of chromosome breaks off
and attached to another chromosome.
2. Inversion  involves the breakage of a chromosome in two places
in w/c the resulting piece of DNA is reversed and re-inserted into the
chromosome.
3. Deletion  refers to the loss of a segment of DNA or chromosome
 Translocation Deletion Inversion
No. of Chromosomes
2 1 1
Involved
Broke a part and Broke a part,
Changes in the
Broke a part. reversed and
Original Structure of attached it to
reinserted it into the
the Chromosomes another chromosome.
chromosome.
Either gain or loss Either gain or loss
Changes in of genetic material of genetic material
Chromosome
or no loss or gain Loss of genetic or no loss or gain
Material (Loss, Gain
or Either Loss or Gain of genetic material material of genetic material
of Genetic Material) during the during the process.
exchange process.
Major Gene Mutation Substitution Frameshift, Point Frameshift, Point
 CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATIONS
1. Cri du Chat  caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of
chromosome 5.
 Condition is so named bec. affected babies make high-pitched
cries that sound like a cat.
 Wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw and moderately to severely
mentally retarded.
2. Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)  caused by an extra copy of
chromosome 21.
 Decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull, slanting
eyes and mild to moderate mental retardation.
3. Edwards Syndrome (Trisomy 18) mental and motor retardation
and numerous congenital anomalies causing serious health problems.
 Hand appearance w/clenched hands and overlapping finger.
4. Jacobsen Syndrome aka terminal 11q deletion disorder; have
normal intelligence or mild mental retardation, w/poor or excessive
language skills.
 Most have a bleeding disorder called Paris-Trousseau syndrome.
5. Klinefelter’s Syndrome (XXY) men w/this condition are usually
sterile and tend to have longer arms and legs and to be taller than
their peers.
6. Turner’s Syndrome (X) female sexual characteristics are present
but underdeveloped.
 They often have a short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye
features and bone development and a “caved-in” appearance to the
chest.
7. Patau’s Syndrome trisomy 13, cleft lip and palate, cerebral
defects, polydactyly and capillary hemangiomata.
 DETECTORS OF CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATIONS
a.) Human Karyotyping  a karyotype is an image of the full set of
chromosomes of an individual that displays the normal number, size
and shape.
 Karyotypes may reveal the gender of a fetus or test for certain
defects through examination of cells from uterine fluid – a procedure
called amniocentesis – or through sampling of placental membranes.
 To produce a karyotype, chromosomes commonly derived from
actively dividing WBC are stained and photographed.
 The homologous pairs of chromosomes are identified and
arranged in order by size, w/the exception of the sex chromosomes,
it must be appear last.
 Cell must be undergoing mitosis – metaphase.
b.) Genetic Engineering  produces transgenic or GM crops of
organisms.
 When DNA from two different species are joined together, it is
called recombinant DNA.

 This process uses restriction enzymes to cleave one organism’s DNA

into fragments and other enzymes to splice the DNA fragment into a
plasmid or viral DNA.

 Gene therapy and vaccines, DNA fingerprinting, GMO, super

bacteria.
 SOURCES OF EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
• Organisms inhabiting the earth have changed overtime,
their structures, traits and abilities allowed them to
adapt and survive in their environment.
• Fossil records, anatomy and morphology, embryonic
development and biochemistry.
Evidence from Fossil Records
• Fossil  traces of organisms that lived in the past and
were preserved by natural process or catastrophic
events.
• They can be remains of organisms which include bones,
shells, teeth and feces embedded in rocks, peat, resin
and ice.
Types of Fossils
1. Fossils found in sedimentary rocks. From the hard parts
of the organisms.
2. Imprint or Impression. These are shallow external molds
left by animal or plant tissues w/ little or no organic
materials present.
3. Compression. Shallow external molds left by animal or
plant tissues w/ more organic material.
Determining the Age of Fossils
• Paleontologists make initial estimates of the age
through the position in the sedimentary rocks.
• Fossils found in
the bottom
layer are much
older than
those found in
upper layer of
rocks.
• Relative Dating  a method used to determine the age
of the rocks by comparing them w/the rocks in the
other layer.
• The younger sedimentary rock layer is assumed to be
found on top and the older rock is found at the bottom
layer.
• The fossil of invertebrates found at the bottom part of
the rock layer suggest that invertebrates are probably
one of the first and oldest organisms that lived on earth.
• Radiometric Dating  a method used to determine the age of
rocks using the decay of radioactive isotopes present in rocks.
• Plants and animals
that are still alive
constantly replace
the supply of C in
their body and the
amount of C-14 in
their body stays the
same. When an
organism dies, C-14
starts to decay.
• The Geologic
Time Scale
shows the major
events in the
Earth’s history. It
also shows the
appearance of
various kinds of
organisms in a
particular period
of time on earth.
• Era is the largest
division of
Geologic Time
Scale, namely
Precambrian,
Paleozoic,
Mesozoic and
Cenozoic. Each
era is further
divided into
period.
Hint of Evolution from Comparative Anatomy
• Anatomy  the study of the parts and structure of
organisms.
• Morphology  the study of structures and forms of
organisms.
• Structure from different species w/c have similar internal
framework, position & embryonic development are
considered to be homologous.
• Homologous structures may perform different functions in
the species living in the different environment, or it may
have the same origin but different functions.
• Forelimbs of dog, bird, lizard and whale, w/c are
structurally the same, but functionally different
• Structures of unrelated species may evolve to look alike,
bec.the structure is adapted to similar function. These
are called analogous structures. Analogous structures
have similar functions but different origin.
Types of Evolution
• The presence of homologous structures are a strong
indicator that the organisms evolved from common
ancestors. This type of evolution is called divergent
evolution.
• Divergent evolution is the splitting of an ancestral
population into two or more subpopulations that are
geographically isolated from one another.
• Convergence is an increase in similarities among species
derived from different ancestors as a result of similar
adaptation to similar environment.
• In convergent evolution, analogous structure of
unrelated organisms from different ancestors develop
similar function such as butterfly wings and bird wings.
Evidence from Embryonic Development
• An embryo is an early stage of development in
organisms.
• The embryo of fishes, salamanders, lizards, birds, cats and
humans are similar during the first stage of their embryonic
development; and have several homologous structures that
are not present when the organisms are adults.
Evidence from Biochemistry
Species Pairings No. of Differences in Amino Acids
Human – Chimpanzee 0
Human – Fruit fly 29
Human – Horse 12
Human – Pigeon 12
Human – Rattlesnake 14
Human – Red Bread Mold 48
Human – Rhesus Monkey 1
Human – Screwworm Fly 27
Human – Snapping Turtle 15
Human – Tuna Fish 21
Human – Wheat 43
 Species Pairings No. of Differences in Amino Acids
Fruit Fly – Dogfish Shark 26
Fruit Fly – Pigeon 25
Fruit Fly – Screwworm 2
Fruit Fly – Silkworm Moth 15
Fruit Fly – Tabaco Hornworm Moth 14
Fruit Fly - Wheat 47

• The greater the similarity in amino acid sequence, the closer

the relationship of the organisms.
• The organisms w/c are similar in structure & also possess
similarity at the biochemical level could probably have a
common ancestor.
 THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution
• Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was the first evolutionist to
believe that organisms change over time.
Theory of Need
• It states that organisms change in response to their
environment.
• Their ability to survive helped them develop characteristics
necessary for them to adapt in a given environment.
Theory of Use and Disuse

• It states that organs not in use will disappear while

organs in use will develop.

• Lamarck believed that giraffes before have short necks,

but bec.of the need to survive and in order to reach tall
trees for food, they kept stretching their necks until
these became longer and able to reach taller trees.
Theory of Acquired Characteristics
• It states that acquired characteristics were believed to
be inherited by their offspring and propagated by the
next generation.
Darwinian Theory – Theory of Natural Selection
• Accdg. to Darwin, giraffe
species originally had varying
neck lengths but natural
selection favored the survival
of giraffes w/longer necks
that could feed on taller trees
that were available, thus
giraffes w/short neck were
eliminated due to lack of
accessible food supply.
• In Galapagos island, he observed that finch species have
different beak structures for different food types.
• The abundance of certain finch species in an island was
somehow related to the type of available food for these
birds.
• In selective breeding,
farmer identifies and
selects the best and
desirable trait to
propagate, like in
natural selection,
environmental
factors promote the
survival of the fittest
and eliminates the
less fit.
• Fitness refers to the ability of an organism to survive
and produce offspring.
• Variation,
wherein
different
individuals in a
population
possess
different
characteristics
and abilities.
• Variation increases the chance of survival of living
things.
• Organisms w/the best and desirable traits would likely
adapt to an environmental changes & may gradually
become better suited to survive in a given environment.
• Organisms w/c are best adapted to the environment will
continue to reproduce and perpetuate their own kind.
• Mating between surviving populations of the same
species may shift the abundance of a new breed of
organism bec.of mutation, gene combination and
natural selection thus leads to speciation.