Instructional

MDE-412 Design in
Classroom
Instructional Design
Indira Gandhi National Open University
Staff Training and Research Institute of
Distance Education

Block

4
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN IN PRACTICE
UNIT 16
Instructional Design in Classroom 95
UNIT 17
Instructional Design in Training 114
UNIT 18
Instructional Design in Distance Education 131
UNIT 19
Instructional Design in Multimedia 152
UNIT 20
Instructional Design in e-Learning 166

91
Instructional
Design in Practice

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Instructional
Design in Practice
Unit 20 i.e., Instructional design in e-Learning explains how the e-Learning
course needs to be designed to stimulate students to integrate and coordinate
required knowledge skills and attitudes. This unit is designed to help you apply
the phases of designing to the creation of e-Learning courses. The Unit begins
by giving an overview of e-Learning and its features. It explains the e-Learning
design process, using the ADDIE approach of instructional design which
provides a systematic, step-by-step approach to designing and then improving
effective and objectives-based instruction. The importance of reusable learning
objects and its design process for creating e-courses are also elaborated. The
unit ends with a discussion on rapid instructional design and rapid e-learning.

We hope, you will enjoy reading these units and applying this knowledge and
skills of instructional design in your work. You may like to consult more
literature or reading materials as suggested in the references at the end of this
Block.

Good luck!!

Basanti Pradhan &Anita Priyadarshini

Course Coordinators

94
 Instructional
UNIT 16 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN IN Design in
Classroom
CLASSROOM
Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Learning Outcomes
16.3 Classroom Instructional Environment
16.4 Levels of Instructional Design
16.5 Analysis of Syllabus and Unit Design
16.6 Lesson Planning
16.6.1 Content analysis
16.6.2 Formulation of instructional objectives
16.6.3 How to formulate instructional objectives?
16.6.4 Selection of instructional methods
16.6.5 Selection of media
16.6.6 Media and method integration
16.6.7 Evaluation strategies
16.7 Implementation of the Lesson Plan
16.8 Let Us Sum Up
16.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

16.1 INTRODUCTION
Human beings learn something every day. Right from birth, a human being
continues to acquire many learning experiences. As you know, you too may
have learnt a lot from parents, neighbours, teachers and peers in the initial
period of your life. As you grow, your learning experiences get wider due to
your interaction with diverse learning environments. Therefore, learning is a
lifelong phenomenon. Many of these learning experiences are informal and
unorganised. In an informal and unorganised learning environment, an
individual interacts with the components of the environment which lead to
unspecified or unanticipated learning. But there are learning environments
which are purposefully created to achieve pre-decided learning objectives.
These learning environments are designed and the learners interact with these
environments and this leads to the achievement of pre-decided learning
objectives. The process of creating or providing a controlled environment with
which an individual interacts to attain certain pre-decided learning objectives
is called instruction.

In this Unit, we shall discuss how instruction is designed in classroom

situations. While doing so, we shall deliberate on levels of Instructional
Design, an instructional design model for a classroom, unit design, lesson
planning and implementation of the lesson plan.

95
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The main aim of an instructional activity is to provide learning experiences to Instructional
Design in
the learners. To carry out these activities, a teacher decides instructional Classroom
objectives, identifies learning experiences, transacts these learning experiences
within an instructional environment and evaluates the attainment of
instructional objectives or learning outcomes by the learner. The entire process
of organizing instructional activities requires systematic design of the process
by the teacher. Hence, instructional design is an important task that a teacher
does while teaching in a classroom. Let us now look at the concept and levels
of instructional design (ID).

16.4 LEVELS OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID)

We have discussed the meaning and purposes of instructional design in Unit
five of Block two of this course (Ref. Unit 5, Block-2). Instructional Design
comprises two terms: instruction and design. What is Instruction? Instruction
is a human activity to help people learn. Design means to do something in a
creative manner. Let us examine the following definitions of instructional
design, which have implications for levels of instructional design.
• According to Rita Richey (1984), “Instructional Design can be defined as
the science of creating detailed specifications for the development,
evaluation, and maintenance of situations which facilitate the learning of
both large and small units of subject matter.”
• According to Briggs (1977), Instructional Design is the entire process of
analysis of learning needs and goals. The design includes the development
of instructional materials and activities, and try out and revision of all
instruction and learner assessment activities.
• According to Smith and Ragan (2005), “Instructional design is defined as
the systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning
and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information
resources, and evaluation.”
From these above definitions, it is clear that instructional design is a process
of designing an instructional environment. This involves analysis of learning
needs and goals, development of instructional delivery system, assessment and
evaluation of learning objectives.
Instructional design starts in the beginning of the academic year when a teacher
prepares the annual plan for teaching a subject. The instructional design at the
pre-instructional phase involves four levels, namely:
Level 1: Course level- where Instructional planning is done to specify main
objectives of the course and detail out the specific lessons or units.
Level 2: Lesson level – where each lesson is planned to cover one or more
objectives.
Level 3: Instructional event level – where enabling objectives are specified
and detailed lesson plan is designed for each objective covering appropriate
media and methods.
Level 4: Transactional level – where each instructional event is planned in
detail to write instructional materials. A teacher in a classroom is concerned
with instructional design processes at one or more levels at any point of time.
97
Instructional This involves course design, preparing lesson plans teaching in a classroom
Design in Practice
and preparing instructional materials.
According to Alison A. Carr-Chellman (2015), major steps involved in
designing an instructional environment in a classroom are:
• Analyze learner’s needs;
• Design instruction;
• Develop instructional materials;
• Implement the instructions;
• Evaluate and revise the instruction.
The instructional design model for a classroom according to Alison A. Carr-
Chellman (2015) is as follows:
1. Write instructional goals
a. Conduct instructional analysis
b. Analyze learner’s need and syllabus
2. Write learning outcomes
3. Develop assessment strategies (test items)
4. Select and design instructional strategy
5 Develop and select instructional materials
6. Select appropriate media
7. Implement the plan
8. Evaluate and revise instruction
Check Your Progress 1
Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. What are the various components of instructional environment in a
classroom?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
2. Describe the four levels of instructional design.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

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Instructional • Identify the range of educational communication technologies and their
Design in Practice
merits and demerits;
• Use educational technologies to create digital content and deliver to
students using communication technologies;
• Create, engage, explore, reflect and design authentic learning at a distance.
Methods and Assessment Time
Units Unit Objectives
Media Strategies Allotted
Unit – 1
Unit – 2
Unit – 3
Unit – 4
Unit – 5
Unit – 6
Unit – 7
Unit – N

• Unit designing
Once the analysis of a syllabus is completed, the next task which a teacher
is expected to do is Unit Designing. Here the teacher is supposed to carry
out a thorough analysis of the content of the unit. What is content analysis?
Every unit consists of a main topic that is broken up into sections and sub-
sections. While analyzing the content, the teacher should select up the
main concepts, sub-concepts, and propositions and reject the details.
He/she should then arrange the concepts, sub-concepts and propositions
under each sub-unit logically. This process of selecting various concepts
and propositions in each unit and arranging them into their proper
sequence is known as content analysis.
Content analysis is thus a process by which we identify various categories of
content. According to Merrill (1983), the four categories of content are: facts,
concepts, principles and procedures (Ref. Unit-6, Block-2). You have already
studied about these categories in Component Display Theory (CDT) in
Unit 6.
Let us look at this example for content analysis. For example: Newton’s Law
of Motion, states that every action has equal and opposite reaction. Here the
concepts are related to form a rule or principle. There are four concepts in this
principle. These are action, reaction equal and opposite. When these concepts
are combined, they form the Newton’s Law. (Source: MES-056, Educational
Technology, SOE, IGNOU)
After content analysis, the teacher has to consider the goal which is a general
statement as to what we expect our students to achieve. The goal may be
broken up into a set of specific instructional objectives representing different
learning competencies and each competency in turn may be broken up into
skills. Teachers focus on specific skills and when students have acquired
related skills, they achieve a competency. When pupils acquire all the
competencies, they attain the goal of the unit.
Unit design involves not only content analysis but also it involves selection of
appropriate techniques, methods and media for curriculum transaction. The
100 nature of content as well as the types of objectives that are to be realized
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Instructional Communication refers to the act of, transmission, or exchange of ideas, thoughts,
Design in Practice
views, opinions and information between the sender and the receiver. In open
and distance education, communication plays a significant role. This unit focuses
on how distance learners and distance teachers communicate with each other
using a variety of communication technology.

7. Details of the Unit Design:

Sub-Units Major Teaching Specific Objectives Methods and
Points Media
Communication: 1. Meaning of • Students will be Methods:
The Concept Communication able to define the Lecture,
2. Functions of concept of Discussion,
Communication communication. Demonstration,
3. Process of • Students will be Brainstorming,
Communication able to describe the etc.
4. Type of functions of Media:
Communication communication. Blackboard/
5. Barriers to • Students will be Whiteboard,
Communication able to describe the Power point
process of Presentation/
communication. Audio/
• Students will be Video
able to explain Programme,
types of
communication.
• Students will be to
describe various
barriers to
communication.
Educational 1. Meaning of • Students will be Media:
Communication Educational able to explain the Powerpoint
Communication meaning of Presentation,
2. Characteristics educational Audio and video
of an Open communication. programmees.
System • Students will be Methods:
3. Distance able to mention the Lecture,
Education as a characteristics of Discussion,
Communication an open system. Group work,
System • Students will be Question-answer
4. Communication able to explain Question-
in Distance distance education Answer,
Education as a Debate and
communication discussion.
system. Group work
• Students will be
able to describe the
role of various
communication
media in distance
education.

102
 Sub-Units Major Teaching Specific Objectives Methods and Instructional
Design in
Points Media Classroom
Media and 1. Essential • Students will be Media: Power
Technology of characteristics of able to mention the Point
Communication distance essential Presentation,
education characteristics of Audio and video
2. Classification of distance education programmes.
communication • Students will be
media used in able to classify
distance communication
education media used in
3. Merits and distance education.
demerits of print • Students will be
medium able to discuss
4. Merits and merits and
demerits non- limitations of print
print media medium
• Students will be
able to discuss
merits and
demerits of non-
print media.
Technology for 1. Appropriate • Students will be
People with Technology for able to discuss
Disabilities People with appropriate
Disabilities technologies for
people with
disabilities.

8. References
Shannon, C.E., & Weaver, W (1949). The Mathematical theory of
Communication, Urban: University of Illinois Press.
Rogers, Everett. M. (1986). Communication Technology: The New Media
in Society, New York: The Free Press
Mai Bride, Sean (1980). Many Voices, One World, London: Kogan Page
Ltd.
Tiffin, John and Rajasingham, Lalita (1995). In Search of the Virtual
Class: Education in an Information Society, London: Routlage.
Romiszowski, J. (1988). The Selection and Use of Instructional Media,
New York: Kogan Page
Schramm, Wilbur (1977). Big Media, Little Media, California: Institute
for communication Research, Stanford University
9. Unit End Questions/Activities/Assignment.
i) Explain the meaning and process of communication.
ii) Discuss the functions of communication.
iii) Describe the types of communication.
iv) Explain the meaning of educational communication.
v) Discuss the role of communication in distance education.
vi) Classify different communication media is distance education.
vii) Discuss the merits and demerits of print and non-print media.
viii) Explain how technology helps students with disabilities.
103
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 Instructional
16.7 STEPS IN LESSON PLANNING Design in
Classroom
You have learnt how to plan a lesson. The steps involved in planning a lesson
for a classroom involves content analysis, formulation of objectives,
presentation of topic, selection of methods and media integration of media with
the methods and preparing assessment strategies.
Let us discuss the steps involved in planning a lesson for a classroom.

16.7.1 Content Analysis

In the instructional planning process, the first task a teacher is expected to do
is to carry out content analysis. As you know, a teacher in a classroom is given
the responsibility of transacting the curriculum in his/her area of study. For
example, a science teacher in a classroom is supposed to transact the
curriculum in science in an academic year. Each subject area contains certain
content, which is generally in the form of a few chapters or units. The content
of a unit comprises several concepts and propositions which a teacher teaches
to his /her students. (Ref. Section 16.5)
Content analysis refers to identifying various concepts and propositions in a
given content and structuring and sequencing them for the purpose of teaching
and learning. Content analysis is important as it directs other activities in
instructional planning like formulation of instructional objectives, selection of
methods and media, organizing teaching-learning activities and carrying out
assessment of student performance.
Let us explain a ‘concept’ with an example. For example, the concept ‘fruit’
has sub-concepts like apple, mango etc. There are also abstract concepts like
punctuality, secularism, patriotism, etc. Hence, concepts are objects, events or
any phenomena, which have common characteristics and carry a single name.
In a given content, apart from concepts, there are statements which comprise
more than one concept, and there is relationship between these different
concepts. Such statements are called propositions. Propositions can be a
principle, rule, law, theory, hypothesis, assumption, inference, etc. (Ref. Unit-
6: CDT, Block-2). Read the following statements:
1. The Earth revolves around the Sun.
2. Four and four makes eight.
3. Amperes equal volts divided ohms
4. Computer-assisted learning enhances students’ achievement.
All these statements are examples of proposition. The first proposition is a fact;
the second proposition is a rule; the third proposition is a law and the fourth
proposition is a hypothesis. In each of these propositions, you find more than
one concepts form the propositions. Let us further explain with this example.

Proposition one: The Earth revolves around the Sun.

This proposition has two concepts, namely, ‘Earth’ and the ‘Sun’ that are
connected by the verb’ revolve’. These concepts have a meaningful
relationship with each other. Unless there is a meaningful relationship among
the concepts in a statement, it cannot form a proposition.

105
Instructional To summarise the above discussion, the point is that content analysis is a
Design in Practice
process by which a teacher identifies various categories of content. (Ref.
Section 16.5).

16.7.2 Formulation of Instructional Objectives

The next step in the process of instructional planning is to formulate
instructional objectives. Instructional objectives spell out the objectives of an
instructional task and provide a basis for deciding method, media, teaching-
learning activities and evaluation procedures. They also specify the learning
outcomes, which would accrue out of the instructional process. Instructional
objectives are very important from the viewpoint of the learners as they can
organize their learning activities and prepare them for assessment.
Instructional objectives which a teacher formulates for classroom instruction
pertain to three domains of human abilities. These three domains are:
• Cognitive: Thinking or knowing (to know)
• Affective: Feelings (to feel)
• Psychomotor: Doing (to do)
You have studied these three domains in Unit 13, Degining learning, Block-3.
(Ref. Unit 13, Block-3)

16.7.3 How to formulate instructional objectives?

Based on the content analysis, a teacher can formulate instructional objectives.
Instructional objectives are formulated at two levels. The first level is general
instructional objectives and the second level is specific instructional
objectives. The differences between general instructional objectives and
specific instructional objectives are given below:
General Instructional Objectives Specific Instructional Objectives
• Knows a concept Define a concept
• Understands a theory Explains a theory
• Applies a principle Demonstrates a principle
(Abstract, not measurable) (Concrete, hence measurable)
Let us take a look at the following example.
General Instructional Objectives
• Learners should be able to describe the distance education system.
• Specific Instructional Objectives.

Define distance education system as

per Otto Peter’s philosophy

List any five features of distance

education system from the
Learners should be able to:
definition given by Keegan

Name any six components of

distance education delivery system
with the help of a diagram.

106
Specific Instructional Objectives Instructional
Design in
Classroom
In the above examples, you observe that general instructional objectives can
be divided into more than one specific instructional objective. There are four
criteria which you should bear in mind while formulating specific instructional
objectives. These are:
1. Audience : Learners/Students
2. Performance : List/Enumerate
3. Criterion/Standard : Any six features of distance education system
4. Conditions : From the definition given by Keegan
Now, you will be able to formulate general and specific instructional objectives
for teaching different concepts and propositions. Both content analysis and
instructional objectives help to decide methods and media that a teacher need
to adopt to transact a particular content. Let us now discuss selection of
methods and media.

16.7.4 Selection of Instructional Methods

There are various instructional methods which a teacher can use for teaching.
These are lecture, demonstration, team teaching, question-answer method,
project works, programmed learning, self-learning materials, computer
assisted instruction, library work, laboratory work, group discussion, debate,
brainstorming, panel discussion, simulation, tutorials, cooperative learning,
buzz session, etc. Apart from these methods, there are also other methods like
storytelling, role-play, and dramatization. Out of all these methods, a teacher
has to select an appropriate method considering in keeping with the nature of
the content and other aspects such as learner’s characteristics, availability of
resource, size of the class etc. These are:

• Nature of the content: The use of a method by a teacher depends upon

his/her choice and competence to use that method according to the nature
of the content. For example, a lecture to be delivered by a teacher for a
topic introduction to communication would require a number of skills such
as skill for introducing, explaining, questioning, illustrating, summarising,
etc. Similarly, the use of the questioning instructional strategy requires the
understanding of different forms of questioning like divergent
questioning, convergent questioning, probing questioning, critical
questioning, etc.
• Learner characteristics: Learner characteristics such as their previous
knowledge, socio-economic conditions, cognitive level, urban or rural
background, maturity level, interests, aptitudes, study habits, etc.
influence the selection of methods.
• Availability of resources: The availability of resources also determines
the choice of methods. For example, availability of resources like
blackboard or whiteboard, maps, posters, models, internet, computer, slide
projector, audio-video programmes, etc. decides the selection of a
particular method.
• Size of the class: Size of the class determines which method is to be
selected for transactioning a particular content. If the size of the class is
large, then lecture method is suitable but tutorial is suitable for a small
group.
107
Instructional
Design in Practice
16.7.5 Selection of Media
Like selection of methods, a teacher needs to select appropriate media to
transact content. There are a number of media (both print and electronic)
which are available for teaching. But the decision to select appropriate media
depends on several factors. You can have a detailed understanding of various
media available to a teacher from the Table 16.5
Table 16.5: Classification of Media

S. No. Media type Media details Your

suggestions
1. Audio • Voice
• Audio programmes, to be used in a
tape-recorder or language laboratory
• Radio
• Telephonic conversations
2. Visual • Textbooks, supplementary books
• Print materials
• Reference books, encyclopaedia, etc.
• Magazines, newspapers, etc.
• Documents, clippings from published
material
• Photocopy of written materials
(Photocopy)
3. Visual (non- • Messages/pictures on roll-up board
projected, • Flat pictures, cut-outs
two
• Posters, charts, graphs, etc.
dimensional)
• Cartoons, comics, etc.

4. Visual (non- • Models, mock-ups, display materials

projected • Diagrams
three
• Globes or maps (three-dimensional)
dimensional)
• Specimens (animate or inanimate)
• Puppets
5. Visual • Slides
(projected- • Film strips
still) Micro image system: micro film,
micro card, micro fiche
6. Audio-visual • Film
(projected- • Television
motion)
• Close-circuit television
• Video programmes
7. Multi-Media • Slides + audio programme +
packages workbook
• Radio + slide or posters (Radio
vision)
• Film+ posters + workbook (print
materials)
• Any of the above+ group discussion
108
 S. No. Media type Media details Your Instructional
Design in
suggestions
Classroom
• Any of the above+ introductory and
summarizing talks by teacher/ leader of
the group.
8. Multisensory • Tele-conferencing (group discussion
media through telephones)
components • Cable television (localized television
where feedback is possible)
• Satellite television/communication
satellites
• Computer networking
• Computers PCs/Laptops.
• Mobile technology
• Direct to Home Television
• EduSat, SWAYAM, online platform.

The factors which influence the decision of media selection are the following:
Factors affecting Selection of Media
• Content to be taught
The first consideration for selection of media is the nature of the content
to be taught. Content may be in the form of concepts or propositions.
Propositions may be principles, facts, laws, theory, hypotheses,
inferences, etc. For example, the contents of science subject may demand
visual (projected still or motion) media whereas literature/ language
teaching may require different audio media.
• Instructional objectives to be achieved
For achieving instructional objectives pertaining to the cognitive domain
which deals with concept formation and learning of propositions, teacher
may use blackboard/whiteboard, maps, pictures, printed materials, ppt
(power points) slides, television (TV), teleconferencing, computer
conferencing, online videos, internet based resources etc for achieving
instructional objectives pertaining to pertaining to the affective domain
which deals with development of attitudes, interest, opinion etc. film,
audio/ video tape, classroom lecture, demonstration, role play, telephone
teaching, computer conferencing, etc., can be selected. For achieving
instructional objectives for the psychomotor domain which deals with
development of motor skills, the teacher may select perception, guided
response and adaptation, classroom demonstration model, computer
simulation/ animation, online demonstrations etc.
• Learners’ Characteristics
The teacher should be aware of the learners’ characteristics such as their
intellectual ability, maturity level, attitudes, interests, learning style, etc.,
while selecting media. For example, students with visual impairment will
be benefited more by audio media and other assistive devices.
• Availability and Accessibility of media
Any educational communication technology to be selected must be
available for teaching in a classroom. Suppose, a teacher of science wants
to use PowerPoint slides during his/her teaching then there should be
availability of computer and LCD projector in the classroom. 109
Instructional • Cost of Media
Design in Practice
Cost or affordability of technology is an important consideration in media
selection. The objectives of a given instructional task may be achieved by
using different technologies which are available in the institution. But, the
teacher has to take decision pertaining to the availability different media
in the institution.
• User Friendliness and Interactivity
The user of any medium must find it easy to operate and handle the
medium. In other words, media to be used should be easy to use.
Interactivity means the ability of the learner to respond to the media and
obtain feedback on the response.
• Effective Communication.
While selecting any medium, one has to consider its components to
communicate the intended message or information effectively. For
example, a teacher while teaching the concept of Dick and Carry model of
instructional design can use an illustration consisting of all the steps of
Dick and Carry model (see figure in Block-2, unit-5), so that the concept
can be communicated effectively.
• Infrastructure Facilities
While selecting any media, the teacher has to ensure that adequate
infrastructure support like table, chair, electricity supply, etc., are
available in the classroom.

16.7.6 Media and Method Integration

A teacher intends to achieve several instructional objectives formulated for a
topic which is to be transacted during a period of 30 to 40 minutes in a
classroom. Therefore, while transacting content, the teacher can integrate
different media to achieve the instructional objectives (see Table 16.5,
Classification of Media).

Check Your Progress 3

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit
1. Identify the steps involved in the planning of a lesson for a class.
……………………………………………………………………………
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2. What are the factors to be kept in mind for selection of media?
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110
 Instructional
16.8 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE LESSON PLAN Design in
Classroom
After a lesson plan is prepared, a teacher uses it for the transaction of learning
experiences in the classroom. The success of classroom instruction depends
upon the effective implementation of a lesson plan for the implementation of
a lesson plan. There are three major phases. These are:
i. Introduction/warm up phase
ii. Development phase
iii. Closing or summing up phase
i) Introduction/Warm Up Phase
This phase prepares the students to receive the new learning experiences.
Students are prepared to get engaged in the teaching-learning process. The
teacher checks the entry behaviour of the students by asking a few
questions or posing a problem to the students. For example, if you intend
to introduce the concept of ‘Distance Education’, you may ask them,
“what do you know about distance education? Do you have any exposure
to distance education system?” You also need to relate the new topic to
the topic earlier taught and capture the attention of the learner and motivate
them to be attentive. You can achieve this objective with the help of the
following means:
• By posing an observation apparently contrary to the common
expectation
• By narrating a real life episode connected to the topic
• By performing an experiment
• By producing evidence which questions the previous understanding
of an epoch, a practice, a phenomenon, etc.
• By posing a problem based on the previous knowledge of the students
which require further information for them to solve it and that will be
provided through the teaching-learning process.
ii) Development Phase
This phase constitutes the main part of the implementation of the plan. A
teacher sequences the content of the topic into certain teaching points
which are associated with relevant teacher activities and learner activities.
Moreover, the teacher builds into her teaching activities formative
evaluation in the form of assessment question after a section of the topic
is presented. The teacher uses communication using to communicate the
message. The teacher at this phase uses of a number of pedagogic skills.
These are skills of using analogies, illustration, explaining, use of
approximate body language, use of questions of different kinds – probing,
open-ended, divergent and convergent, incorporating anecdotes and
stories, varying the stimuli, use of humour and other skills.
iii) Closing or Summing up phase
Effective implementation of a lesson plan involves an effective closing or
summing-up of the lesson. After the end of the development phase, the
teacher needs to summarise the lesson by recapitulating major teaching-
learning points covered in the lesson. his can be done by writing them on
111
Instructional the chalkboard or presenting them through slides. The teacher needs to
Design in Practice
ensure that the objectives of the teaching have been achieved. The present
topic may also be related to the next topic to be taught in the immediate
future. The teacher also gives students assignments based on the teaching
points covered. The assignments could be a project, exercises and so on.
Check Your Progress 4
Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit
Describe the major phases for implementation of a lesson plan in a classroom.
…………………………………………………………………………………
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16.9 LET US SUM UP

The main focus of this unit is on designing classroom instruction. Design of
classroom activities constitutes an important component of the instructional
process. Instructional design involves four levels, namely, course, lesson
instructional event and transactional level. Course design involves designing
of units which will be transacted during the course of an academic session.
Unit design is an integrated plan for instruction which is to be imparted for a
period comprising several days. It includes several lessons that aim to achieve
a common set of goals and objectives. The major steps involved in planning a
lesson are content analysis, formulation of instructional objectives, selection
of instructional methods, selection of media, and selection of evaluation
strategies. Implementation of the lesson plan involves three major phases;
introduction/warm-up phase, development phase and closing phase.

16.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE

ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1. Different components of instructional environment in a classroom are:
teacher, learners, learning experiences, method, media, and assessment
strategies. (Please see section 16.3.)
2. The four levels of instructional design are: Course level, lesson level,
instructional event level and transactions level. (Please see section 16.4)
Check Your Progress 2
Please use the format of a lesson or topic plan provided in Table 16.4
112
Check Your Progress 3 Instructional
Design in
1. Please see section 16.6 for identifying the steps involved in planning a Classroom
lesson for a classroom.
2. The factors for deciding selection of media include contents, to be taught,
instructional objectives to be achieved, learners characteristics,
availability and accessibility of learning resources, cost of the media,
user friendliness and interactivity, effective communication,
infrastructure and facilities.
Check Your Progress 4
The major phases for implementation of a lesson plan in a classroom are:
introduction/warm up phase, development phase and closing or summing up
phase. (Please see section 16.8)

113
Instructional
Design in Practice UNIT 17 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN IN
TRAINING*
Structure
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Learning Outcomes
17.3 Concept of Training and Phases of Designing Training Programmes
17.4 Analysis Phases
17.4.1 Context Analysis
17.4.2 Job Analysis
17.4.3 Task Analysis
17.4.4 Gap Analysis
17.4.5 Cost Analysis
17.4.6 Trainee Analysis
17.5 Design Phase
17.5.1 Preparing Training Objectives
17.5.2 Organising Training Content
17.5.3 Designing Instructional Strategies
17.5.4 Selecting Training Methods and Media
17.5.5 Designing Assessment Strategies
17.5.6 Course Description: Training Plan, Lesson Plans
17.6 Development Phase
17.6.1 Preparation of Presentation
17.6.2 Preparation of Activities, Tests, etc.
17.6.3 Preparation of Instructional Materials
17.6.4 Preparation of the Training Site
17.7 Implementation Phase
17.7.1 Administrative Coordination
17.7.2 Conduct of Training
17.8 Evaluation Phase
17.9 Let Us Sum Up
17.10 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

17.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit 16, we have discussed instructional design in classrooms.
The major steps involved in designing classroom activities are content
analysis, formulation of instructional objectives, and selection of instructional
methods, media and evaluation strategies. In this unit, we will discuss the

*
114 Adapted with permission from source: Course MES-056 Educational Technology, Block-2:
Instructional Design, School of Education, IGNOU New Delhi, pp. 89-116.
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Instructional an effective way to provide training to staff without moving them away from
Design in Practice
their job. However, at times, staff may be taken out of their work
environment to provide necessary training in the form of some apprenticeship
training or participation in a seminar/conference. You may be aware that
training activities can be organized for individuals (on one-to-one basis) and
for groups in an institution.
To make any training programme relevant for the target group and ultimately
effective, it is necessary that a systematic approach be adopted for the whole
process. This implies that training follows a series of events in a cyclical
manner. These are: preparing a training plan, training design, implementation
and evaluation. Following the training cycle would help you not only to
design a good training programme but also to achieve the desired results.
The systematic approach is also a guide for you to perform the activities
systematically.
As you may be aware, a training design of a training programme is based on
the actual needs and training objectives. The training design should also
specify methods and materials, evaluation including items to measure
trainees learning outcomes. The ADDIE approach is one of the commonly
used approaches in training programmes. It has five phases for designing
which are analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. Let
us now examine these approaches in the following sessions.

17.4 ANALYSIS PHASE

In the ADDIE approach, analysis is the first phase that has to be done in a
systematic way. As you know, analysis is the process of breaking a complex
task into small and simple components. Hence, there is analysis and
specification of what the trainees need to know, to perform better. This phase
has six aspects. Let us discuss each aspect in detail.

17.4.1 Context Analysis

As an instructional designer, you should be aware of the environment/
context, where training is being planned. It is important to understand the
customers or the client (learners) for whom you are planning a training
programme. Therefore, it is necessary that the instructional designer has
deep understanding of the actual working context and should understand the
scope and boundaries of operations within which the training problem exist.
During context analysis, we are actually interested in three aspects: the task,
the trainee/employee and the support system for training. We will discuss the
first two in details in the subsequent sub-section. The support system for
training includes the management’s commitment to training, organizational
policy to train people, and resources to conduct training. Resources include
financial commitment, trainers, training facilities and equipment. If we have
an understanding of our role as an instructional designer and if our
relationship with the client (learner) is good, we will be in a better position to
design relevant training solutions.

17.4.2 Job Analysis

An organization normally has many functionaries. For example, a distance
education institute has a Head, teachers, administrative staff, and so on. Each
116 of these functionaries has certain activities/tasks to perform. In most
organization ‘job descriptions’ are already available. which are an outcome Instructional
Design in
of job analysis. However, if you have to prepare a ‘job analysis’ then the Training
following tasks or activities need to be done:

• Ask experts/master trainers/instructors to list the critical tasks;

• Ask employees/workers to list what they do;
• Observe people doing their work; and
• Talk to supervisors of an organization and prepare a list.
Using a mix of all the above approaches, we can list the following steps in
job analysis. These are:
1. Identify precisely the job to be analysed. Sometimes a job may include
many tasks, and thus we need to make an inventory of all jobs, and
undertake analysis of each one of them.
2. List all tasks required to perform the job.
3. Verify the list by discussing with 8-10 employees.
4. Determine how frequently each task is performed by asking 8-10
workers/supervisors to rate the task using a scale such as:
(a) Seldom (b) Occasionally (c) Monthly (d) Weekly (e) Daily.
5. Determine the relative importance of each task by asking people to rate
in the following scale:
(a) Marginally important, (b) Moderately important, (c) Important,
(d) Extremely important.
6. Assess the difficulty level of learning the task by asking the
workers/supervisors to rate them according to the following scale:
(a) Easy, (b) Moderately difficult, (c) Difficult, (d) Very difficult.
7. Prepare the total score for each of the tasks listed. The higher the score
of a task, the more important the task is for training.
8. Discuss the results of the analysis with key people in the training system.
17.4.3 Task Analysis
As mentioned in the above sub-section 17.4.2, a task is a function that a job
holder performs. Tasks have a definite beginning and end; they are
observable and are usually written in a way that shows highly specific
actions. Thus, a task always has an action verb attached to it. The process of
breaking down a task into consecutive steps or components is called task
analysis. Task analysis helps in formulating training objectives and
identifying elements and/or procedures involved in training programmes.

17.4.4 Gap Analysis

During the gap analysis stage, the performance problems are ascertained.
The gap between desired performance and actual performance is the
performance problem as shown below:
Desired Actual Performance
– =
performance performance problem
117
Instructional Undertaking context analysis, job analysis and task analysis is only half the
Design in Practice
information. Not all trainers/instructional designers carry out job and task
analysis, as they receive the list of jobs and tasks required for performing
efficiently. But, it is essential to undertake gap analysis before designing
training, and thus it is a mandatory step in the analysis phase. The task
analysis report becomes the beginning of the gap analysis. In gap analysis,
we are concerned with the actual performance of the employees and hence
gathering accurate data becomes very important. We can rate individual
employees if we directly know their work and/or observe their performance.
Otherwise, we can interview their supervisors and can also ask the trainees to
rate themselves. We can also develop tests or performance measures to
assess how the trainee performs in each of the tasks. Steps involved in gap
analysis are as follows:
1. List the steps involved in a task in order to priority scores (highest to
lowest).
2. Rate each step of the component by a mixed group of workers and
supervisors to determine proficiency level using the following scale:
(a) Poor (b) Average (c) Good (d) Very good (e) Excellent
3. Summarize the individual responses to express an aggregate average.
4. Review proficiency ratings and identify low scores as performance gaps.
5. Determine the cause of the gap and whether it can be addressed through
training.
6. Discuss the results of the gap analysis with key people in the training
activity.
From this discussion, we can infer that gap analysis involves benchmarking
the current performance against the desired performance. We may be
assessing skills, knowledge, and attitude of the target group vis-a-vis the
organizational goal and opinion of trainees regarding the current
performance. The gap between the ‘current state’ and the ‘desired state’ gives
us the ‘needs’ for the training curriculum.

17.4.5 Cost Analysis

This is one of the most important steps in the analysis phase. Often cost
analysis is not considered but it should be considered at the beginning itself.
Once we identify the problem for which training is required, we should
estimate the cost involved in conducting the training. This should be as
accurately analysed as possible. It is a kind of budget preparation for the
training programme. Once the cost of the training is estimated, we should
compare it with the cost involved in not solving the performance problem.
Also at this stage, we should consider different options available for training
such as on the job training, off the job training (in-house training/outside
organization training), online training, distance learning, etc., to ascertain
cost effectiveness. Some of the major heads involved in cost analysis of a
training programme are: participant’s salary, loss due to their non-
participation in work place due to participation in training, classroom
overheads, administrative support, instructor cost, cost of materials and
supplies, cost of equipment, transportation, etc.

118
 Instructional
17.4.6 Trainee Analysis Design in
Training
Some training specialists consider this as ‘audience analysis’. For
instructional designers, it is important to know the anticipated number of
trainees, where they are located, their educational and experiential
background, their career level, age, etc. As discussed in the previous unit,
Heinich, et al (1999) emphasized the ASSURE model, which indicates the
need for the understanding of the general characteristics of the learners, their
specific entry behaviour and learning styles. Information about the age,
educational level and experience of the learners can help in designing training
programmes.
Understanding the entry level behaviour of the trainee in terms of their
knowledge, skills and attitudes is important for pitching the training
programme at an appropriate level. In fact, the gap analysis gives an idea
about the entry level behaviour of the trainee. Training programmes
conducted at the level of entry behaviour have to be designed in such a way
that there is a gain for the learners. Also, if the training programme is at the
level of post-training behaviour of those who have already undergone the
programme, it will result in a learning gap.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
Discuss the analysis phase in instructional design for training.
…………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………

17.5 DESIGN PHASE

The design phase follows the outcomes of the analysis phase. The outcomes
of the design phase are ‘training plan’ and ‘lesson plan’. The design phase
consists of the following activities:
1) Prepare training objectives
2) Organize training content
3) Design instructional strategies
4) Select training methods and media
5) Design assessment strategies
We will discuss these activities in detail.

17.5.1 Preparing Training Objectives

What is the basis of objectives? For a training programme, the objectives
emerge from the gap analysis carried out at the analysis phase. The results of
gap analysis tell us about the areas in which training is required. However, it
is important that these tasks and gaps are stated in such a way that they are 119
Instructional able to be reflected in the objectives of the training. These stated objectives
Design in Practice
are statements that a trainee will be able to do at the end of a training session
or training programme. According to Tim Wentling (1993), training
objectives are:

• Help the trainer develop and conduct training that provides the trainee
with the knowledge and skills they need;
• Provide the trainees with a clear understanding of what they will be
expected to do as a result of the training; and
• Help both the trainer and the trainee evaluate the learning that has taken
place through instruction.
According to Mager (1990), objectives have three components. These are:

• Performance: What the learners will do to indicate that they have learnt?
It is usually written using action verbs.
• Conditions: The circumstances under which the learners are expected to
perform; and
• Criteria: The standard that defines acceptable performance.
Let us discuss these above components with the help of an example.
After the training, the trainees should be able to copy a table from a
spreadsheet and paste it onto a word processor in 2 minutes without
consulting the manual.
Performance (action verb): Copy, paste
Condition: Without consulting the manual
Criteria: To be completed in 2 minutes

17.5.2 Organize Training Content

The process of organizing training content actually starts at the time of job
and task analyses. The priority of the content sequence is drawn from the
training need analysis. However, it is possible that the training may follow a
different pattern due to the demand of the subject and/or the profile of the
target group. The sequence of the topics in a training programme is very
important because of its impact on the learning process.
According to Tim Wentling (1993), the guiding principles for organising the
content in a training programme are:

• Use job performance order.

• Move from simple to complex.
• Move from known to unknown.
• Move from general to specifics.

17.5.3 Designing Instructional Strategies

This stage requires us to specify (i) the appropriate method to help trainees
achieve the objectives; and (ii) the media and technology that can be utilized
120
in the training to facilitate the achievement of the objectives by the trainees. Instructional
Design in
Traditionally, we have used the following methods in training situations. Training

• Lecture/presentations: Usually an oral presentation by the trainer that

gives all the trainee equal opportunity to see and hear information. It can
accommodate large group size, but the learners are only passive recipient
of information. Some lectures also involve questions-answers at the end,
making it little more interactive.
• Discussion: The trainer leads a small group of learners and facilitates
their involvement in critical thinking, reflection and discussion.
• Demonstration: The trainer shows a correct process of doing a task.
• Tutorials: These are used to provide maximum individualised
instructions and involve a high degree of learner participation. It is
mostly remedial in nature.
• Problem solving: It is a scientific method of enquiry where learners use
previously mastered content to sharpen their skill of decision-making,
analysis and evaluation.
• Games: These are highly interactive process of learning that appeals to
both young and old alike. They provide opportunities for skill practice
and improve communication amongst the participants.
• Role play: In the instructional settings, trainees are given real life
situation and asked to perform as they would do if it were in real life
event. The performances by various players bring forth the issues for
open discussion, where an audience can attempt to apply the implication
of the performances.
• Case study: The case study is a problem solving exercise where detailed
account of an event or a series of event is given. Based on the existing
knowledge, the trainees read, analyse, interpret the case and provide
solutions that can be discussed in group settings to arrive at the best
possible solution to a problem.
In training situations, we use a variety of media such as video, audio, slides
or power point presentations, and models. Apart from these, printed text in
the form of handouts, readings and self-learning lessons are also commonly
used.

17.5.4 Selecting Training Methods and Media

For each of the content areas identified and the objectives listed, we need to
identify the most appropriate methods and media to be used. The nature of
the objective (knowledge/skill/attitude); and the complexity of the content
determine the trainer, ability to use a method and medium; the group size of
the trainees; and availability of training equipment and facilities are also be
important. Tables 17.1, 17.2 and 17.3 give some examples of matching
methods and media to objectives, group size, and content respectively.

121
Instructional Table 17.1: Types of Objectives Versus Methods and Media
Design in Practice

Objectives Methods and Media

Knowledge Printed handouts/lessons, lecture, audio programmes, video
based programmes, case studies, tutorials.
Skill-based Demonstration, video programmes, problem solving
exercises, instructional games.
Attitude-based Field visits, role playing, case studies, videos, games,
discussion.

Table 17.2: Group Size Versus Methods and Media

Group Size Methods and Media

3-15 people Demonstration, discussion groups, role plays, study
visits, case studies, games, tutorials
More than 15 Lecture, video, audio
people

Table 17.3: Nature of Content Versus Methods and Media

Nature of content* Methods and

Media
Conceptual Printed text,
A group of objects, symbols, ideas or events that are lectures, problem
defined by a single word or term, share common features, solving,
and vary only in irrelevant features. discussion
tutorials
Factual Printed handout,
Unique, specific information in the form of a statement lecture, audio
or date or picture of specific objects. programmes
Process Demonstration,
A flow of events that describes how something works. It video, audio
is not necessarily a task done by one person; many programmes
people or an organization may be involved.
Procedure Audio, video
A sequence of steps to be followed by one individual to programmes,
accomplish a task or make a decision. A procedure demonstration
contains directions or procedural tasks and contains
actions that are done the same way each time.
Principle Games, printed
Directions for tasks that provide employees with text, lectures,
guidelines for action. Employees must adopt the tutorials,
guidelines to various job situations. Principles require discussion
employees to use judgment and discretion when they
apply them.
*(Source: Cisco Systems (2003) Reusable Learning Object Authoring Guidelines:
How to build modules, lesson and topics? available: www.cisco.com.)

122
 Instructional
17.5.5 Design Assessment Strategies Design in
Training
You will recall that Assessment refers to the process of obtaining information
about a learner’s learning, programme and achievement, i.e., what and how
well has the learner learnt by the end of a course and assigning a value to the
performance.
In the design phase, we should plan for assessment of learner performance.
To make the training successful, and facilitate the trainee to learn the content,
we undertake different activities. But how can we know that the learners
have achieved the objectives set in the beginning? You need to plan to
measure achievement of objectives by the learners by designing an
appropriate assessment strategy. Apart from helping the trainer to know
whether learners have achieved the objectives, assessment strategies have the
following purposes:
1. To emphasize important content;
2. To facilitate learning of training content;
3. To identify area of trainee’s weakness at the end of the training;
4. To assist in the evaluation of training; and
5. To aid in curriculum revision.
At this stage, you need to develop a ‘blueprint’ (Ref. Unit 13, Block-3) on
how the assessment will be conducted. We have discussed in detail about
assessment and different types of assessment in Unit-15, Block-03.

Preparation of assessment blueprint

The blueprint is also called table of specification, where we include course
content/objectives of the training plan and specify their relative weight, and
list the type of tests, type of questions, and number of questions that can be
asked to cover the entire curriculum. An example of a table of specification
is given in Table 17.4.

Table 17.4: Table of Specification (for objective type test items)

Relative K/S/A No. of Total items

weight questions
Session 1 35%
Objective 1 K 5
Objective 2 A 3
Objective 3 S 6 14
Session 2 20%
Objective 1 K 3
Objective 2 K 5 8
Session 3 45%
Objective 1 S 3
Objective 2 K 6
Objective 3 K 6
Objective 4 A 3 18
Note: This is an example, for a training programme with 3 sessions.
123
Instructional The assignment of relative weight is not an arbitrary task. Rather, it is based
Design in Practice
on the importance given at the task analysis level. Similarly, the Knowledge-
Skill-Application (KSA) analysis is also taken from the specification of the
objectives. But how many questions is to be asked is more or less decided by
the trainer or instructional designer on the basis of the analysis.

17.5.6 Course Description: Training Plan, Lesson Plans

At the end of the design phase, you will have the ‘course description’ of the
training programme, a ‘training plan’; along with ‘lesson plans’ for each of
the sessions.
A typical course description or an overview of the training course will
include the following:

• Course title
• Purpose of the course
• Objectives of the course
• Training methods
• Target group/audience
• Venue of training
• Duration and schedule
• Trainer/Resource Person
• Logistical arrangements including accommodation, travel, fees, cost
analysis etc.
The above information is usually covered in the marketing brochure of the
training programme.
A ‘training plan’ is a schedule of activity of the training described session-
wise with the following information for all sessions.

• Session number
• Session title/topic
• Session objectives
• Methods suggested for the session
• Assessment strategy
• Duration, timing and date
• Name of the trainer (s)/Resource Persons
Lesson plans are prepared for each of the training sessions. Normally, lesson
plans are prepared by respective trainers. A typical lesson plan contains all
the information relevant to a particular session. However, it goes beyond this
information and outlines the step-by-step strategies to be adopted by the
instructor. Thus, in the lesson plan the topics to be covered is broken down
into small chunks and how the specific chunk will be presented is described
with time estimates and resources needed to perform the instruction.
124
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Instructional
Design in Practice
17.6.2 Preparation of Activities, Tests, etc.
Learner activities in a training situation include all that a trainee does during
a training session to learn apart from listening to the presentation and taking
notes. Even a discussion can be considered as an activity. Role plays, case
studies, and tests are all activities that the trainees perform in the course of a
training programme. As instructional designers, it is our role to design the
activities listed in the training plan/lesson plan, and state clearly what is
expected of the participants.

17.6.3 Preparation of Other Instructional Materials

Apart from your presentation for which you may have to do a little research,
the training plan might also have indications of the use of a variety of
learning materials such as a case study, an audio programme, a video
programme, some extra reading, etc. Thus, in the development phase, we are
concerned with obtaining appropriate materials for the training programme.
It involves three activities: (i) selecting available materials; (ii) modifying
existing materials; and (iii) designing new materials. The primary focus here
is ‘not to reinvent the wheel’. So, if a video programme that suits your need,
there is no need to spend time and money to re-create another one? It is
always prudent to get the copyright permission and use it in your own
programme. While selecting the training materials, we should ask the
following questions:

• Does it match participants’ requirements?

• Is it good in terms of technical quality?
• How current it is?
• Is it clear and to the point?
• Is it free from objectionable bias and advertising?
• Is there any evidence of prior effectiveness?

17.6.4 Preparation of the Training Site

Before the training starts, you should make necessary arrangements in the
place where training will be conducted. The training room should have
adequate ventilation, suitable lighting, and comfortable setting. An ideal
training room should have adjustable furniture, so that the sitting plan can be
designed as per the needs of the group. Table 17.5 shows some of the
commonly used sitting plans with their functional properties. You should
also check the power connection in the room and check whether all the
necessary equipments are in working condition.
Table 17.5: Sitting Plan in a Training Room

• Large number of people can be

accommodated depending on the size of the
hall
• High trainer control
• Reduces interaction
Conference Session
126
 Instructional
• Allows discussion and interaction Design in
• Small group work relatively easy to conduct Training
with movement of chairs
• Trainer can move around easily

U-shape
• Useful for small group work
• Trainer can take any position
• Sometimes, this also becomes a round
shape/table arrangement

Square shape
• Emphasize more group work and less by
trainer presentation
• Highly informal atmosphere, mostly used in
lunch/dinner presentations
• Trainer is essentially a facilitator who moves
from table to table

Banquet style

(Source: STRIDE Handbook-15, Staff Training and Development in Open and

Distance Education, pp. 90)

Check Your Progress 3

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
What are the different seating plans that can be used in a training room?
Describe with the help of illustrators.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

17.7 IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

Any amount of planning in terms of analysis, design and development will go
in vain if you as the trainer fail to implement the plan or conduct the training
in the way it was originally designed. Though, you should keep scope for
improvement and modification at the implementation stage, it would be 127
Instructional better to adhere to the plan as far as possible. The implementation phase has
Design in Practice
two aspects: (i) administrative coordination of the training; and (ii) actual
conduct of the training sessions.

17.7.1 Administrative Coordination

This is primarily the responsibility of the training department and covers all
necessary activities necessary for running the training programme. Well
organised training programmes have few problems with regard to:

• Training site, equipment failure

• Accommodation of the participants
• Travel related difficulties
• Communication with the participants and resource persons
• Arrangements for refreshments and lunch breaks; and
• Socialization of the participants.

17.7.2 Conduct of the Training: Some Guidelines

The actual conduct of the training depends on the quality of the trainers
engaged in the activity. There are a large number of guidelines available for
conducting training sessions. But we would like to list a few guidelines for
conducting a training session.
1. Introduce the topic in the best possible way so as to grab the attention of
all the participants.
2. Use pauses effectively
3. Describe the framework of the session, its objectives, etc.
4. Ask questions to facilitate and involve participants and so on the learning
process.
5. Use effective non-verbal communication (e.g., facial expression, body
language and eye contact).
6. Give appropriate feedback to the participants.
7. Try to take along all the participants together.
8. Use training aids appropriately.
9. Help trainee to relate their new learning to work place.
10. Motivate the participants by relating to real-life examples.
11. Ensure that the participants learn, during the sessions and sessions are
not loaded with information.
12. Manage time effectively so as to finish the session on time; and change
in the presentation styles 12-15 minutes.
13. Summarize frequently the main points. Also recapitulate at the end to
help participants internalize the content; and
14. Be creative.

128
 Instructional
17.8 EVALUATION PHASE Design in
Training
“Evaluation is the process for gathering information about the worth or
quality of something as a way of making decisions designed to increase its
worth or quality” (Newby et al., 2000, p. 220). It is the last stage of the
ADDIE approach of instructional design for training. Though it is carried out
at the end, in practice, evaluation is a continuous process that is carried out in
all the other phases as well. The purpose of evaluation is primarily two fold:
(i) to improve the training programme by providing the necessary feedback to
the training system; and (ii) to assess the value of training to the participants
and for the organization. There are two types of evaluations that can be used
for evaluating training programmes. These are as follows:
Formative evaluation: This is concerned with identifying the weaknesses of
the process of the training. That allows us to monitor the progress of the
trainee and make appropriate changes to the training plan to attain the desired
proficiency level. Formative evaluation is also called continuous evaluation.
Summative evaluation: As the term indicates, it is evaluation at the end of
the training programme. Such evaluation can tell us about the worth of a
training programme, though it can also indicate how we can improve the
quality of the training programme and what areas can be improved upon.

Check Your Progress 4

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
1, List five guidelines for conducting a training session.
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
2. What are the two types of evaluation that can be used for evaluating
training programmes?
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………

17.9 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed the ADDIE approach for instructional design
for training. This approach has five phases which include analysis, design,
development, implementation, and evaluation. In the design phase the trainer
is required to develop a training plan which outlines the training objectives,
content, instructional strategies as well as selection of training methods and
129
Instructional media and assessment strategies. The development phase is one in which the
Design in Practice
presentations, activities, other instructional material is prepared along with
the designing of the training sight. In the implementation phase the effort is
made to ensure that all administrative coordination as well as conduct of the
actual training is done smoothly. The last phase is of evaluation where the
objective is to obtain feedback so as to improve the training programme and
measure how valuable it has been to the participants. This involve both
formative and summative evaluation.

17.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE

ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
The analysis phase of training consists of context analysis, job analysis, task
analysis, gap analysis, cost analysis, learner analysis. Please refer to section
17.5 for description of all these phases of analysis.
Check Your Progress 2
1. The methods or instructional strategies used in training situation are:
lecture/presentation, discussion, demonstration, problem solving, role
play and case study. (Please refer to sub-section 17.5.3)
2. Please refer to sub-section 17.5.5
Check Your Progress 3
Please refer to 17.6.4 for the different seating plans. Remember to ensure that
they match the needs of the programme and the trainees.
Check Your Progress 4
1. Please refer to sub-section 17.7.2 and write the guidelines for conducting
training programmes.
2. Please refer to section 17.8 and discuss the formative and summative
evaluation.

130
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Instructional
Design in Practice 18.3 NEED FOR DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONS IN
OPEN AND DISTANCE EDUCATION (ODE)
Heterogeneity in student population, demands careful and systematic
designing of units/courses to cater to individual needs. The open and distance
education learners have different socio-educational backgrounds, experience
and aspirations. So, there is a need for designing instructions in ODE. (Refer
Unit 12, Section 12.3 and Table 12.1)

18.3.1 Characteristics of Open and Distance Education

Learners
Let us now try to understand why there is a need for designing instructional
materials in open distance learning. As you will recall distance education is
different from classroom education. It is a mode of education in which the
teacher and students are placed at a distance from each other. The teaching
process involves self-learning printed material as well as different forms of
technology. These could be audio and video programmes, online
programmes, and web based portals. Learning could be synchronous as well
as asynchronous. The learners who study through distance education
demonstrate their own unique characteristics. This includes diverse
educational backgrounds, different age groups, socio economic backgrounds
as well as geographical dispersion. This heterogeneity amongst learners
places them at different points in the learning cycle. Therefore, the open and
distance learning system provides for flexibilities which includes giving
expanded registration periods of admission, credit accumulation of grades,
examination system that are different so that each learner can attain
‘mastery learning’ at their own pace and place. This system also permits
students to study according to their choice of subjects as well as place and
time. The designing of distance learning materials is distinct because the
learners are self-learners and therefore are autonomous learners. They are
self-directed and formulate their own learning goals. Most learners are
mature and have their own life experiences. This makes distance learners
and their learning habits different from learners of formal education. In
other words, the characteristics of open and distance education learners are:
demographic, diversity, self-motivation, learning factors, subject
background, resource factors etc.
In view of the above, it is necessary that the instructional design in distance
education should be based upon the above characteristic of the distance
learners and the unique features of the open distance education system.

18.3.2 Goals, Aims and Objectives

Before designing any material, it is also necessary to reflect upon the goals
and aims for which the course is being developed. Goals refer to the broad
statements and general education goals that the concerned educational
system follows. The vision and mission of every institution is derived from
educational policy and is reflected in activities aimed to achieve these goals.
The programmes of the institutions are also developed to achieve these
goals. The goals are then reflected in the aims and objectives of the
programme which in turn are reflected in the courses and its curriculum.
There is a close relationship between overall goals and the curriculum of the
132 courses.
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Instructional
Design in Practice Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Describe the concept ‘curriculum’ in your own words.
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
2. Differentiate between curriculum and instruction.
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………

18.4.1 Course Planning and Sequencing the Curriculum

The next most important aspect is of transforming the curriculum into a
programme/course. There are different models that have been adopted by
ODL institutions. But these follow a basic common philosophy i.e. the
philosophy of breaking down the curriculum into small chunks of learning
so that it can be easily handled by the self-learner. Let us now look at the
model followed by IGNOU for course planning. The IGNOU model has the
following components.

• Programme
A programme designates the area of study of a discipline, the study of
which would lead to a qualification. This programme could be a certificate,
diploma or undergraduate or post graduate programme. It could also be an
awareness generation or life enrichment programme.
• Courses
Each programme comprises the sub areas of the overarching programme and
each course takes up a particular theme. Depending upon the level of a
programme, the number of courses would vary. Therefore, a post graduate
degree programme would have more courses as against the certificate
programme. Similarly, the weightage of each course would also depend
upon the number of credits that have been assigned to that particular course.
• Block
The block is the next component of the course and comprises yet another
dimension of the course. Each block may contain 4 to 5 units.
• Units
A unit is a self-contained component of the block that takes up different
learning concepts as identified in the curriculum. A unit in turn is structured
and consists of sections sub-sections which are systematically numbered and
have scope for self-check formative assessment as well as activities to create
interactivity for the self-learners.
134
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According to Freeman (2005), some of the points to be kept in mind while Instructional
Design in
designing the self-assessment tests for the SLM are as follows: Distance
Education
• The items cover the relevant content of the unit
• The items cover the learning outcomes
• The items are appropriate to the study hours allotted to the topic
• The items are appropriate to the learning environment of the learner and
do not need any external resources
• The test items are appropriate to the domain which is being tested
• The items are diagnostic in nature
• The time taken for answering the items is appropriate
• The items allocate a word limit
The unit writer can design different types of self-assessment questions such
as objective type, multiple choice, very short answer, fill in the blanks and
others. Let us see some of the different item formats that can be selected by a
unit writer for assessing the different levels of Bloom’s taxonomy.
Table 18.3: Developing assessment based upon Bloom’s Taxonomy
Level according to Some Action verbs Type of question
Bloom’s Taxonomy (examples)
Knowledge List Fill in the blanks
Define True and false
Recognize Match the following
Label Very short answers
Multiple choice questions
Comprehension Describe True and false
Distinguish Match the following
Explain Short answers
Compare Multiple choice questions
Application Locate Short answer
Apply Application of a principle
Appreciate Demonstrate skills to create
Analysis Analyze Short answer
Discriminate Essay
Utilize Report
Project
Synthesis Generate Short answer
Integrate Essay
Summarize Report
Project
Evaluation Justify Short answer
Interpret Essay
Assess Report
Project

III. Concluding Part

The end of the unit presents the concluding part and here the unit writer
needs to summarize the unit by presenting the main points of the unit. In
addition, this is also the section where the learning that has taken place may
be evaluated. This could be in the form of terminal or global questions that
form the part of the summative assessment. This assessment can be
141
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Instructional 18.8.2 Illustrative Devices
Design in Practice
Illustrative devices are yet another important device to clarify concepts.

Illustrations help to provide guideline for effective use and also attract the
attention of the learner.
They can also to be used as tools to recall the content and draw attention to a
particular learning point. Illustrations also break the monotony of the content
and act as motivational tools for the learner.
Some illustrations provide humour in the content.

Illustrations are particularly useful for learners whose learning style is

visually oriented. The unit writer makes use of any of the following:
• Drawings
• Cartoons
• Photographs

• Icons
• Bullets
• Diagrams
• Tables
• Flow charts/Bar chart
100%
80%
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40%
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20%
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Category Category Category Category
1 2 3 4

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• Graphs
14
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10
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4
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• Maps and Plans

144
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educational implications for designing of Audio/Video materials. Let us also Instructional
Design in
see their educational implications. Distance
Education
1. Mathematical theory: According to Shannon and Weaver (1949) the
communication process is divided into different components that is the
source, transmitter, signal and the receiver. The message is converted into
a signal which is transmitted through a channel to the receiver. The
channel forms the medium that connects the sender to the receiver. This
theory was used in the field of engineering and mathematic but has
substantial educational value, as during the teaching learning process the
teacher forms the sender who has to transmit information/knowledge to
the learner who is the receiver. A teacher may communicate with 25 or 50
or 100 learners. In the case of distance learning these number become
larger. The use of technologies of mass media such as television, radio,
other electronic media form the channel through which educational
content is transmitted to large number in an effective manner.
The educational implications of this theory is that there is a great deal of
information that is passed on by a variety of media and in the case of
distance education where there is a diverse group of learners with
different learning styles, there is high chance of a number of different
media being used. Thus the availability of media helps the learner to
choose what is best suited according to his/her learning style.
2. Information theory: This theory deals with the transfer of the messages
and other information which may be verbal or non-verbal from one
source to another. Here there is also scope for a two-way communication
and therefore it is highly relevant for distance education. Large quantity
of data can be transferred through different channels. There is ample
scope for teaching along with feedback between the teacher and the
learner. The provision for feedback helps in improving the quality of
teaching. The implication of this theory are that due to the scope of
feedback and two-way communication, which is possible through
audio/video programmes, there is a scope for providing immediate
feedback and increasing the level of interaction between the teacher and
learner. This also serves as a stimulus for the learner to continue his/her
learning and stay motivated.
3. Free press theory: According to this theory, a person should be free to
express himself/herself and this freedom of expression is seen as a
fundamental human right. While this theory was essentially aimed at the
freedom of press, it has educational implications. Due to the vast growth
of mass media technology and the freedom of publication through them,
it is necessary to be responsible while communicating in the public
domain. In the case of distance learning where the communication is to a
mass audience, therefore due care must be exercised in the
communication.
4. Social responsibility theory: According to this theory, the media has a
social responsibility and must follow certain principles while printing or
broadcasting. As technology becomes widely used by all sections of
society and learners of all age groups, the need for maintaining self-
regulation by all is important. It is also necessary that responsibility is
demonstrated at all stages of operations, whether it is preparing the
materials, identifying the objectives or interacting with the learner, such
social responsibility has to be demonstrated.
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There is a shift from a text based learning to online learning due to increasing Instructional
Design in
demands for education, training and skills upgrading in open and distance Multimedia
learning.
In the above paragraph, you have come across a few terminologies associated
with ICTs. What is multimedia? It is the combination of media and use of
different types or multiple media i.e., audio, video, graphics, animations and
text in a computer programme.
This unit will help you to learn about interactive multimedia. This unit is
planned to help you to describe the process of developing interactive
multimedia and also to use them effectively in distance teaching-learning
process.
In this unit, we will also focus on instructional design in multimedia,
interaction and interactivity, and how to design an interactive multimedia
(IMM) with the help of ADDIE approach (see Unit 11, of this course MDE-
412, Block-03).

19.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying the unit, you should be able to:
• describe the concept and characteristics of multimedia (IMM);
• compare various modes of IMM in order to select the most appropriate
mode(s) while developing IMM; and
• analyze the steps in the development of IMM with the help of ADDIE
approach.

19.3 WHAT IS MULTIMEDIA?

Multimedia, as the term suggests, is a combination of various media. It is the
use of more than one medium, i.e. audio, video, graphics, animations, and
text in an integrated way. In other words, multimedia means the integrated
use of two or more media.
The term ‘multimedia’ is used differently in different contexts. It can mean
merely a textual document supported with audio/video. Multimedia can also
be interactive. Though, multimedia is a combination of two or more media, it
is not just mixing of these media. Vaughan (1996) uses the term ‘woven
combination’ in the context of multimedia. According to Ravet and Layte
(1997) the quality of a multimedia package depends on what is combined and
how those are combined. The critical factor would be the way in which the
media are made to work together to create an ‘elaborated whole.’ (see section
14.2, Unit 14, Block-03, Course MDE-418: Educational Communication
Technologies). Let us now take a look about the two important terms
associated with multimedia. They are: interactivity and interaction.

19.4 INTERACTIVITY AND INTERACTION

Interactivity is the extent to which one can interact with the context, a
machine/technology, or a teacher/instructor. Interactivity involves active
responding and explicit feedback. In the field of computer, the term
‘interactivity’ is being used across a range of applications. Many a times, it
implies rapid random access, i.e. the facility to navigate the entire platform. 153
Instructional This is considered as the lowest level of interactivity. Interactive learning
Design in Practice
strategies may involve a range of activities to engage the learners. These
include making choices and decisions, composing, taking notes, and making
evaluations and judgments, constructing, drawing and controlling (Allessi &
Trollip, 2001).
In other words, Interactivity is described as methods for exchange of ideas,
views and opinions. It is specific to the content, technology or the electronic
medium. For example, interactive use of a computer in which the student
interact/communicate directly via a keyboard and a screen.
Interaction is described as an event on a method when people communicate
with each other to exchange ideas or information. For example, exchange of
idea in a discussion group, interaction between students, teachers and
academic counsellors.
According to Sims (1997) eight levels of interactivity are:
• Object interactivity (i.e. proactive inquiry) refers to an IMM programme
in which objects (e.g. buttons, people, things) are activated by using a
mouse or other pointing devices. Clicking usually generates a form of
audio-visual response. The functionality of such objects depends on
previous objects encountered, previous encounters with the current
object, or previous instructional performance.
• Linear interactivity (i.e. reactive pacing) refers to functionality which
allows the user to move forwards or backwards through a predetermined
linear sequence of the content. It is often called ‘electronic page-turning’.
• Hierarchical interactivity (i.e. reactive navigation) provides the user with
a predefined set of options from which the user can select a specific path
or structure of accessing the content. The most common example of this
interaction is the main menu where the user returns to select another
option.
• Support interactivity (i.e. reactive inquiry) involves providing the user
with a range of help options and messages, some of which can be very
simple and others quite complex.
• Update interactivity relates to components of the programme that initiate
a dialogue between the user and the computer-generated content. The
programme generates questions or problems to which the user must
respond to.
• Construct interactivity is an extension of update interactivity and
requires the creation of an environment in which the user is required to
manipulate component objects to achieve specific goals.
• Reflective interactivity (i.e. proactive elaboration) refers to text
responses. If n text responses are available to the user there is always the
possibility that the user will require the n+1 answer and the programme
will judge the enquiry as “incorrect”. Reflective interactivity responds by
providing answers recorded by other users and allows the current user to
compare and reflect on their response.
• Hyperlinked interactivity (i.e. proactive navigation) provides access to a
wealth of information that the user is allowed to navigate at will. There
are multiple paths creating a “maze” that the user needs to negotiate in
154 order to resolve a problem.
• Non-immersive contextual interactivity (i.e. mutual elaboration) Instructional
Design in
combines all previous levels of interactivity and extends them into a Multimedia
complete virtual training context. Users are transported into a micro
world that reflects their existing working environment and the tasks they
undertake mirror those of their working environment.
• Immersive virtual interactivity (i.e. mutual elaboration) projects the user
into a complete computer-generated world which responds to individual
movements and actions.
Multimedia is being used in many fields, e.g. business, industry,
advertisement, entertainment, and education. Before discussing about IMM,
let us discuss the role of a computer in the teaching-learning process and for
designing multimedia.
Computer assisted instruction (CAI) is meant for self-learning mode. The
learner interacts with the learning programme developed on a computer.
Thus, CAI is an interactive learning technique whereby a computer is used to
present the instructional material and monitor learning that takes place. CAI
places the student in a conversational mode with a computer which has a
programmed course, which selects the next topic or phase of study according
to previous responses from the student, allowing him/her to progress at a
pace directly related to his/her learning capability. A computer assisted
instruction package can check the level of the entry behaviour of a student
and advise the student accordingly to work in a course.

Check Your Progress 1

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
Discuss any four levels of interactivity components stated by Sims (1997)
while designing a multimedia for distance learners.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

19.5 INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA (IMM)

In the previous section, you have studied eight levels of interactivity. Sims
(1997) discussed interactivity with reference to an IMM programme. In this
section we are presenting the characteristics of IMM. The characteristics of
IMM are two types. They are:
1. IMM as a self-instructional mode
2. IMM as an electronic medium
Let us discuss these two characteristics in detail.

155
Instructional
Design in Practice
19.5.1 IMM as a self-instructional mode
The characteristics of IMM as a self-learning mode are the as follows:

• Specific target group

IMM is developed for a well-defined target group after analyzing
characteristics of that group. Content, language, examples, illustrations,
explanation and also multimedia inputs (e.g. sound effects, animations,
etc.) are designed especially for the defined target group. This, therefore,
is felt relevant and appealing to its users.
• Specific objectives
Terminal objectives as learning outcomes are specified as a first step
towards the development of IMM. It is followed by developing
evaluation tools to assess learning with reference to these objectives.
Defining objectives, thus, ensures reliable learning results.
• Content in small chunks
IMM presents content in the form of small steps at a time. One or more
than one frame presents a small concept and proceeds only after assuring
comprehension of that concept, information or skill. This step-wise
learning helps learners to attain mastery over the content. The content is
sequenced using various maxims of teaching, viz. from simple to
complex, concrete to abstract, etc. which help in better conceptualization
and higher comprehension.
• Learner-controlled and adaptive mode
IMM is a strategy for individualized learning. It can provide optimum
control to the learner. It can be designed in such a manner that
progressing to the next step, moving backward, speed of audio, selection
of modules, selection of multimedia inputs like audio, video,
navigational sequence and even the mode of learning (presentation or
simulation or drilling) can be controlled by the learner. It can be,
therefore, adaptive in addressing several learning styles and modalities.
Some of the learning style and modalities are discussed as follows:
Interactivity and interaction IMM is also an activity oriented towards strategy
seeking frequent and unambiguous response from the learner at every step.
IMM can provide active responses in terms of question-answers, solving
quizzes, puzzles, etc. as other non-computerized material may provide. Apart
from this, IMM can create creative and experiential learning environment
through modelling and simulation mode. So, IMM can reach higher level of
interactivity with the use of technology.
Immediate feedback and reinforcement: Being an electronic device, IMM
provides immediate confirmation of every response of the students. A well-
designed IMM provides corrective feedback to the students which help in
effective learning. Reinforcement techniques with attractive multimedia
strategies enhance the motivation level and the sense of accomplishment at
every step. IMM may also arrange for clues, help, and instructions for
explorations and ultimately reward the student for her/his adventures.
Validated programme: IMM is generally prepared for wider use and,
156 therefore, needs to be validated. IMM also generally covers optimum content
with adequate information, extensive illustrations and wider scope of Instructional
Design in
practice. Empirical validation of IMM assures the accuracy of information. Multimedia

To summarize the above discussion, Interactive Multimedia (IMM) as a self-

instructional mode possesses some characteristics, which are similar to the
characteristics of self-learning units (print) in open learning. They are:

• Specific target audience.

• Behavioural objectives.
• Contents presented in small steps/chunks.
• Content is sequenced using maxims such as from simple to complex,
concrete to abstract for better understanding of students.
• Interactivity/Interactive devices such as activities, question-answers,
quizzes, puzzles are provided at every step.
• IMM provides optimum control to the students. It is designed with
navigation facility, access to sub-modules, selection and speed of
multimedia inputs like audio, video and progressing to the next step.
(source MDE-418, Block-03, Page 75)
• Feedback and reinforcement.
• In IMM, the mode of learning can be controlled by the student.
• The mode of learning are:
Tutorial
Drill and practice
Game
Simulation
Problem solving
Dialogue
Presentation
Check Your Progress 2
Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
Compare the characteristics of IMM with those of self-learning materials
(SLM) in print form. Explain the differences in both the forms.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

157
Instructional
Design in Practice
19.5.2 IMM as an electronic medium
Here, we will discuss three-characteristics that distinguish IMM from other
forms of media used in open and distance education and training. These are
the following:

Automatic and versatile device

A computer is a system having different functions such as data storage,
processing and retrieval of data and automation to make IMM more effective
and efficient. It can be described as automation of the teaching-learning
process which allows for unlimited scope for re-learning, practicing and
instant data retrieval.

Multimedia elements
Multimedia inputs such as graphics, animations, sounds, and video inputs
make IMM motivating which arouse and maintain students’ interest. It can be
more informative and elaborative too. Being a combination of media, IMM
becomes self-explanatory and appealing to more than one sense. It can create
a virtual world for students to design, explore and experiment. For example,
working with microscopic elements, three-dimensional objects, experiments
involving risks (laboratory safety), universal objects, complex, processes, can
be made available through IMM.

Advanced technology
Advanced technologies such as internet, videoconferencing, and digital video
add to the effectiveness of IMM; multimedia CD-ROM can provide easy
access to the wealth of support material such as net-based archives,
museums, databases, reviews, glossary, etc. When combined with web-based
learning, it can also provide for synchronous and asynchronous
communication modes such as discussion forums, e-mail and bulletin boards,
which facilitate on line distance learning.

Check Your Progress 3

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
Discuss the characteristics of IMM as an electronic mode.
…………………….…………………………………………………………...
……………….………………………………………………………………...
………….……………………………………………………………………...
…….…………………………………………………………………………...
…………………….…………………………………………………………...

19.6 DESIGNING OF IMM

Let us now discuss the process of preparation of interactive multimedia. Two
major steps are involved in this process: (i) to prepare an instructional design
(ID); and (ii) to transfer the ID using software. Let us elaborate these aspects.
158
There are many theories and models of instructional design which guide a Instructional
Design in
prospective instructional designer to design IMM. If these models are Multimedia
analyzed, we get five phases which are common to all. These phases are:

• Analyze
• Design
• Develop
• Implement
• Evaluate
This is also known as the ADDIE approach. (see Figure 19.1).

ADDIE APPROACH

Analyze Design Develop Implement

Evaluate

Figure 19.1: The ADDIE approach

(Source: IGNOU Study materials, MES-056, Educational Technology,

Block-4)
Let us discuss each phases of in ADDIE approach in detail and see how an
effective IMM can be developed for students.

19.6.1 Analyze
This is the first step which is very crucial in instructional design. The
designer gets acquainted with the learners as well as the content to be taught,
and prepares the learning objectives. The pertinent questions for this phase
are:

• Who is the audience?

• What do they need to learn?
• What is the budget?
• What are the delivery options?
• What constraints do exist?
• What should the project be completed?
• What will students do to determine their competency?

159
Instructional This set of questions leads to three sub-steps in ‘Analysis’. These are:
Design in Practice
1. Content analysis: For analyzing the content, one may identify the facts,
concepts, procedures, principles from the selected content.
2. Analysis of learner profile: The learner profile may concentrate on the
entry behaviour of the learner in terms of the knowledge base, skills as
well as attitude towards a particular content.
3. Identifying objectives: For preparing objectives the instructional designer
may use Bloom’s Taxonomy or Gagne’s Learning Outcomes or any
other classification of objectives. Specifying objectives using Magerian
theory (i.e. use of Performance, Criteria and Condition) is helpful as
these specifications are measurable and attainable. (see Unit 13, Block 3)
19.6.2 Design
The second phase is that of designing the instruction. This phase has the
following three sub-stages:
1. Selection/preparation of evaluation strategies
2. Development of alternative models
3. Selection of the most appropriate model.
The specific objectives are already prepared in the analysis stage. Now, at
this stage, the designer selects the appropriate evaluation strategies. The
evaluation strategies are criterion referenced and one may use the mastery
learning approach (having criteria like minimum 80% of the mastery by all
learners or at least 80% of the learners).
In order to achieve the stated objectives, other variables like instructional
strategies, instructional media, and other support services will have to be
taken into consideration. There could be many possible combinations; and,
hence, in this stage the instructional designer develops alternative models.
For example, if the objective is that the learner will be able to classify print
and electronic media (see table 16.9 Classification of Media), then this could
be achieved through inclusion of description and examples of different print
and electronic media. Similarly, the instructional media to be used for
particular strategy will also change. The instructional designer will have to
prepare alternative formats using instructional media. After developing the
alternative formats, the designer selects the one which is more appropriate,
and more feasible. This format is then developed fully in the third stage,
which is as follows.
19.6.3 Develop
This is the crux of the instructional design for interactive multimedia. The
following sub-stages are generally used in the process of developing the
product which had been selected at the end of the second phase of ‘design’.
• Detailed content analysis and content generation
• Preparation of concept map
• Preparation of achievement tests
• Preparation of entry behaviour test
• Selection of appropriate mode of IMM
• Selection of instructional strategy
• Selection of media
• Story board writing
160 • Preparation of prototype on computer
The content is analyzed thoroughly for all the categories (e.g. facts, concepts, Instructional
Design in
principles, and procedures (see Unit-6,Block-2) as suggested by David Multimedia
Merrill (1983) or other learner characteristics such as: verbal information,
intellectual skills, motor skills, cognitive strategies and attitudes as learning
domains(Unit 12,Block-3) suggested by Gagne (1972). The content is, then,
arranged in a flow showing the relationship of various content points. This
may be shown as a flowchart (see Figure 19.2). The Menu page of the
packages generally shows the available content.
For example, let us take a concept of ‘Communication’ to prepare the flow
chart.
Communication Process

Concept of Nature of Distortion in

Communication Communication process Communication

Need for Simple model of Introduction to distortion

communication communication

Examples of
Components of Osgood and Schram’s distortion
communication Circular model

Characteristics of Model of mass

communication communication

Noise in
communication

General model of
communication

Figure 19.2: The menu and the flow chart showing the contents
(Source: IGNOU Study materials, MES-056, Block-04)

The designer selects the appropriate mode (tutorial, drill and practice or
simulation or a combination of these) suitable to the content and objectives.
He/she takes also care of the following aspects:

Story board writing

The instructional designer then proceeds to write the story board. Story board
is a set of frames along with precise instructions to the multimedia designers.
Here, though the whole content unfolds sequentially frame by frame, the
student need not follow the same sequence. The ‘Menu’ allows the learner to
select the topic or sub-topic or a sub-part as per his/her preference. Most of
the interactive multimedia offers lots of flexibility and control to the learner
in many aspects. 161
Instructional Graphic design
Design in Practice
Once the story the board is complete then it is sent to the team of graphic
designers. By using soft wares like Flash or and Visual Basic the
programmers of graphic designers design the whole package is designed. For
design of graphics in IMM, see Figure 19.3

Process of Communication

General Model of Communication

Noise
Person or System Person or System B
A Information Destination
Transmitter Signals Receiver
source, Sander, Receiver
channel channel
Encoder Decoder

Noise

Interpreter Interpreter

Noise
Decoder Encoder
Receiver Channel Transmitter
Noise

DECODER:
If the signal system is known to the receiver, he/she tries to perceive the message. The
message is interpreted by him/her. This is DECODING

MENU II> Quit

Figure 19.3: Graphics in IMM

(Source: IGNOU Study materials, MES-056, Block 4)
Review
At the end of this phase the prototype of IMM is ready to be validated. Two
types of processes are generally used for validation; one is establishing
content validity, and the second is field or pilot testing.
Development of IMM is a team effort, and during the design phase the
subject matter expert is a member in the team. But once the package is ready,
it is reviewed by the content experts as well as graphic experts. This process
of reviewing points out the weaknesses in the package and provides feedback
for further improvement. The improvements based on the feedback are made
before field testing is conducted.

Field testing
The pilot test of the multimedia based course takes place before the official
implementation. It provides the teaching-learning specialists a final chance
to review the course prior to its official launch.
The subject matter experts must ensure that the course materials are accurate
and complete. However, clear instructions should be provided to locate a
learning activity. Students who learn the multimedia course material provide
162
candid feedback.
Additionally, at the end of the course, you can measure how well the pilot Instructional
Design in
course’s learners have achieved the courses learning objectives. Pilot testing Multimedia
is, thus conducted on a small group of learners from the target population.
Their feedback as well as achievement on the post-test helps the designer to
make necessary modifications in the package. After this process the package
is ready for use.
19.6.4 Implement
The implementation phase refers to the actual delivery of the instruction. The
purpose of this phase is the effective and efficient delivery of instruction.
This phase must promote the students’ understanding of material, support
their mastery of objectives, and ensure their transfer of knowledge from the
instructional setting to the job. The instructional strategies which looked
good during the ‘development’ stage may show some drawbacks during the
stage of implementation. One has to be more flexible in using the courseware
and making meaningful observations. This phase helps to refine the
courseware further.
19.6.5 Evaluate
Evaluation is a very essential component of the development process of
IMM. There are two types of evaluation: Formative Evaluation and
Summative Evaluation. In every phase of multimedia preparation, there
should be formative evaluation.
Formative evaluation
It is done during each step of the ADDIE approach so as to improve the
quality of each step. The result of the formative evaluation of each phase
leads the designer back to a previous phase. The end product of one phase is
the starting product for the next phase.
Summative evaluation
It only occurs after the package is launched. When the IMM package is
launched, it is not the end of the process. The ADDIE approach requires a
final review too. During the evaluation phase, the specialist measures how
well the package achieved its goals.
Kirkpatrick (1996) presented a four-level model of evaluation (see Unit 15,
Block-03) that has been used to evaluate the design products and training
programme. The four levels of evaluation model can be used to judge a
multimedia package also. These levels are:
• Level One: Reaction
• Level Two: Learning
• Level Three: Behaviour
• Level Four: Results
The following questions can be asked to collect information for a multimedia
package. These are:

• Do the learners like the package?

• Do the learners achieve the learning objectives at the end?
• Do the learners change their behaviours in the workplace?
• Does the course help the company achieve its business goals? 163
Instructional For some questions, it’s fairly easy to collect information. You can find out
Design in Practice
the learners’ opinions about the course through a short survey immediately
after the course is launched. A pre-test and post-test analysis can suggest how
well learners achieved the learning objectives. However, it takes more time
and effort to measure changes in workplace behaviours and improvement
towards business goals. In both cases, you can’t measure these results
immediately. You want to measure the long-term improvements rather than
the immediate results. Therefore, the evaluation phase can extend for months.
Let us summarize the phases, tasks and output components that constitute the
instructional design for multimedia using ADDIE approach in a tabular form.
These are as follows:

Phases Tasks Output

Analysis: • Need assessment • Learner profile
The process of defining • Problem • Description of constraints
what is to be learnt identification • Needs, problem statement
• Task analysis • Task analysis
Design: • Write objectives • Measurable objectives
The process of • Develop test items • Instructional strategy
specifying how it is to • Plan instruction • Prototype specifications
be learnt
• Identify resources
Development: • Work with • Storyboard
The process of authoring producers • Script
and producing the • Develop workbook, • Exercises
materials flowchart,
• Computer assisted
programme
instruction
Implementation: • Teacher training • Student comments, data
The process of installing • Try-out
the project in the real
world context
Evaluation: • Record time data • Recommendations
The process of • Interpret test results • Project report
determining the • Survey of students • Revised prototype
adequacy of the
instruction • Revise activities

Check Your Progress 4

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
Discuss the ADDIE phases used for designing multimedia.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
164
 Instructional
19.7 LET US SUM UP Design in
Multimedia
In this Unit we discussed various characteristics of interactive multimedia.
Teachers, course writers and educators should make use of appropriate
multimedia courseware in open and distance learning. We have discussed
different characteristics of IMM courseware. This would help you to design
an IMM and also make a choice in your selection of media components.
As a course writer you may be interested in developing IMM by yourself. We
have said that the development of IMM is a team work. You, as a course
writer would definitively play a responsible role. i.e. that of Instructional
Designer in the team. In this unit we have tried to give you an overview of
the whole process of the development of IMM through an approach called
ADDIE. You may devise your own mechanism of developing IMM for the
subject area you prefer to develop for the specific courses/programme or
different level of students.

19.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE

ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
The four levels of interactivity are object interactivity, linear, hierarchical &
reflect.
Check Your Progress 2
Please see sub-section 19.5.1.
Check Your Progress 3
The characteristics are automatic and versatile device, multimedia elements,
and advanced technology (Please see sub-section 19.5.2).
Check Your Progress 4
The phases are analyze, design, develop, implement and evaluate (Please see
sub-section 19.6.1).

165
Instructional
Design in Practice UNIT 20 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN IN E-
LEARNING
Structure
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Learning Outcomes
20.3 What is e-Learning?
20.4 Designing e-Learning Courses
20.5 Phases of Designing e-Learning Courses
20.5.1 Analysis
20.5.2 Design
20.5.3 Development
20.5.4 Implementation
20.5.5 Evaluation
20.6 Rapid Instructional Design and Rapid e-Learning
20.7 Let Us Sum Up
20.8 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

20.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 19 of this Block, you have gone through the phases of ADDIE
approach for preparing interactive multi-media. The five phases i.e. analyze,
design, develop, implement and evaluate, are also used in designing e-
Learning courses.

Instructional design is a systematic process to planning and producing

effective instructional materials. It is based on theories of learning and
instructions and ensures the quality of instruction. Instructional design offers
a blueprint for course designers to shape learning content and create the
conditions for improved performance and effective transfer of knowledge.
The e-Learning courses need to be designed to stimulate learners to integrate
and coordinate required skills, knowledge, and attitudes in such a way that
these can be transferred to real-life conditions without the help of a teacher.

This unit is designed to help you apply the phases of designing to the creation
of e-Learning courses. The Unit begins by giving an overview of e-Learning
and its features. It explains the e-Learning design process, using the ADDIE
approach of instructional design (Ref. Unit 11, Block-3), which provides a
systematic, step-by-step approach to designing and then improving effective
and objectives-based instruction. The importance of reusable learning objects
and its design process for creating e-courses are also elaborated. The unit
ends with a discussion on rapid instructional design and rapid e-learning.

166
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Instructional • Features of e-Learning
Design in Practice
E-learning has definite benefits over classroom instruction. The most
obvious are the flexibility and the cost savings benefits that results from
not having to travel or spend excess time away from work. These
features are:
• Self-paced
• Self-directed
• Anytime-anywhere learning
• Faster-learning
• Less-expensive
• Collaborative learning
Let us discuss these features in detail.
• E-learning is self-paced and gives students a chance to speed up or slow
down as necessary. This feature takes care of the individual differences
which is not possible in traditional classroom.
• E-learning is self-directed, allowing students to choose content and tools
appropriate to their differing interests, needs, learning styles and skill
levels. Most of the e-Learning courses are developed keeping in mind the
learning theories where the focus is on the student.
• Anytime anywhere learning feature of e-Learning has revolutionised the
training world. In e-Learning geographical barriers are eliminated,
opening up broader education options. As e-Learning is available via the
Internet, one can access courses anytime, anywhere that has Internet
access. The 24/7 accessibility makes scheduling easy and allows a greater
number of student to attend classes.
• Faster learning e-Learning courses can progress faster than traditional
courses because of the individualized approach. It allows learners to skip
content they already learnt and understand and move onto the issues for
need training. Moreover, the multimedia based authentic learning
environment of e-Learning helps one to understand the concept much
more easily than traditional approach.
• It is less expensive to produce an e-Learning course with the use of
reusable learning objects (RLO) and the course can be updated easily
and quickly using a RLO. Online e-Learning sessions are especially easy
to keep up-to-date because the updated materials are uploaded to the web
server.
• It can be easily managed for large groups of students. With the use of
powerful Learner Management Systems (LMS) the delivery, tracking and
assessment of learners are automated.
• Collaborative learning: Technology tools, specifically the Web2 make
collaboration among learners much easier. Since many of the e-Learning
projects involve collaborative learning, the online environment is suitable
for collaborative learning that allows a shared understanding and
knowledge construction.
168
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 Instructional
20.5 PHASES OF DESIGNING E-LEARNING Design in
E-Learning
COURSES
You have learnt about the application of ADDIE approach, (Unit 11, Block-
03), Dick and Carey model and ASSURE model (Unit 5 of Block-02). These
theories and models have implications for designing e-Learning.
The various phases which create a structured and effective flow that guides
and controls designing e-Learning, are analyze, design, develop, implement
and evaluation (ADDIE approach).
Let us discuss each phase of designing steps involved in instructional design
for e-Learning. These are:

20.5.1 Analysis
The analysis phase identifies the learners’ needs, learners profile, tasks,
context and learning needs. This is the first and most crucial phase because
the findings guide the entire process of designing. Analysis involves
gathering information about the need of the content, learning environment
and learners.

20.5.1.1 Needs Analysis

Needs Analysis is the process of identifying and evaluating needs. The main
purpose of the need assessment is to identify the necessity of the desired
learning outcomes of the course or a training programme. The information
obtained from needs analysis can be used for defining program goals. These
goals can then be stated as specific teaching/learning objectives, which in
turn will function as the foundation on which to develop unit/lesson plans,
materials, tests, assignments and activities. Needs analysis can be very
formal, extensive and time consuming, or it can be informal, narrowly
focused and quick. Some questions like the following will help in deciding
the need of the courses or programme.

• What is the necessity of the educational or training programme?

• What are the specific knowledge/skills the learner needs to acquire?
• Any other courses of this nature already exist?
• Is this course a replacement or addition to an existing one?
• How often will the course or training content change?
• Is this course suitable for online delivery?
• How soon do the learners need the skills or knowledge from this course?

20.5.1.2 Learner Analysis

Information obtained from learner analysis will help to tailor the instruction
to specific needs of learners. This helps the course designer to decide the
difficulty level of the content and delivery methods that suit the learning
styles of learners. Questions related to background information of the learner,
when and where they want to learn software and hardware resources
available with the learner, their prior knowledge, the technology
competencies that they possess, their possible expectations from the course, 171
Instructional access internet and the band width will guide the learner analysis. The key to
Design in Practice
instructional design is to work around the participants rather than the content
alone. The information from the learner analysis helps to create a course that
focuses on learners' actual needs.

20.5.1.3 Content Analysis

Content analysis is "the process of breaking large bodies of subject matter or
tasks into smaller and instructionally useful units. Its purpose is:

• to identify and isolate a single idea or skill units for instruction,

• to act as an objective decision rule for including or excluding topics from
instruction, and
• to provide guidance for sequencing topics in instruction.
The result of this analysis will "provide the basis for preparing performance
objectives which in turn will guide the development of instruction and test
items".
Outlining the course content will also help you decide the delivery options.
Content analysis will also help in identifying the structure of the course,
duration of the course, duration of each modules/lessons, fully online or
blended approach.
It is also necessary to identify whether a content can be used as a whole or
only a part of it i.e. with modifications. With Reusable Learning Objects
(RLO) gaining popularity it is not hard to find content that could be re-used.
If you find content (RLO) which is suitable and compliant with the standards
specifications, of the course then re-use can save lot of time and resources. If
you find content that you think can be re-used or re-purposed, see if the
content’s Learning Objectives align with your needs analysis. In some cases
the RLO could be re-used as it is and in other you may have to modify it.

20.5.1.4 Technical Analysis

The purpose of technical analysis is to establish the baseline technical
capabilities and requirements and thereby estimate the development cost,
efforts and implications. It is very important to decide what the minimum
technical capabilities and requirements will be to develop and participate in
the course or training.
Establish the following issues before you design the instruction.

• Establish minimum standards including processors, memory, hard drive

space, hardware (CD ROMs, DVD capability, speakers, microphones,
etc.), software (browsers, word processors, FTP, plug ins, video viewers,
etc.), and bandwidth for the learner and the instructor. This will imply
restrictions in choice of media and tools.
• Decide the e-Learning tools necessary to develop the course including all
software and hardware; their cost, availability and suitability.
• Hardware and software requirement of the server. The online course
should be hosted on a fast, reliable server, with a high bandwidth
connection.
172
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Instructional requisites. Adequately assessing entry behaviours and prior knowledge is
Design in Practice
essential for achieving the goals and objectives set for the instruction. To
assist you in determining the entry behaviours refer to the information you
obtained in the audience analysis stage them to consider what needs to be
learned through for the course. You are designing an online course for which
computer literacy will be essential. Assess the learners’ capably to use of
technology and determine what minimum standards should be required.

20.5.2.3 Instructional Strategy and Learning Objects

Having developed objectives, it is necessary to devise an appropriate
instructional strategy to maximize learning. Among the things to consider are
different instructional methodologies, techniques to reinforce and remediate,
and the exploration of different motivational techniques.
The current trend in online teaching makeuse of reusable learning objects.
Each learning object consists of an objective, instructional content (including
appropriate media), mechanisms for assessment of the instruction, and
references.

• Structure and Component of Learning Objects

The structure and composite nature of a learning object are: interpretation.
Content models provide a framework for defining the structure, that is, the
level of` aggregation/granularity of learning objects. Cisco Systems
(http://www.e-novilia.com/materials/RLOW_07_03.pdf proposed in 2003
suggested five aggregation levels for structuring learning content:

• Subtopic
• Topic or RIO (reusable information object)
• Lesson or RLO (reusable learning object)
• Module
• Course.
Let us discuss a learning object in detail.
A course is comprised of a collection of modules, which in turn include
collections of lessons. A lesson can be re-usable in multiple courses and
learning contexts. A lesson or re-usable learning object consists of a single
learning objective, an overview, a summary, and a collection of topics (or
RIO), as well as practice activities, assessment, and metadata. In particular,
five to nine re-usable information objects can be combined to form a learning
object (Barron, 2002). A topic is a self-contained re-usable information
object that consists of subtopics (such as small chunks of information of
various types such as definitions, examples, tables, guidelines, etc.),
assessment, practice activities, and metadata. Topics are grouped into five
category types, including concepts, facts, procedures, processes, and
principles. Both RLO and RIO components (such as content, activities, and
assessment) can be represented in various media formats such as text, audio,
animation, videos, Java code, applets, and other delivery media (Cisco
Systems, 2003b; 2003a). It is worth mentioning, however, that although
Cisco initially treated a single lesson as a learning object, for the purpose of
terminological simplicity, Version 4.5 of the strategy regards each
174 aggregation level (from topics to courses) as a learning object (Cisco
Systems, 2003b). This revision, however, broadens the scope of a learning Instructional
Design in
object and does not specify its exact position in the course hierarchy as it did E-Learning
previously. (Ref. Course MDE-418, Block-04 Units 19).

Instructional strategies for designing e-Learning

The following are some of the instructional strategies that can be used in e-
Learning.
• Information presentation: The web pages display textual as well as
graphical information for the learners. Audio-video based learning
materials can also be provided to the learners on the web page.
• Decision-making: Computer and web technologies allow learners to
take their own decision to follow the links provided on the pages. The
learning environment can be customized for individual needs based on
learner’s decision to take course/module/units. The learners can also
decide on the kind of interface (graphical and/or text-based).
• Guidance and Collaboration: E-mail and online asynchronous
discussion group facilitate collaboration on the web. Using e-mail, the
learners can interact with the tutor. Similarly, learners can collaborate
through discussion groups to discuss and debate various aspects of the
curriculum.
• Drill and Practice: Like computer assisted learning, e-learning also
provides drill and practice opportunities. Using formative assessment
techniques in the course content presented in small chunks can lead to
optimized learning.
• Feedback: As we understand, feedback is an essential component of the
overall learning process. Learners can receive automated feedback for
assignments, and during interaction with formative assessment tools in
the web pages. Tutors can also provide e-mail based feedback to learners
with a human touch.
• Reflection: Using the asynchronous discussion tools, learners can reflect
on ideas and steps held by other learners, as well as on real life events
and express it.
• Articulation and Creation: When the learner is reflecting someone
else’s idea, he/she is also trying to articulate his/her own thought in
writing. There by the learner engages in deep thinking and creates new
knowledge embedded in a social and meaningful context.
• Discovery: The web provides an opportunity to the learner to discover
new learning resources on the web. Inclusion of search facility on the
learning site can facilitate this or the student can use other search tools.
The emphasis here is on promoting independent learning and evaluating
the quality of information that one gathers through web searches.
(Wikinson et al. 1997)
• Assessment: With the emphasis on self-directed learning and learner
autonomy, the learner tries self-assessment. So, learner assessment is of
greater importance than assessment by tutors/teachers. However, the web
provides opportunity for speed, and power test for objective type
questions. Electronic assessment of essay type questions is also now
possible to bring objectivity into the evaluation process (Swartz, 2001).
175
Instructional 20.5.2.4 Media utilisation
Design in Practice
To make e-Learning efficient the delivery of instructional content using
appropriate instructional media is important. The appropriate selection of
instructional media to support e-Learning is not intuitive and does not result
from personal preference. Utilizing a systematic approach to media selection
ensures that appropriate instructional media are employed to support desired
learning objectives. Instructional goals should drive media selection,
application, and the course development process. Characteristics of the
distance learner and the impact of technology on instructional processes are
also important considerations in instructional media selection and course
development.

20.5.2.5 Design learner assessment and course evaluation

Design of the student assessment strategies and evaluation components of an
e-Learning course is an integral part of the design process. This has a positive
role in a course or training. The goal should be to evaluate the learners’ level
of achievement of each objective and to provide constructive feedback and
remediation where ever necessary. Online tests make use of testing software
useful for creating visually appealing creative test items in multiple formats.
The test generated by these softwares typically consists of:
• Test questions of different formats
• Possible answer choices
• Correct answer and reinforcement/feedback
• Wrong answer and remediation/feedback.
The test generated using stand-alone software can be integrated with the
LMS to generate grade sheet and record keeping for individual student.
Course designers should exploit the interactivity e-Learning, to embed
opportunities for self-assessment. Most LMS have a testing tool. For
example, Moodle testing tools can create and grade multiple choice, fill in the
blanks, matching, short answer, and even essay items. Another approach to
assessment is the authentic assessment which can be done using electronic
portfolio. The open source ePortfolio platform like Mahara can be integrated
into LMS like Moodle to assess the learners. (Ref. Unit 22, B-5)
Course Evaluation: Evaluating the content you designed and the overall
effectiveness of the course is essential to ensure the quality of e-Learning
courses. This can be done by providing an opportunity for the learner to
evaluate the course or training so that it can be improved. Understanding
learner perceptions and obtaining their feedback is essential to the continuous
improvement process. Many LMS has this feature inbuilt into it in the form
of survey which the students can take for any particular aspects or whole of
the course.
20.5.2.6 Design the interface
The user interface is one of the important elements of e-Learning course and
it plays a crucial role for providing a meaningful and efficient experience to
the learners. The learning effectiveness and interface design are substantially
intertwined and it is the interface design that the learner constantly interacts
with throughout the course. The success of any training program is largely
dependent on the student's own motivation and attitude. As such, an interface
176 design can have motivational or de-motivational effects. An appealing
interface can draw the learner to be engaged in the course while a poorly Instructional
Design in
designed interface has them feeling lost, confused, or frustrated, which E-Learning
becomes a barrier to effective learning and information retention. Therefore,
spending substantial time on this aspect of e-Learning design can be valuable
for learners.
Usability: After developing the interface design it is better to do user testing
to verify the design and layout. This user testing should be carryout with the
help of those who are not acquainted with the course or were involved in the
development. However, getting the users from the target group for whom the
course is meant is important. Testing the designed user interface on the end
users makes it more user-friendly. Any suggestions by learners can be
incorporated and areas that learners find difficult to use can be corrected. No
interface design should be finalized without testing it on the target audience
to gauge its actual usability.
20.5.3 Development
In the previous sub sections, you have read the analysis and design phases
involved in preparing e-learning courses. Planning and deciding about the
software to be used and instructional strategies to be followed are the key
components for development of e-learning courses.
According to Byunebal (2002), in an e-learning course development process
it is important to consider the following:
• Arrange for necessary copy right permissions;
• Focus on the management of instructor-student communication;
• Arrange for usability test;
• Research the minimum hardware/software available to students;
• Identify and arrange for necessary support both for students and
instructors, student;
• Develop a plan for assessment strategies and assessing course quality.
The steps involved in the development phase are: Authoring, Storyboard and
Prototyping quality assurance;
Let us discuss each phase pertaining to development of an e-learning course.
20.5.3.1 Authoring
Based on the information obtained through the prior phases, you can start
authoring the content. Take each learning objective and write the lesson for
fulfilling it. If you are co-authoring, it might be good for you to use an
authoring template. This will help authors to use as uniform format which in
turn makes it easier for the content to be presented in a consistent style. E-
learning development entails much more than designing appealing modules
for your content with the latest authoring program. Effective development
will include less popular elements such as coding, standards, and
accessibility.
There are several authoring choices - Macromedia Flash, Dream Weaver,
Authorware, macromedia breeze, captivate, and director; are authoring tools
available. This is not an exhaustive list, as authoring tools have become
extremely popular due to the increasing ease of use and the popularity of the
effects they can produce in small amounts of time. In addition to these
authoring tools one will have to use various media editing tools to create 177
Instructional appropriate audio, graphics, video, and simulations. The instructional design
Design in Practice
process ensures that your content is conceived, created, and implemented in
an instructionally sound manner. Without an instructional design, you may
have an attractive yet ineffective product.
20.5.3.2 Storyboarding and prototyping
Storyboards are visual organizers, typically a series of illustrations displayed
in a sequence for the purpose of pre-visualizing a video, web-based training,
or interactive media sequence. The objective of the storyboard is to describe
in detail how the end product would be. Storyboarding is primarily the task of
an Instructional Designer. The more detailed the storyboard, the more
effective the end result would be. It is important for an instructional designer
to be well-versed with the design principles to be able to create a good
storyboard. (See Unit 11, Block-03, Course MDE-412)
The disadvantage of using a storyboard for developing online learning is that
if tends to limit the final product which ends up being very linear. In addition,
many features of online media cannot be easily captured in the storyboard
format. It is very difficult to develop a storyboard for database driven
learning applications and online learning that has social interaction. For these
reasons many instructional designers have shifted to using rapid prototyping
as visual representations instead of storyboards. It is wise to test a prototype
before full development.
It is best to detect potential problems at this stage of development and
address these, then to wait until the development is complete, or worse, until
we are getting poor results.
A Rapid Prototype is simply a quickly assembled module that can be tested
with the student audience early in the Instructional System Design (ISD)
process. The evaluation typically looks at things like how well the learners
responded to the outline and an actual piece of the design, how effective the
learning activities are, and how well the program performs on the chosen
technology platform. Based on the feedback, the design can be revised and
another prototype can be developed. This iterative process continues until
you finally have the complete programme or course. The reasons of Rapid
Prototyping are:
• To increase effective communication;
• To decrease development time;
• To decrease costly mistakes;
• To extend product lifetime by adding necessary features and eliminating
redundant features early in the design.
Rapid Prototyping decreases development time by allowing quick corrections
to a product that can be made early in the development process. Its users are
involved in the development process, the system produced is obliged to their
needs.
20.5.3.3 Quality Assurance
Quality assurance of e-Learning courses can be based on the following
aspects. These are:
• Content quality: Veracity, accuracy, balanced presentation of ideas, and
appropriate level of detail
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• Learning goal alignment: Alignment among learning goals, activities, Instructional
Design in
assessments, and learner characteristics E-Learning
• Motivation: Ability to motivate, and stimulate the interest or curiosity of,
an identified population of learners
• Presentation design: Design of visual and auditory information for
enhanced learning and efficient mental processing
• Interaction usability: Ease of navigation, predictability of the user
interface, and the quality of User Interface (UI) help features
• Standards compliance: Adherence to international standards and
specifications.

20.5.4 Implementation
Implementation is the fourth phase of instructional design of e-Learning
courses.
E-learning can be delivered in three models they are:
1. Using the web as a supplement to face to face instruction;
2. Using the web in a mixed mode with face to face instruction or distance
learning; and
3. Using web-based instruction as completely online with no face-to face
student-student or student-teacher interaction.
According to French et al, (1999) the e-learning environment using web-
based instruction as completely online with no face-to-face interaction is
useful for both student and teachers as it can facilitate shift from instructivist
to constructivist learning paradigm that represent student directed learning
rather than teacher directed learning. (French et al. 1999)
The purpose of this phase is the effective and efficient delivery of instruction.
This phase must promote students' understanding of instructional content,
support the students' mastery of objectives, and ensure the students' transfer
of knowledge from the instructional setting to the work place.
Planning for implementation is important. The implementation plan
establishes the implementation timeline and procedures. Some of the
implementation issues where the timelines and procedures need to be
developed are as follows:
• Establish the time schedule for the course rollout;
• Launch the course, its promotion and marketing;
• Schedule the courses, enrol learners and the management plan for the
learners;
• Prepare the learners with instructions, help guides and tutorials ;
• Decide upon the delivery platform and select the learner management
systems;
• Decide upon the reporting procedures and allocate the responsibilities;
• Work out the maintenance schedule and plan the upgradation
requirement and the frequencies;
• Develop the end user technical support system and implement the same.

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20.5.5 Evaluation Design in
E-Learning
Evaluation is important to ensure that the course meets the objectives that we
have formulated. Evaluation will also help in the revision and improvement
of the course in the future. It is essential to design formative and summative
evaluation methods that are congruent with the instructional activities as this
will support achievement of the stated learning goals. Continuous
assessments provide feedback that the instructor or the designer can use to
correct design problems as the course progresses. Without appropriate
evaluation it is almost impossible to bring about the improvement essential
for the success of the programme. In Block 03, Unit 15, Course MDE-412
this concept has been discussed in detail.

20.6 RAPID INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN AND

RAPID E-LEARNING
The traditional e-Learning instructional design enable iterative steps for
development of course/programme (analyze, design, develop, evaluate, get
feedback, revise, and then implement). These courses/programme have the
need for urgent development and often have a short shelf-life. Often these
programs have smaller budgets, smaller teams, and require intimate
involvement of subject-matter experts. The instructional design suitable for
such situation is known as rapid instructional design and rapid e-Learning.
De Vries and Bersin (2004) identified the following criteria for defining rapid
e-Learning. They are:

• Courseware which can be developed in less than three weeks;

• Subject Matter Experts (SMEs) act as the primary resource for
development;
• A well-known tool (e.g., PowerPoint) or user friendly templates form the
starting point for courseware;
• Simple assessment, feedback and tracking provided;
• Media elements which enhance learning but do not create technology
barriers may be included (e.g., voice);
• Synchronous (live) and asynchronous (self-paced) models may be
utilized.
• Rapid e-Learning is often developed in response to urgent business
needs, such as:
a product launch or competitive situation;
as part of a continuous update program;
when the content has a short shelf-life.

Therefore, rapid e-Learning is designed when the content of a programme

requires changes or have to be updated frequently and also when there is a
need for quick delivery of a programme with reusable learning objects.

181
Instructional
Design in Practice
Check Your Progress 4
Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Match your answer with the answer given at the end of this Unit.
Discuss the criteria for defining rapid e-learning.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

20.7 LET US SUM UP

E-learning is referred to as the use of networked information and
communications technology in teaching and learning. As the letter ‘e’ in e-
Learning stands for the word electronic, this incorporates all educational
activities that are carried but by individuals or groups working online or
offline and synchronously or asynchronously via networked or standalone
computers and other electronic devices. In this Unit, we have discussed
designing e-Learning and contributions of instructional design models. E-
learning affords opportunities to design learning environments that are
authentic, situated in the learning context, and also problem-based. these
aspects are useful for providing students with ‘learning by doing’
experiences.

20.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE

ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
The features of e-Learning are self-paced, self-directed, anytime-anywhere
learning, faster learning, less-expensive and collaborative learning. (Please
see Section 20.3)
Check Your Progress 2
The elements involved in designing e-Learning are defining instructional
objectives, developing instructional content, method, media, instructional
delivery system and evaluation. (Please see Section 20.4 and Table 20.1)
Check Your Progress 3
1. An Analysis phase of e-Learning consists of needs analysis, learner
analysis, content analysis and technical analysis (Please see Sub-section
20.5.1)
2. Please see Sub-section 20.5.4.
Check Your Progress 4
The criteria for defining rapid e-Learning are: Courseware design, selection
of SME, feedback, synchronous and asynchronous models (Please see section
20.6).

182