ISC Physics Project

A brief explanation of Quantum

tunnelling and its uses

Student’s Name : Arsheya Dewan

Class : XII-A
Session : 2024-25
Roll No :

Teacher’s Signature Examiner’s Signature

Acknowledgement
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all
those who have supported and guided me throughout
the completion of this project. Firstly, I am deeply
thankful to my subject teacher, Ms. Aakanksha Yadav,
for their invaluable guidance and constant
encouragement. Their expertise and patience have
been instrumental in shaping my understanding of the
subject matter.
I would also like to extend my heartfelt appreciation to
my parents for their unwavering support and belief in
my abilities. Their constant motivation and
understanding have been crucial in helping me
overcome challenges and stay focused.
Lastly, I am indebted to the school administration for
providing me with the necessary resources and a
conducive learning environment.
In conclusion, I am deeply thankful to everyone who
played a part, directly or indirectly, in the successful
completion of this project.
 INDEX
 Introduction to Quantum Tunnelling
 Historical Background
 The Physics Behind Quantum Tunnelling
o Wave-particle duality
o Potential barriers
o Probability Amplitude
 Experimental Evidence
 Applications in Technology
 Quantum Tunnelling in Nature
 Challenges and Limitations
 Future Prospects
 Quantum Tunnelling and Quantum Computing
 Tunnelling in Astrophysics
 Quantum Tunnelling in Chemistry
 Conclusion
 References
 Introduction to Quantum
Tunnelling
Quantum tunnelling is a fascinating quantum mechanical
phenomenon where particles traverse energy barriers that,
according to classical mechanics, should be insurmountable. This
counterintuitive behaviour stems from the probabilistic nature of
quantum mechanics and has significant implications across
physics, chemistry, and engineering. The concept of tunnelling
reveals the nuanced relationship between energy, matter, and
probability at quantum scales.
The phenomenon finds its roots in the principles of quantum
mechanics, particularly wave-particle duality. In this framework,
particles such as electrons, protons, and even atoms are described
by wavefunctions that encode their probabilities of being found in
certain regions of space. When these wavefunctions encounter
energy barriers, they do not terminate abruptly but instead
penetrate into the barriers, albeit with exponentially decreasing
amplitude. If the barrier is sufficiently narrow or the particle's
energy is close to the barrier's peak, there exists a measurable
probability that the particle will emerge on the other side. This
effect, while seemingly paradoxical from a classical standpoint, is
consistent with the laws of quantum mechanics.
Quantum tunnelling is not merely a theoretical curiosity but a
cornerstone of modern science and technology. It provides the
explanatory framework for a range of natural and engineered
phenomena. In stars, tunnelling enables nuclear fusion, allowing
hydrogen nuclei to overcome electrostatic repulsion and sustain
stellar processes. In electronics, it underpins the operation of
tunnel diodes and scanning tunnelling microscopes, devices that
have revolutionized imaging and semiconductor technology.
Furthermore, tunnelling plays a crucial role in quantum
computing, where it facilitates the manipulation of quantum bits,
or qubits, in ways that classical systems cannot achieve.
The discovery and study of quantum tunnelling have profoundly
altered our understanding of the universe. By bridging the gap
between theoretical physics and practical applications, it
demonstrates the power of quantum mechanics to describe and
harness phenomena that lie beyond classical comprehension. As
scientific exploration progresses, quantum tunnelling remains a
vital area of research, with implications that continue to push the
boundaries of technology and fundamental science.
 History
The concept of quantum tunnelling emerged in the early 20th
century as quantum mechanics began to revolutionize physics.
Pioneers such as Max Planck, Niels Bohr, and Werner Heisenberg
laid the groundwork, but it was George Gamow and others who
applied quantum mechanics to explain radioactive alpha decay in
terms of tunnelling. Gamow’s insights provided a mathematical
framework for understanding how particles could escape
potential wells despite insufficient energy. This breakthrough
coincided with other quantum advancements, such as Erwin
Schrödinger’s wave equation and Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle, further cementing tunnelling as a cornerstone of
quantum theory. Early experimental evidence, such as the study
of nuclear reactions and electrical conduction in semiconductors,
confirmed the phenomenon’s validity. Over time, the concept
expanded into diverse fields, influencing everything from
chemistry to cosmology, and inspiring novel technologies.
Quantum tunnelling also led to the development of tools such as
the scanning tunnelling microscope, a revolutionary instrument
enabling scientists to visualize and manipulate individual atoms.
The historical development of tunnelling reflects a journey of
scientific discovery that continues to inspire new avenues of
research and technological innovation.
 The Physics Behind Quantum
Tunnelling
At the core of quantum tunnelling lies the Schrödinger equation,
which governs the wavefunction of particles. The wavefunction's
penetration into classically forbidden regions enables the
particle's probability of existence beyond an energy barrier.
1. Wave-Particle Duality
Understanding tunnelling requires embracing the dual nature of particles, which
behave both as particles and waves. This duality means that particles like electrons
are not confined to point-like trajectories but exhibit wave-like behaviour, spreading
across space and interacting with barriers in ways classical particles cannot. The wave
aspect of matter allows the particle’s probability density to extend into forbidden
regions, leading to the possibility of tunnelling. This fundamental property, central to
quantum mechanics, challenges traditional deterministic views of particle behaviour.
For example, experiments such as the double-slit experiment reveal the intrinsic
duality of matter, which is essential for understanding phenomena like tunnelling.
Wave-particle duality provides a crucial framework for reconciling classical intuitions
with quantum reality.

2. Potential Barriers
In classical physics, particles cannot surmount barriers higher than their energy.
Quantum mechanically, the particle's wavefunction decays exponentially within the
barrier but does not vanish entirely. This decay depends on the barrier’s properties,
such as width and height, and the particle’s energy. Narrow or low barriers increase
the likelihood of tunnelling, as does higher particle energy. The ability to model and
manipulate potential barriers has enabled breakthroughs in semiconductor physics
and quantum devices. For example, the rectangular potential barrier model serves as
a theoretical basis for calculating tunnelling probabilities in various applications, such
as electronic components and quantum dots. The study of potential barriers has thus
become integral to advancing quantum-based technologies.
 3. Probability Amplitude
The likelihood of tunnelling depends on factors such as the barrier's width and
height, as well as the particle's energy. Mathematically, the transmission coefficient
quantifies this likelihood, linking the particle’s energy and barrier characteristics to
the tunnelling probability. This probabilistic framework has practical implications,
determining the efficiency of devices like tunnel diodes and the rate of nuclear
reactions in astrophysics. As barriers grow narrower or particle energies increase, the
probability of tunnelling rises, showcasing how quantum mechanics can predict
behaviours that seem impossible from a classical perspective. Understanding these
probabilities is essential for designing systems that rely on controlled tunnelling, such
as quantum computers and nanoscale transistors.
 Experimental
Evidence
Quantum tunnelling has been validated through numerous
experimental observations. One of the earliest confirmations
came from studies of alpha decay in radioactive nuclei. In this
process, particles overcome nuclear potential barriers through
tunnelling, a phenomenon first explained by George Gamow’s
theoretical work. Modern experimental evidence includes the
operation of tunnel diodes and the functioning of scanning
tunnelling microscopes (STMs). STMs, in particular, have
revolutionized surface science by enabling visualization of atomic
structures with unparalleled precision. Another significant
experimental breakthrough is electron tunnelling in Josephson
junctions, used in superconducting quantum interference devices
(SQUIDs). Experimental setups such as particle accelerators and
ultrafast spectroscopy continue to provide deeper insights into
tunnelling phenomena. These experiments highlight the universal
nature of tunnelling, confirming its presence across scales and
applications.
 Applications in
Technology
Quantum tunnelling underpins many technological advancements.
Tunnel diodes, for instance, exploit tunnelling to achieve high-
speed operation and efficiency in electronic circuits. Flash
memory devices rely on tunnelling to store and retrieve data,
enabling compact and durable storage solutions. Scanning
tunnelling microscopes use tunnelling currents to map surfaces at
atomic resolutions, providing critical insights in nanotechnology
and materials science. Additionally, tunnelling plays a vital role in
quantum dot technology, where electrons tunnel between
confined states to produce precise energy emissions for displays
and medical imaging. Quantum tunnelling also forms the
foundation for emerging technologies like spintronics and
quantum computing, enabling faster, smaller, and more efficient
devices. These applications demonstrate tunnelling’s
transformative impact across industries, from consumer
electronics to advanced scientific tools.
 Quantum Tunnelling
in Nature
Tunnelling plays a pivotal role in natural processes. In stars,
nuclear fusion relies on tunnelling to allow protons to overcome
Coulombic barriers and fuse into heavier elements, powering
stellar lifecycles. In biological systems, tunnelling influences
enzymatic reactions, enabling electrons to traverse energy
barriers and facilitating metabolic processes. Photosynthesis also
involves tunnelling mechanisms during charge separation in
reaction centres. Furthermore, tunnelling occurs in geological
formations, where it impacts electron transfer in minerals and
contributes to phenomena such as geochemical redox reactions.
These natural occurrences underscore the fundamental role of
tunnelling in sustaining life and driving the evolution of the
cosmos. Exploring tunnelling in natural systems not only enhances
our understanding of these phenomena but also inspires
bioinspired engineering and energy solutions.
 Challenges and
Limitations
Quantum tunnelling, despite its immense potential, comes with
several challenges and limitations. One major hurdle is quantum
decoherence, where the particle’s quantum state is disrupted due
to interactions with the environment. This makes it difficult to
maintain the delicate quantum states required for effective
tunnelling in practical applications, such as quantum computing.
Thermal noise is another issue, particularly in electronic devices
operating at high temperatures. This noise can interfere with
tunnelling processes, reducing their efficiency and reliability.
Engineering precise tunnelling behaviours is also complex and
often requires advanced materials and fabrication techniques. For
instance, designing nanoscale devices that use tunnelling
demands extraordinary precision to control barrier dimensions
and properties. Additionally, tunnelling is inherently probabilistic,
which makes it challenging to predict and control in large-scale
systems. In quantum computing, while tunnelling can be
advantageous for certain operations, unwanted tunnelling events
can lead to errors, complicating computation and error-correction
strategies.
Furthermore, the theoretical modelling of tunnelling in complex
systems often involves extensive calculations and computational
resources. This makes it hard to predict tunnelling behaviours in
scenarios where multiple particles or interactions are involved.
Addressing these challenges requires interdisciplinary research,
combining expertise in physics, materials science, and
engineering. Advances in these fields hold the key to overcoming
limitations and unlocking the full potential of quantum tunnelling
for transformative applications in technology and science.
 Future Prospects
quantum tunnelling research and its applications holds immense
promise. As quantum technologies advance, tunnelling could
enable breakthroughs in quantum computing by enhancing qubit
performance and reducing error rates. Developing materials with
tailored quantum properties, such as topological insulators, may
pave the way for more efficient tunnelling devices. In medicine,
tunnelling-based techniques, such as quantum dots for imaging
and diagnostics, offer potential for non-invasive treatments and
enhanced precision. Tunnelling’s role in renewable energy,
particularly in advanced photovoltaics and catalytic systems, could
address global energy challenges. Moreover, exploring tunnelling
at extreme scales—such as in black holes or the early universe—
might unlock new insights into fundamental physics.
Interdisciplinary collaborations will be essential, combining
expertise from physics, engineering, and computational sciences.
By overcoming current limitations, quantum tunnelling could
redefine the boundaries of what is technologically and
scientifically possible, making it a cornerstone of innovation in the
21st century.
 Quantum Tunnelling and
Quantum Computing

Quantum tunnelling plays a critical role in the development of

quantum computers. Tunnelling allows qubits to transition
between quantum states, enabling unique computational
processes such as quantum annealing. This capability is
particularly useful for solving optimization problems, where
tunnelling can explore energy landscapes more efficiently than
classical methods. Devices like quantum transistors rely on
tunnelling to achieve high-speed, low-power operations.
However, harnessing tunnelling in quantum computing presents
challenges, such as mitigating decoherence and ensuring error
correction. Advances in materials science, such as
superconductors and topological qubits, aim to address these
issues. The intersection of tunnelling and quantum algorithms, like
Shor’s and Grover’s algorithms, underscores its transformative
potential. As quantum computing matures, tunnelling will remain
integral to achieving scalability and reliability, offering solutions to
complex problems in cryptography, drug discovery, and artificial
intelligence.
Tunnelling in
Astrophysics
In astrophysics, quantum tunnelling is a fundamental mechanism
driving stellar phenomena. Nuclear fusion within stars depends on
tunnelling, allowing protons to overcome the Coulomb barrier
despite insufficient thermal energy. This process sustains the life
cycle of stars, powering their immense energy output. In neutron
stars and white dwarfs, tunnelling affects particle interactions
under extreme densities and pressures, influencing their evolution
and emission characteristics. Beyond stars, tunnelling plays a role
in the formation of molecules in interstellar space, where it
facilitates chemical reactions at near-absolute zero temperatures.
Studying tunnelling in astrophysical contexts offers insights into
the origins of elements and the mechanisms governing cosmic
evolution. These discoveries not only deepen our understanding
of the universe but also inspire analogy in laboratory conditions,
advancing both astrophysics and quantum science.
 Conclusion
Quantum tunnelling is a remarkable phenomenon that challenges
our classical understanding of the physical world, demonstrating
the profound implications of quantum mechanics in both
theoretical and applied contexts. Rooted in wave-particle duality,
tunnelling allows particles to traverse energy barriers that,
according to classical physics, should be insurmountable. The
wavefunction of a particle extends into forbidden regions, and
despite the lack of sufficient energy to overcome these barriers,
there is a finite probability that the particle will appear on the
other side. This probabilistic behaviour, described by the
Schrödinger equation, has been confirmed through numerous
experimental observations, including the study of alpha decay, the
operation of tunnel diodes, and the imaging capabilities of
scanning tunnelling microscopes (STMs). These discoveries
highlight the universal nature of quantum tunnelling, which spans
across various fields from chemistry to electronics, astrophysics,
and biology.
The applications of quantum tunnelling are vast and
transformative. In electronics, tunnelling enables devices such as
tunnel diodes and flash memory, which exploit the phenomenon
to achieve faster speeds and higher efficiency. The development
of quantum technologies, particularly quantum computing, relies
heavily on tunnelling to enable qubit manipulation and quantum
annealing, presenting new ways to solve complex problems
beyond the reach of classical computers. Additionally, tunnelling
has spurred advancements in nanotechnology, such as the ability
to observe individual atoms with STMs and the development of
quantum dots for imaging and medical diagnostics. These
applications demonstrate how tunnelling is a key driver of
innovation in modern technology.
However, while quantum tunnelling offers immense potential, it
also presents several challenges. Quantum decoherence, thermal
noise, and the inherently probabilistic nature of tunnelling make it
difficult to control and predict its behaviour, especially in large-
scale systems. In quantum computing, for instance, unwanted
tunnelling events can lead to errors, complicating computation
and error correction. Engineering precise tunnelling behaviours
requires overcoming these obstacles, which calls for advances in
materials science, fabrication techniques, and computational
models.
Looking forward, the study of quantum tunnelling continues to
hold promise for groundbreaking advancements in a variety of
fields. As quantum computing matures, tunnelling could lead to
faster, more efficient algorithms, addressing challenges in
cryptography, drug discovery, and artificial intelligence.

Additionally, tunnelling’s role in natural processes, such as nuclear

fusion in stars and molecular formation in space, offers profound
insights into the fundamental mechanisms of the universe. By
overcoming current limitations and harnessing tunnelling more
effectively, the phenomenon has the potential to redefine
technological capabilities and push the boundaries of scientific
understanding in the 21st century.
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Tunneling
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