Mega Notes DEUCE

(By Nathan and Kevin)

 (Mostly by nathan)
( L Kevin)

Biology

1.1 (Respiration)

❖​Respiration happens in all the cells in your body

❖​Respiration releases energy from food
❖​Respiration happens in all living things
❖​One of the characteristics shared by all living thing is respiration
❖​Respiration is a series of chemical reactions that happens inside every living
cell
(Formulas)
❖​Photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide + Water —> Glucose (energy) + Oxygen

​
(The plants take CO2 from the air and H2O from the soil, and sunlight to make glucose, which
is a source of food for plants. They release oxygen as a waste product.)

❖​Aerobic respiration

​ Glucose + Oxygen —> Energy + Carbon dioxide (waste) + Water

❖​ Anaerobic respiration
 Glucose —> energy + alcohol / lactic acid

​ Lactic acid + Oxygen —> Carbon dioxide + water

(Note: Energy is released in the mitochondria)

(Types to Respiration)
There are 2 types of respiration :

1.​The kind of respiration that usually happens inside our cell is called aerobic
respiration. Aerobic respiration use oxygen
❖​The oxidation in aerobic respiration is complete.

2.​Anaerobic respiration happens when the body needs energy, but there is no
oxygen. (eg. Doing exercise).

(Note: Aerobic respiration releases more energy than anaerobic respiration)

(More detail in respiration)

❖​The organs to help you to take oxygen out of the
air and get rid of carbon dioxide make up the
respiratory system
❖​ Your mouth and nose both connected to your
trachea.
❖​The trachea is sometimes called a windpipe; it
has strong rings of cartilage around it. These
 rings of cartilage keep the trachea open and prevent it collapsing so the air
can be kept moving in and out of the body.
❖​The windpipe branches into two bronchus; the bronchus also have cartilage
to support them.
❖​Each bronchus divide into several smaller tubes called bronchioles
❖​The bronchioles end by branching into many tiny stretchers called air
sacs/alveoli.
❖​This is where the oxygen goes into the blood and the carbon dioxide come
out
❖​The oxygen goes into your blood, and into a red blood cell, then it goes into
the mitochondria and combines with glucose to release energy.

(Note: All cells use energy)

1.2​ ​ (Gas Exchange)

❖​Food + O2 —----> Energy + CO2 Wave

❖​Gas exchange means the exchange of oxygen from the air sacs into the
blood, and the carbon dioxide from the blood into the air sacs.

❖​Oxygen from the air goes in through the nose, passes the larynx and down
the trachea, all the way into the air sacs
then into the blood. This is when and where
gas exchange happens, where CO2 from
the blood goes into the air sacs and O2
from the air sacs go into the blood. Then it
goes into the cell into the mitochondria.
❖​With a microscope, the alveoli look like holes in the lungs, like sponge.
❖​Capillaries are tiny blood vessels that are wrapped around the air sacs.
❖​The upper chambers of the heart are called the right and left atrium.

❖​The lower chambers of the heart are called the right and left ventricle.
❖​The FUCKing LEft VENTricle
❖​The left ventricle has high pressure, as it squeezes blood through the whole
body, carrying oxygen along with it.
❖​Once it comes back full circle to the right atrium, it has no oxygen left in it as
it has transported it through the entire body.
❖​The blood goes down into the Right ventricle, and with no oxygen in it, it
goes to the lungs to get oxygen and release carbon dioxide (gas exchange),
then, rich with oxygen, it goes to the left atrium, down into the left ventricle,
then the cycle restarts. (circulation).

😀
❖​Diffusion is high concentration to low concentration. Think of diffusion as a
group of little Mexicans from Mexico (high concentration of Mexicans), who
cross the border illegally into America (low concentration of Mexicans).

❖​

❖​Inside the alveolus, the air is very close to the blood, there are only 2 thin
cells in between them. Air is a gas, so it can move freely. Air will move
through the thin cells into the blood, this is diffusion. Air moves from where
there is a high concentration of it in the air sacs into the blood, where there is
a low concentration of it. Carbon dioxide also diffuses into the air sacs from
the blood.
❖​When the oxygen gets into the blood, it dissolves.
❖​The oxygen goes into the red blood cells where it combines with hemoglobin.

❖​Active transport is the opposite of diffusion. It is from low concentration to

high concentration. For example, when the Mexicans that were mentioned
before, get caught by the Joe Biden company, they have to go from America
 😁
(low concentration of Mexicans), back to Mexico (high concentration of
Mexicans).

❖​ por favor ayudame complacer

❖​Hemoglobin can carry 4 oxygen molecules.

❖​Red blood cells do not require energy; they are not real cells.
❖​They are called cells because they have parts of a cell, such as cell
membrane.
❖​Red blood cells live up to 70-120 days.
❖​Spleen digests dead red blood cells, then it recycles it by breaking down the
hemoglobin. It takes the iron, and sends it all throughout the body, and it
reaches the bone marrow, and the bone marrow uses it to make new red
blood cells.

1.3 ​ (Breathing)

❖​Gas exchange is the movement of oxygen & carbon dioxide between the air
in the lungs and the blood.
❖​The air you breathe in contains more oxygen than the air you breathe out.
❖​A small quantity of carbon dioxide in the air you breathe in, and there is quite
a lot of oxygen left in the air you breathe out.
❖​The amount of air you can breathe out is related to the body size as well as
daily breathing practice.
❖​The pressure of a gas increases then the volume of its container is
decreased, and if the volume of the container is increased, the pressure of a
gas decreases.

❖​When you breathe in these things happen :

❖​The intercostal muscles between the ribs contract, pulling the rib outwards
and upwards.
 ❖​The muscles in the diaphragm contract, pulling it down and flattening it, as
well as lowering the organs such underneath it.
❖​These 2 movements make more space in the chest cavity.
❖​The volume decreases, as there is more volume in the chest cavity, so the
air will go down your inner pipeline sewage system and fill up your lungs.

❖​When you breathe out, these things happen :

❖​The intercostal muscles relax, so the ribs return to their natural position.
❖​The muscles in the diaphragm relax, so it returns to its regular, domed
shape.
❖​It decreases the volume inside it, so the pressure increases, so air is
squeezed out of the lungs.
​

Chemistry

2.1 ​ (Dissolving)

❖​ If you place sugar in water, it will gradually disappear. This means it is

dissolving.
❖​Dissolve means to completely mix a solute in a solvent to form a solution,
solutions are transparent.
❖​Transparent means you can see through it, and light can pass through it.
❖​Solute is the substance that dissolves.
❖​Solvent is what the substance dissolves into.
​ [Eg. Salt (solute) + Water (solvent) —> Saltwater (solution)]
❖​A solution is a mixture. Although the solute seems to disappear, it is still
spread out among water particles.
❖​Solutions can have color and be transparent. (Eg. Copper sulfate solution)
❖​If something is not a solution, it will be opaque. (Eg. Milk)
 ❖​Opaque means that light cannot pass through it, and you cannot see through
❖​it.
❖​If 20g of salt is dissolved in 100g of water, since it’s spread out among water
particles and is still there, the mass will be 120g. (100 + 20).

2.2 ​ (Solutions and solubility)

❖​A solution is made when a solute is dissolved in a solvent.
❖​More particles of solute are dissolved in a concentrated solution than in a
dilute solution.
❖​If you have 100cm3 of water, you should be able to dissolve a lot of sodium
chloride in it, but only a little amount of lead chloride. This means that
sodium chloride has a greater solubility than lead chloride.
❖​To compare the solubility of different solutes, you need to measure how
much of each solute will dissolve in a given solvent, until it becomes
saturated.
❖​A saturated solution is a solution that can no longer dissolve solutes in it as
too much has already been dissolved. Maximum dissolve yes
❖​Most solutes will dissolve more quickly and easily in hot water.
❖​The more energy the particles have the more they vibrate and move.
❖​You can dissolve a greater mass of the solute in hot water than in the same
volume of cold water.
❖​At 100g of water at 20 degree celsius, you can dissolve 204g of sugar in it.
❖​At 100g of water at 80 degree celsius, you can dissolve 362g of sugar in it.
❖​The higher the temperature, the larger the kinetic energy, and greater the
solubility.
 ❖​Independent : What we change (Input / Cause)
❖​Dependent : What we measure / observe (Output / Result)
❖​Controlled : What we keep the same

❖​Solkiufowieaefwfuehbility
❖​Solubitilitlitly is a measure of how much of a solute can dissolve in a given
amount of solvent.
❖​A saturated solution is one that can have no more solute dissolved in it.
Solubility is affected by temperature.
❖​Goddamn Louis Pastuer observed that milk spoils quickly, so he came up
with a hypothesis that this happened because of the germs, or the type of
cow that the milk came from. He conducted an experiment where he boiled
the milk to kill the germs, and the results were that boiled milk spoiled slower
than regular fresh out of the milker squeezer milk.
❖​They named this after him and called it pasteurization; the process of boiling
milk or other substances to make it spoil slower. (pasteurized milk)

🌚
2.3 (Planning a solubilitjteaijflijaljiijjjijliijljijy investigation)
❖​Things that are changed so that we can investigate how the changes affect
the results are called variables.
❖​When plotting a graph, the independent variable goes on the horizontal axis
and the dependent variable goes on the vertical axis.

2.4 (Paper Chromatography)​

Physics

​
3.1 (Forces and motion)

❖​Force is defined as a push or a pull.

❖​When something is placed down, it doesn’t seem to move, but multiple
forces are acting on it. The force of gravity is pulling the object down towards
the center of the Earth, but it doesn’t sink down, this is because an equal
force is pushing it upwards. This force is called the contact force.
❖​When an object is not moving, the forces acting on it are balanced, meaning
the forces are equal in size and opposite in direction.
❖​Forces are shown as arrows in a force diagram.

1.​ Scalar quantity : It has only magnitude but no direction.

(Eg. Temperature, mass, energy, speed, distance, density, time, volume.)

2.​ Vector quantity : It has both magnitude and direction.

(Eg. Distance, force, acceleration, velocity, weight, pressure, gravity, drag,
thrust)

❖​Magnitude means distance or quantity.

❖​Force is a vector quantity. (it has magnitude and direction).

Effects of force = Movement, change direction, change shape, slow down, speed
up.
Forces = friction, drag, gravitational force, magnetic force, electrostatic force, water
resistance, thrust, elastic.
Resultant force = the total amount of force acting on the object or body along its
direction of the body

Types of force - contact (real contact) & non-contact (at a distance).

❖​Electrostatic force is the attraction between positive and negative.

(Scalar quantity) - Length (physical quantity) of a car is 4.5m (magnitude)

​ ​
(Physical quantity) - Distance (physical quantity) from USA to China is 11600 km
(magnitude) in east (direction)

(Eg. of physical quantity = mass, length, time, temperature, electric current,

velocity, density)

❖​In science, a force is a push or a pull.

❖​All forces have 2 properties : Direction and Size.
❖​A newton (N) describes the size of a force.
❖​Physical quantity is something that can be measured. It can be expressed by
some numbers and units,
❖​More than one force often acts on an object.
❖​When all the forces acting on an object are added together, you determine
the net force on the object.
 ❖​An object with a net force of more than 0N on it will change its state of
motion.

When forces are applied in the same direction, they are added to determine the
size of the net force.

​ ​
Net force = 3N + 4N = 7N

When 2 forces act in opposite directions, you subtract the smaller force from the
larger force to determine the net force.

Net force = 5N - 3N = 2N

❖​The net force will be in the same direction as the larger force.

Difference between gravitational force and gravity:

❖​Gravitational force is a universal attraction force.Gravity is a force that pulls
something towards the center.
(Unit 3.2 Speed)

Speed = Distance (m) divided by time (s) = m/s

Weight (N) = Mass (KG) x gravitational field strength (N/kg)

❖​Motion is when an object changes place or position. To properly describe

motion you need :
1.​ Starting and ending position
2.​ Movement relative to what? (wTf does this mean)
3.​ How far did it go (distance)
4.​ In what direction did it go?

❖​Average speed = total distance divided by total time

(Unit 3.3 Describing movement)

❖​Scientists use graphs to describe how two variables are related.

❖​A graph that shows the relationship between the variables distance and time
are called distance/time graphs.
❖​In distance/time graphs, the measure of distance is planted on the vertical
axis, and the measure of time is planted on the horizontal axis.
❖​Graphs are more useful because : it is easier to see trends and patterns, you
can read any value during the journey from the graph, values can be
calculated from the graph and information can be seen easily.
❖​At the starting position the variable will have traveled zero distance. No shit.
❖​If the variable stops, it is stationary ( not moving with a speed of 0 ), and on
the graph it will appear as a straight line.
 ❖​Different unit systems:
❖​1. CGS - centimeters, grams, seconds
❖​2. FPS - feet, pounds, seconds
❖​3. MKS - meters, kilograms, seconds
❖​4. SI - meters, kilograms, seconds

❖​Basic quantities are length, mass and time.

History
​​ Myanmar history (Wtf even is this 🤦)
❖​ပျဥ်ပြားမင်းသည်ပုဂံကိုတည်ေထာင်ခဲ့သည်။ သူသည်ပုဂံ၏ပထမဘုရင်ဖြစ် သည်။
❖​ပုဂံမှာထင်ရှားသောဘုရင်များသည် အနော် ရထား၊ ကျန်စစ် သား တို့ ဖြစ် သည်။
❖​ပုဂံသည် နာရသီဟပတေ့မင်း လက်အောက်မှာပြိ ုကွဲ ခဲ့ သည်။

❖​ပုဂံကို တိက
ု ်ခိုက်ချင်သောသူသည် ရှ မ်းညီနောင် ၃ ဦတိဖြ
ု စ် သည်။
❖​ရှ မ်းညီနောင် ၃ ဦးသည် အသင်္ခယာ၊ ရာဇသင်္ကြံ နှင့် သီဟသူ တို့ ဖြစ် သည်။
❖​သီဟသူသည် (၁၃၁၂) တွင် ပင်းယ ကိုတည်ထောင်ခဲ့သည်။ ပင်းယသည် မင်းဆက်
၆ ဆက်ရှိသည်။
❖​အသင်္ခယာ သည် (၁၃၁၂) မှာလည် စစ် ကိုင် ကို တည်ေဆာက်ခဲ့သည်။ စစ် ကိုင်သည်
မင်းဆက် ၇ ဆက်ရှိခဲ့သည်။
❖​ပုဂံကို တိက
ု ်ခိုက် နောက်လသ
ူ ည် မောရှ မ်းရှ မ်းကြီးတိဖြ
ု စ် သည်။

၁. ပင်းယသည် စစ် ကိုင်ကို တိက

ု ်ခိုက်ဖို့ကြိုစားသည်
၂. ပင်းယတို့ သည် မောရှ မ်းများကို အကူညီတောင်းသည်။
၃. မောရှ မ်းတိသ
ု ည် စစ် ကိုင် ကိုတိက
ု ်သည် တိက
ု ်သောအခါမှာ ပင်းယတို့ မပါသည်။
၄. မောရှ မ်းတို့ သည် စစ် ကိုင် ကိုသိမ်းခဲ့ သည်
၅. မောရှ မ်း တို့ သည် စစ် ကိုင်ကိုတိက
ု ်သောအခါ၊ ပင်းယမပါသောကြောင့်
ပင်းယတို့ ကိုမောရှ မ်းက ပြန်တိက
ု ်သည်။
၆. မောရှ မ်းသည် ပင်းယ ကိုသိမ်းပြီ း ရှ မ်းပြည်ကိုပြန်သည်။

(English translation)
❖​ပျဥ်ပြား was the first king of Bagan.
❖​Famous kings of the Bagan period were အနော် ရထား၊ ကျန်စစ် သား
❖​Bagan started to fail under နာရသီဟပတေ့မင်း’s rule.

❖​The ရှ မ်းညီနောင် ၃ ဦ wanted to attack Bagan.

❖​The ရှ မ်းညီနောင် ၃ ဦ were အသင်္ခယာ၊ ရာဇသင်္ကြံ နှင့် သီဟသူ
❖​သီဟသူ made ပင်းယ in 1312. ပင်းယ had 6 kings.
❖​အသင်္ခယာ made စစ် ကိုင် in 1312. စစ် ကိုင် had 7 kings.
❖​Another group who wanted to attack Bagan were the မောရှ မ်းရှ မ်းကြီ

1.​ ပင်းယ wanted to attack စစ် ကိုင်, but realized they would need help.
2.​ ပင်းယ asked မောရှ မ်း for help, and they agreed
3.​ The မောရှ မ်း attacked စစ် ကိုင် and won, but ပင်းယ betrayed them and did not
show up to the battle.
4.​ The မောရှ မ်း, betrayed, attacked ပင်းယ as revenge and took over ပင်းယ.
5.​ Afterwards, the မောရှ မ်း returned to ရှ မ်းပြည်.

ENGLISH HISTORY
text ⇒ asked in class
The British empire in america

(Background history of England)

●​ from 1600 to 1900, Britain built the largest empire ever

●​ The British Empire governed one-fourth of the world’s landmass and
one-fifth of its population.
●​ Spain established new colonies in the Americas, such as Mexico and Peru.
●​ Portugal developed the most extensive trading routes, spreading from
Brazil to Indonesia.
●​ The Netherlands pioneered an advanced banking system for investing in
overseas trade.
(The British Settlement in Virginia)
●​ At the beginning of the 17th century, the English began to establish their
colonies in America.
●​ England’s first successful colony was Virginia in North America a private
company settled in Virginia (Virginia Company) was
●​ granted a Royal Charter by King James I in 1606 to explore and cultivate
North
●​ American territories. However, they faced a struggle with the right crop for
the soil and climate.
●​ In 1617, the English settler discovered that the tobacco plant grew
●​ well in Virginia.
●​ By 1700 almost 6 million kilograms of tobacco were being exported to
Britain yearly.
(Massachusetts and New England.)
 ●​ On 9 November 1620, a boat called the Mayflower carrying 102
passengers landed at Cape Cod ( now Massachusetts).
●​ Many of the passengers were Puritans. They wanted to escape from
England and create a community of perfect godliness in the New World
(Pilgrim Fathers). These Puritan settlers named their colder, wetter stretch
of North America ‘New England’.
●​ The Pilgrim Fathers established a lucrative trade through buying animal furs
from native American tribes, and fishing stocks off America’s eastern coast.
●​ By 1640, 20,000 more settlers had arrived in New England.
Other English colonies in North America
●​ Maryland was named after Charles I’s wife Henrietta Maria New York was
named after Charles II’s brother the Duke of York.
●​ By 1732, Britain’s 13 colonies stretched along the Eastern Coast
●​ from New Hampshire in the north, to Georgia in the south.
Native Americans
●​ At first, the English settlers depended upon the help of native American to
survive and often traded European goods
●​ The British saw Native Americans as simple ‘savages’, and became brutal in
their treatment of them. However, European diseases such as smallpox,
influenza and diphtheria attacked North America.
●​ The population of Native Americans plummeted from 2 million in1500, to
32,500 in 1820.
Caribbean and sugar plantation
●​ During this period ,the Caribbean was one of the profitable colonies of
England.
 ●​ One of the first Caribbean colonies was the island of Barbados, for which
Charles I granted a Royal Charter in 1627.
●​ The English introduced sugar cane plant to Barbados.
●​ Sugar cane thrived in Caribbean weather and was used to create refined
sugar, molasses and rum.
●​ In 1655 the English seized the islands of Antigua, Nevis and Jamaica from
Spain.
●​ by 1775, britain's sugar trade was worth 5x more than tobacco trade.

Labour Problems

●​ Many criminal prisoners sent from Britain as plantation labor died of diseases
such as yellow fever or malaria.
●​ farming sugar cane was very labor intensive
●​ solution was to enslave people from south africa

The British Empire in India

The Background history of the British India

●​ in the 16th century, european merchants wanted to trade with world’s

●​ wealthiest region: India.
●​ At that time, the Indian subcontinent was ruled by the Mughal Emperor
●​ who were Muslim warlords from Central Asia and conquered India during
●​ the 1550s.
●​ The Mughal Emperor granted each province to a prince(nawab), to rule on
his behalf.
●​ First, the Portuguese, than the Dutch, and finally the English and French
 ●​ European merchants competed for their valuable trade in Indian sugar,
●​ saltpeter, indigo dye, and most important high quality cotton and silk.
●​ However, European merchants first had to gain permission from the
●​ Mughal Emperor and his local nawab.
●​ were all given permission to trade and built factories along India’s
coastline.

The role of the East India Company

●​ In 1600, Queen Elizabeth gave a royal charter to the East India

Company.
●​ In the 17th century, the East India Company was given permission to trade in
India at three major factories: Bombay, Madras and Calcutta(Kolkata).
●​ The East India Company’s factories were built solely for trade.
●​ The British merchants paid much attention to their coastal fortresses.

Diamon Pitt

●​ Thomas Pitt traveled to India in 1674 to make his fortune.

●​ He conducted own private trade outside the East India Company business.
●​ In 1701, Pitt acquired a 410 carat diamond, then the largest in the world
and sold it in 1717 to the French royal family for five times its original price.
●​ Merchants who made their fortune in India were nicknamed
●​ ‘nabobs’ (provincial Governor), and this deal made ‘Diamond Pitt’ one of
the richest nabobs in England.

The Afghan invasion and the British Expansion

●​ By the 1740s, the central power of the Mughal Emperor in India was
breaking down.
●​ Afghan armies invaded India from the north and across India, Nawabs
were breaking from Mughal authority and establishing their own
independent kingdoms.
●​ The East India Company began to fortify its coastal factories, built its own
army, recruiting troops and the British officer to lead them.
 ●​ During the 1750s, the Company was involved in the power struggle of
competing Indian nawabs who were backed by the French East India
Company.

Young Army officer Robert Clive

●​ In 1756, Bengal gained a new nawab, Siraj ud-Daulan, who seized the
British trading post of Calcutta.
●​ The news of the lost of Calcutta spread to Madras.
●​ The East India Company army officer named Robert Clive decided to take
action.
●​ Clive marched his army 1000 miles north from Madras to relieve
Calcutta.
●​ Clive persuaded Siraj’s commander to betray his own nawab.

The Battle of Plassey

●​
●​ At the Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757, Clive’s combination of Indian
soldiers and European weapons proved brutally effected.
●​ With just 3000 troops, Clive defeated Siraj’s army of 50000 men.
●​ Clive then installed Mir Jafar as a ‘ puppet’ nawab of Bengal.

The Treaty of Allahabad (i'm not sure if the tr asked questions for these areas but i didn't hear it so i dont think he did)

●​ At the treaty of Allahabad in 1765, the Mughal Emperor was placed under
the direct rule of the East India Company, with Robert Clive as Governor.
●​ The East India Company got the right to tax 20 million people, making
around £3 million a year.

The consequences of the Treaty

●​ According to Treaty of Allahabad, the Company Army grew to over 100,000

●​ men and expansion of its power across India.
●​ By 1815, the East India Company ruled much of the north – East India,
 ●​ spreading from Bengal towards Delhi, from Calcutta to the Carnatic and
growing portion of south- west India.
●​ Around 40 million Indians were under British rule, including from 1803
●​ onwards- the Mughal Emperor himself. The Governor General of the East
●​ India Company was now the de facto ruler of much of India.

ICT (Information Technology)

Bob

Unit - 1 ​(Network communication & Mobile OS) ​

​
❖​Network is 2 or more computers linked together.
❖​Its purpose is to share resources.
❖​It shares resources such as people, things, money, and information.
❖​Eg. of resources are printers & files.

Types of networks:
 1.​ PAN (Personal Area Network)
2.​ LAN (Local Area Network)
3.​ CAN (Campus Area Network)
4.​ MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
5.​ WAN (Wide Area Network)

A network can be categorized by geographical data.

1.​ PAN ( Personal Area Network)

❖​It is among personal devices. (Eg. Phone, Tablet)
❖​Covers only a few meters.
❖​There are Wireless PAN and Wire PAN.
❖​Wire PAN uses cables. (USB Cables)
❖​Wifi and Bluetooth use Wireless PAN.

2.​ LAN (Local Area Network)

❖​Limited geographical Area
❖​Covers only a few kilometers.
❖​Using LAN without cables is called WLAN.

3.​ CAN (Campus Area Network)

❖​The same campus.

4.​ MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

❖​The same geographical area.

5.​ WAN (Wide Area Network)

 ❖​A large geographical area

(Client Server Architecture)

❖​The specific type of network.

❖​Consists of one server (powerful computer) and multiple clients (multiple
computers).
❖​One server supports multiple clients.
❖​The server has powerful central processors, added memory & larger disk
drives.
❖​The server stores files & Databases.
❖​The clients request a server.
❖​The server responds to its clients.

Advantages
❖​Increased security.

Disadvantages
❖​The risk of system overload.

(Peer-to-peer Architecture)
Peer to peer architecture is a type of network.
❖​Each workstation has equivalent capabilities and responsibilities.
❖​Do not have a server.​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
❖​Can be set up among only a few computers
❖​Much simpler to set up.

Advantages
❖​Supports distributed processing
Disadvantages
❖​Does not support centrally managed security.
❖​Does not provide data backup.

(Network topology)
The physical arrangement of cables, computers &
other peripheral devices to form a network is called
topology. Peripheral devices are input and output
devices.

There are 3 types of topology:

❖​Bus topology
 ❖​Star topology
❖​Ring topology

(Bus Topology)
❖​Uses a single main cable (Linear cable, backbone cable)
❖​Advantages - Easy to install, Does not require much cable, very cost
effective.
❖​Disadvantages - If backbone cable falls, the entire network stops working.
Very difficult to locate the problem area.

(Star Topology)
❖​Most commonly used.
❖​All the workstations are connected to a central hub.
❖​Any data that is sent first goes to the central hub.
❖​Hub is a networking device that connects multiple devices to share
resources.
❖​Switch is a networking device that transfers data
from source computers to destination computers.

Advantages
❖​Easy to add and remove workstation.
❖​Easy to install.

Disadvantages
❖​Requires more cable length.
❖​Failure in the hub will break down the entire network.
(Ring Topology)
❖​Every workstation has 2 neighbors.
❖​All messages travel through a ring in the same direction.

Advantages
❖​Easier to detect faults.
❖​Fewer cable wires.

Disadvantages
❖​A failure breaks the loop, leading to breakdown of the entire network.
❖​Adding or removing a device/workstation requires rewriting & re-routing all
existing cables.

(Glossary)
❖​Computer network - 2 or more computers linked together is called a
computer network.
❖​Topology - Physical arrangement of cables, computers & other peripheral
devices to form a network is called topology
❖​Server - Server is a main computer that manages network resources,
software & files.
❖​Hub - Hub is a networking device that connects multiple devices to share
resources.
❖​Workstation - Workstation is a computer intended for individual use in a
networking environment.
❖​NIC - NIC is a piece of hardware placed inside the system unit.
❖​Transmission channel - The medium used for transmission of data
between nodes in a network is called transmission channel.
 ❖​The components of a network are Server, Workstation, NIC, Hub and
Transmission.

​ (Types of transmission channels)

❖​Wired transmission channels help in the transmission of data over a
wire-based network.

Examples of wire-based networks are:

-​ Coaxial cable
-​ Twisted pair cable
-​ Fibre-optic cable

Coaxial cable
❖​Coaxial cable is the most commonly used, and the cheapest.
❖​It is widely used in small networks and cable TV.
❖​Suitable for transmitting low-powered signals over a small distance.

Twisted pair cable

❖​It consists of 2 independently insulated wires, twisted around one another.
❖​The twisting stops the disruption of signals due to adjacent pairs or other
sources.

Fibre-optic cable
❖​It uses optical fibers
❖​It uses the concept of light (somehow)
❖​It can be used for long distances.
❖​It can be less damaged and it replaces copper wires.
​ Wireless transmission channels
❖​It is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of wires.
❖​There are many types of wireless networks that make data communication
possible, both over long & short range.
❖​(Eg.) Radiowave, Infrared, MICROWAVE, Bluetooth

Radiowave
❖​Type of electromagnetic radiation.
❖​It is used for long distances.
❖​The signals can pass through thick objects.
❖​It is used in radio communication (AM/FM), communication satellites, radars,
and computer networks.
❖​Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to get info about objects.

Infrared
❖​Oldest form of wireless communication
❖​It is electromagnetic radiation.
❖​It is suitable for short distances.
❖​The signals travel in a straight line and cannot pass through walls.
❖​(eg.) TV remote

Microwave
❖​Most commonly used wireless transmission medium.
❖​Are electromagnetic waves with relatively long wavelengths and low
frequencies.
❖​Most wireless devices can be used with microwaves. Yes.
 ❖​Cost effective, extensively used in cellular communication. Yes. Microwave.

Bluetooth
❖​Bluetooth is another wireless communication medium operating over short
distances.
❖​8 devices can be connected at the same time.

Mobile OS
❖​(eg.) Android OS, iOS, Blackberry OS, webOS

Android OS
❖​Most popular operating system
❖​An open source & freely available Linux based mobile OS
❖​Since it is an open source system, it can be easily used & modified by
anyone.

iOS
❖​It is the second most popular mobile OS after Android.
❖​The mobile OS designed by Apple Incorporation, mainly for iPhones, iPod &
iPad.
❖​iOS is a closed source system owned by Apple and no other company or
person can use it or modify it, therefore providing strong security.

Blackberry OS
❖​Developed by Blackberry Limited for its own devices.
❖​3rd most popular mobile OS.
❖​No longer used; has become less popular
 ❖​Old geezer phone

WebOS
❖​It is a Linux-based open source operating system.
❖​WebOS strongly supports multitasking & is better than iOS when running
multiple applications at one time.

(Advantages of a computer network)

❖​Centralized software management : Software can be loaded on the main
computer, the file server. This saves time & energy.

❖​Resource sharing : Resources can be shared by connecting them on a

network. It saves space & is also cheap.

❖​Speed : Files can be sent and received quickly. It saves time and is
convenient.

❖​Cost efficient : Storing software on a file server and making it available to

other computers connected to it saves money.

❖​Security : Sensitive files and programs are protected by passwords. They

can be made as read-only files, helping avoid copying of programs.

(Disadvantages of a computer network)

❖​When the server develops a fault, users may not be able to run the
application programs.
❖​If the network stops operating, computers cannot access the data/files.

❖​As traffic increases, the performance degrades.

❖​Difficult to manage large numbers of computers.

❖​If the server is hacked or attacked by a virus, the security of data is at risk.

Unit - 4 ​

❖​A computer program is a set of instructions given to a computer to

accomplish a certain task.
❖​Computer programs are written in a language that computers can
understand, called computer languages or programming languages.
❖​Programming languages - Basic, C, C++, COBOL, PASCAL, Visual Basic
and Python.

❖​5 generations of programming languages

❖​1. 1st Gen (1GL) : machine language
❖​2. 2nd Gen (2GL) : assembly language
❖​3. 3rd Gen (3GL) : high-level language
❖​4. 4th Gen (4GL) : very high-level language
❖​5. 5th Gen (5GL) : Artificial Intelligence
1st generation : Machine Language
❖​Lowest level
❖​Machine language
❖​A long series of 1s and 0s.
❖​Used by 1st gen computers which were huge room sized computers.

2nd Generation : Assembly language

❖​Assembly language
❖​Requires a translator called assembler to convert to machine language.
❖​Assembly language is a low level language based on the English alphabet.

3rd Generation : High level language

❖​A programming language in which the programming statements are not
closely related to the internal characteristics of the computer is called a high
level language.
❖​High level language contains instructions in English-like commands to
perform tasks.
❖​High level language is based on the English alphabet and mathematics.
❖​(Eg.) FORTRAN, COBOL, PASCAL, BASIC, C, C++, C# and Java.

4th Generation : Very High level language

❖​4th Generation is a programming language or programming environment
designed with a specific purpose of development of commercial business
software.
❖​The instructions are written in English-like sentences.
❖​These instructions are non-procedural (eg.) Structured Query Language
(SQL), which is different from procedural third generation languages.
 ❖​It increases productivity as there are fewer lines of code to get something
done.
❖​Designed to reduce programming effort, time and cost.
❖​(eg.) APL, CSP, SQL

5th Generation : Artificial Intelligence

❖​5th gen languages are mainly used in AI research.
❖​(eg.) Prolog, OPS5, Mercury

language
❖​machine language are strings of 0s and 1s
❖​assembly language is based on the english alphabet
❖​a high level language is based on the english alphabet and mathematics
samples; english like commands to perform tasks.
❖​instructions of very high level languages are non-procedural, and written in
english like sentences.

Computer Language Translators

❖​Converts instructions written in a given computer language to another
language
❖​Assembler - Assembly language to Machine language and Machine
language to Assembly language
❖​Compiler - High level language to machine language ​
It converts the entire program in 1 go and reports all the program errors with
their line number.
❖​Interpreter - High level language to Machine language​
It converts and executes line by line.
Important. Terms. And. Definitions.

❖​Modular programming - The logical parts of a problem are divided into a

series of individual, interchangeable routines so that each may be
programmed independently.
❖​Procedural programming - Execution of the functions in a step by step
linear order.
❖​Non-procedural programming - Type of programming where the
programmer has to specify what the program should do. (Not in order)
❖​Object-Oriented programming - A program is no longer a series of
instructions, but a collection of objects. Results in faster development and
saves time, reduces maintenance costs, and improves flexibility. (eg. Java)
❖​Event-driven programming - Programmingigga the code that executes in
response to an event is called event-driven programming.
❖​Rapid Application Development - Process of rapidly creating an
application without extensive planning.

Unit - 12 ​

❖​The Internet is an interconnected network.

❖​The World Wide Web is a collection of web pages.
❖​These web pages are interconnected using hyperlinks
❖​Hyperlink is designed by HTML
❖​World wide web is also called WWW or the Web
Web Browser
❖​A Software application that is used to access information on the web.
❖​Examples of web browsers : Firefox, Google Chrome, Internet explorer

Protocol
A set of rules to be followed for data communication on the network.
❖​4 types:
❖​1. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
❖​2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
❖​3. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
❖​4. Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

❖​A set of rules for transferring files on the web. (text, graphic images, sounds,
videos and other multimedia files)

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

❖​A standard protocol used for exchanging files between computers on the
internet.

STMP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

❖​Is used in sending & receiving emails.
❖​It also lets the user save messages in a server mailbox.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

(Made up of 2 protocols)
❖​The main protocol for the internet.
 ❖​IP : responsible for dividing data into smaller packets
❖​TCP : verifying the correct delivery of data.

Components of the Web

❖​Web clients : This can be a laptop or a personal computer at home or at the
office.
❖​Web Server : This is the host computer in a network that contains data in
the form of web pages.
❖​Web browser : A software application in a laptop or PC which is used to
access information on the web.
❖​Internet Service Provider (ISP) : A company that offers its customers
access to the internet. The ISP connects to its customers using a data
transmission technology, which is appropriate for delivering data such as
dial-up, DSL, cable modem.

Web hosting
❖​A facility that allows individuals and organizations to make their own
websites.

Mathematics 👴🏿
(Instead of mesmerizing the things in these notes for mathematics, you can
practice with the workbook or the stack of papers that the teacher gave us. Just
keep the things in here like common sense.)
Algebra

Unit-1

Factors
A factor is a number that divides exactly into another number with no
remainder.
E.g. 2 is a factor of 16
Because it goes into 16 exactly 8 times.
Note : 1 is a factor of every number.
The largest factor of any number is the number itself.

Multiples
A multiple of a number is found when you multiply that number by a
positive integer.
That first multiple of any number is the number itself (the number
multiplied by 1).

E.g. The first fiNumbers

❖​ Natural Numbers = { 1, 2, 3, …. } (Numbers above 0)
❖​ Whole Numbers = { 0, 1, 2, 3, … } (Numbers above and equal to
0)
❖​ Integers = { …, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … } (Numbers below, above
and equal to 0)
❖​ Positive Integers = { 1, 2, 3, … } (Numbers above 0)
❖​ Negative Integers = { …, -3, -2, -1 } (Numbers below 0)
❖​ Even Numbers = { 2, 4, 6, 8, … } (Numbers that can be divided by
2 with no remainder left)
❖​ Odd Numbers = { 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, … } (Numbers that are divided by 2
with a remainder left)
❖​ Square Numbers = { 1, 4, 9, 16, … } (Numbers that are the result
of a square)
❖​ Rational Numbers = { 1, 1½, ¼, … } (Numbers that can be written as
a fraction, a/b where a and b are integers and b≠0)
Square Numbers
1² = 1 x 1 = 1​ ​ 8² = 8 x 8 = 64​​ 15² = 15 x 15 = 225​ ​
2² = 2 x 2 = 4​ ​ 9² = 9 x 9 = 81​ ​ 16² = 16 x 16 = 256
3² = 3 x 3 = 9​ ​ 10² = 10 x 10 = 100​ 17² = 17 x 17 = 289
4² = 4 x 4 = 16​ ​ 11² = 11 x 11 = 121​ 18² = 18 x 18 = 324
5² = 5 x 5 = 25​​ 12² = 12 x 12 = 144​ 19² = 19 x 19 = 361
6² = 6 x 6 = 36​​ 13² = 13 x 13 = 169​ 20² = 20 x 20 = 400
7² = 7 x 7 = 49​ ​ 14² = 14 x 14 = 196

Square Roots ( √ )
√1 = √1 x 1 = 1​ ​ ​ ​ √121 = √11 x 11 = 11
√4 = √2 x 2 = 2​​ ​ ​ √144 = √12 x 12 = 12
√9 = √3 x 3 = 3​ ​ ​ √169 = √13 x 13 = 13
√16 = √4 x 4 = 4​ ​ ​ √196 = √14 x 14 = 14
√25 = √5 x 5 = 5​ ​ ​ √225 = √15 x 15 = 15
√36 = √6 x 6 = 6​ ​ ​ √256 = √16 x 16 =16
√49 = √7 x 7 = 7​ ​ ​ √289 = √17 x 17 = 17
√64 = √8 x 8 = 8​ ​ ​ √324 = √18 x 18 = 18
√81 = √9 x 9 = 9​ ​ ​ √361 = √19 x 19 = 19
√100 = √10 x 10 = 10​​ ​ √400 = √20 x 20 = 20
Cube Numbers
1³ = 1 x 1 x 1 = 1​​ ​ ​ ​ 11³ = 11 x 11 x 11 = 1331
2³ = 2 x 2 x 2 = 8​ ​ ​ ​ 12³ = 12 x 12 x 12 = 1728
3³ = 3 x 3 x 3 = 27​ ​ ​ ​ 13³ = 13 x 13 x 13 = 2197
4³ = 4 x 4 x 4 = 64​ ​ ​ ​ 14³ = 14 x 14 x 14 = 2744​
5³ = 5 x 5 x 5 = 125​ ​ ​ ​ 15³ = 15 x 15 x 15 = 3375
6³ = 6 x 6 x 6 = 216​ ​ ​ ​ 16³ = 16 x 16 x 16 = 4096
7³ = 7 x 7 x 7 = 343​ ​ ​ ​ 17³ = 17 x 17 x 17 = 4913
8³ = 8 x 8 x 8 = 512​​ ​ ​ 18³ = 18 x 18 x 18 = 5836
9³ = 9 x 9 x 9 = 729​​ ​ ​ 19³ = 19 x 19 x 19 = 6859
10³ = 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000​ ​ ​ 20³ = 20 x 20 x 20 = 8000
 Squares = To square a number, multiply the number by itself.
E.g. 6² = 6 x 6 = 36
1.​ Square roots = The square root of a number, when multiplied by
itself, gives the number.
E.g. √36 = √6 x 6 = 6
Note : Every positive integer has two square roots, one positive and
one negative.
E.g. √36 = √6 x 6 = 6
​ ​ (or)
√36 = √(-6) x (-6) = -6
So, √36 = 土6
Laws of Indices
If m, n, a and b are real numbers, then
ve multiples of 12 is 12, 24, 36, 48, 60

Prime Numbers
Prime numbers are numbers that only have 1 and itself as its factors.
E.g. 3 is a prime number because its factors are 1 and itself, 3
Note : 1 is not a prime number because it only has 1 factor, itself.

HCF
HCF stands for highest common factor which means the highest of the
common factors between two or more numbers.
E.g. Find the HCF of 18 and 22
​ Factors of 18 = 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 and 18
​ Factors of 22 = 1. 2, 11 and 22
​ Common factors = 1 and 2
​ HCF = 2
Note : The HCF of two prime numbers is always 1.

LCM
LCM stands for lowest common multiple which means the lowest of the
common multiples between two or more numbers.
E.g. Find the LCM of 8 and 2
​ Multiples of 8 = 8, 16, 24, …
​ Multiples of 2 = 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, …
​ Common Multiples = 8, 16, 24, …
​ LCM = 8

Prime Factors
Prime factors are numbers that can multiply together to make the original
number, and they must be prime,
E.g. 6 = 3 x 2
22 = 2 x 11

Finding HCF and LCM with Prime Factors

You can easily find the HCF and LCM of two or more numbers by using
prime factors.

For HCF, take the common prime factors of the two or more numbers
and multiply them together with the lowest power.
E.g. 60 = 2² x 3 x 5
 75 = 3 x 5²
HCF = 3 x 5 = 15

For LCM, take the highest power of the factors of the two or more
numbers, it doesn’t have to be common, then multiply them together.
E.g. 60 = 2² x 3 x 5
75 = 3 x 5²
LCM = 2² x 3 x 5² = 300

Multiplying and Dividing Integers

Rules for multiplying and dividing positive and negative numbers.
(+) x (+) = (+)​(+) ÷ (+) = (+)​​ It the signs are the same, then the
(-) x (-) = (-)​ (-) ÷ (-) = (+)​ ​ answer is (+).

(+) x (-) = (-)​(+) ÷ (-) = (-)​ ​ If the signs are different, then the
(-) x (+) = (-)​(-) ÷ (+) = (-) ​​ answer is (-).
Unit-2

Expression
Fractions
One - quarter = ¼
Three - quarter = ¾
Five - ninths = 5/9
Three - fifths = ⅗

Like and Unlike Terms

Like terms are terms that have the same

Global Perspectives
❖​Seeing, Understanding, Situation, Impacts (+ or -)
(Eg.) Walking in on Mario and Luigi making out in the corner of a dark alley.
1.​ Seeing : I see Mario and Luigi making out.

2.​ Understanding : I understand that Mario and Luigi have feelings for
eachother, therefore they are making out in a corner of a dark alley.

3.​ Situation : Mario and Luigi are making out. They are still making out.

4.​ Impact : I get a negative impression that I can no longer be in a relationship

with Mario, as Luigi has now stolen him. The positive impact is that I can use
 this against them, as nobody except me knows that they are making out in
the corner of a dark alley.

(6 skills of G.P)
❖​Analysis, Communication, Collaboration, Research, Reflection, Evaluation.

Music
❖​The staff is where musical notes are written.
❖​It is composed of 5 lines and four spaces.
❖​Lower-pitched notes are written lower on the staff.
❖​Higher-pitched notes are written higher on the staff.
❖​Sometimes even higher or even lower-pitched notes need to be written, so
they use Ledger lines.
❖​Ledger lines are small lines that allow the staff to be expanded. As many as
needed can be added.

How to draw Treble clef or G clef

​ Ok Draw ur Treble clef on the 2nd line ok Yes. Then draw

curvature line that touch the third line then go down to the first line
and touch and then the go up to the top yes then go back down then
draw the curly sesame seed yes.

How to draw Bass clef or F clef

Oh hello ok yes you are ready for another Musical note drawing lesson Ok

Ok First draw the line on the 4th line then go up and touch the 5th line the top line
yes then curvature downward in the curve motion to the first space, then draw the

😟Is Sad.
2 dot on the 4th and 3rd space Ok. Good. If u pay attention u will notice that it is

Sad Face.

English
Summary for non-fiction, summarizes the key points and paraphrases the text.​

Summary for fiction, summarizes all the characters, the solution (how the story
ends), the problem (the main plot), and the settings.
The writer’s tone is the writer's attitude or feelings. It can affect how characters are
in the story. You can make out the writer’s tone from the choice of words in the
text.
​
Structural features : Beginning, Middle, End, Characters, Settings, Plot
(Problem, Solution), Backstory, Dialogue

In dialogues these are often used:​

1.) Speech marks
2. ) Reported verbs
3. ) Characters are included to show who said
4. ) Punctuations
5. ) 1st person & 2nd person are commonly used​

PEE your answers :)

 ​
​
Nextly PEEL your answers :3​

​
​
Drama scripts must include:
1. ) Stage direction
2. ) Characters on the left
3. ) Colons​
​
Audio scripts must include:​
1. ) Voiceactors​
2. ) Background music​
3. ) Sound effects​
4. ) Script​
​
Figurative language = words and phrases with more imaginative meaning to
create special effect​
Examples of figurative language techniques are include;​
Simile – compared to something else using the word ‘as’ or ‘like’​
Personification – an object is described as if it has human characteristics​
Alliteration — use of the same sound, especially consonants​
Hyperbole – Exaggerated statements​
Metaphor – Non-literal comparison​
​
Main points are:​
- childhood​
- what they do/did (achievements)​
- influences​
​
Let's SMILE !!! ​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
Internal rhyme - the rhyme is within the same line.​
Near rhyme - the rhyme uses sounds/ words that are similar but not the same.​
​
Enjambment - where one line of poetry continues on to the line below​
End-stopped - where a line of poetry has a full stop at the end​
​
What to note when we write about the structure:​
- line​
- stanza​
- punctuations such as:​
1. Enjambment​
2. Caesura​
3. End-stopped​
​
Imagery..!!!!!!! >:3​
Australian Geography

​ (Unit 6.1 Why are rivers

important?)
❖​A river is water flowing downhill in a channel.
❖​Rivers are important because they shape the landscape, supply us with
water, influence the location of settlements, and provide us with a means of
travel, power and recreation. (Positive points of rivers)
❖​Rivers can flood, killing people and destroying homes. (Negative points of
rivers)
❖​The source of a river is the beginning of it.
❖​The point where a river enters the sea is called its mouth.
​ (Unit 6.2 How does water flow into

rivers?)
❖​The water cycle is the journey water takes between the hydrosphere,
atmosphere and lithosphere.

Evaporation - when the Sun heats water, it changes into water vapor and rises
into the air.

Condensation - as air rises it cools and the water vapor forms clouds.

Precipitation - water droplets form and fall to the ground as rain, hail or snow.

❖​Rivers - water flows in rivers to the sea.

When water reaches the ground, it may be intercepted by plants, be stored on the
surface in a puddle, soak in and infiltrate the soil, run off down a slope, or
evaporate immediately.

❖​A drainage basin is an area of land which feeds a river.

❖​All of the precipitation that falls in this area will flow into the river through
surface runoff, throughflow and groundwater flow.
❖​A watershed is a divide between one drainage basin and another.

❖​Hydrologists study how water flows across the land.

❖​They research and measure groundwater and the drainage basin process.
❖​It is important that they study these processes to better understand river
floods and droughts.
​ (Unit 6.3 What work do rivers do?)
❖​River erosion is the wearing away of the river's banks and bed by the flowing
water's power
❖​ in the channel.
❖​Rivers flow downhill from higher land due to gravity.
❖​Where the gradient of the river in upland areas is steep, the river is
fast-flowing, providing more energy to erode landscapes.
❖​The river channel is full of bits of rock and finer material, which is called
bedload.
❖​This bedload is eroded, transported and deposited by the river.

Rivers erode in 4 ways:

Abrasion - the material being carried by the rivers hit the sides of the river bed,
which breaks off pieces off the bed and the banks.

Attrition - rocks and stones in the river bang against each other, chipping bits off
so the rocks become rounded and smaller.

Hydraulic action
- the force of the
water pushes into
cracks in the rock
at the bed and
banks, breaking
bits off.

Corrosion -
rocks such as
chalk and
limestone are
dissolved in the
river water and
carried away as dissolved material. Corrosion is also called Solution.

❖​Rock is eroded by rivers, then it is transported. If a river is flowing fast, or if it

flows across a steep
gradient, or if heavy rain
gives a greater volume of
water in the channel, the
river can transport or carry
more material.

Transportation happens in 4
ways:

Suspension - The water carries

along fine, light particles of
materials or sediment.

Solution - The dissolved material is transported.

Traction - Boulders and large rocks are slowly rolled along the bed of the river.

Saltation - Small pebbles and stones are bounced along the river bed.

❖​Deposition takes place when a river slows down and no longer has the
energy to carry the material it is transporting, so it drops some.
❖​Larger rock fragments are dropped first due to their greater weight.
❖​Finer materials are deposited later, when the river has less energy.

Deposition can happen if:

-​ The gradient of the river or the volume of water decreases.

-​ The water slows down on the inside of a bend in the river.
-​ The river channel becomes shallower.
-​ The river enters a lake or the sea.
​ (Unit 6.4 How do rivers change

from source to mouth)

❖​Long profile - A line representing the river from its source to its mouth.
❖​Cross profile - It shows a cross-section of a river’s channel & valley at a
certain point.

Upper course
❖​In the upper course, rivers have a steep gradient, it gives the river energy to
flow fast.
❖​There is not a lot of water in the channel so it erodes downward, creating
steep valley sides and a narrow valley floor filled by the river channel.
❖​This is known as vertical erosion and it creates a v-shaped valley.
❖​The river doesn’t have the power to cut through hills so it winds around them,
leaving a spur of land jutting out from the valley side. These are called
interlocking spurs.
❖​The river zig-zags around these spurs.
❖​V-shaped valley - a valley created by vertical erosion near the source of the
river.
❖​Interlocking spurs - hillsides that a river flows in between

The river course flattens as it gets nearer to the mouth due to erosion.
(Unit 6.5 How do rivers shape the

land?)

❖​A waterfall forms at a steep drop

in the land profile of a river.
❖​Waterfall - River flows over a
step in the rock.
❖​This is where a river flows
across a geological boundary
between 2 different rock types; where a hard layer of rock lies over a softer,
less resistant rock.
❖​As the river flows over the steep drop, it gains energy, picking up large rocks
at the base of the waterfall, hitting them against softer rocks.
❖​The rushing water forms a pool in the river bed at the base of the waterfall,
forming a plunge pool.
❖​These less resistant rocks erode quickly, undercutting the harder rock above.
❖​Eventually, the overhanging hard rock collapses, as its weight can no longer
be supported.
❖​Large boulders that fall into the plunge pool further erode the softer rock.
This process of undercutting and collapse repeats and the waterfall retreats
upstream, leaving a steep sided gorge that marks where the waterfall was
once located.

❖​Meanders are bends in the course of a river.

❖​Meanders = Large S-shaped bends in a river.

❖​On the outside bend of a meander, the water is deeper and the current flows
faster, so it has more energy to erode the sides, forming a river cliff.
❖​River cliff = a steep bank on the outside of a meander.

❖​On the inside bend of a meander, the current is slower, so the river will
deposit sand and pebbles to form a gentle slip-off slope.
❖​Slip-off slope = a gentle slope on the inside of a meander.

❖​Meanders slowly move across a landscape, as the erosion bank cuts into the
valley.
❖​Lateral erosion occurs at this lower stage of the river, forming a wide flat
valley called a floodplain.
❖​Lateral erosion - when the river banks are worn away making the river
wider.
❖​Flood plain - Low-lying land either side of a river which regularly floods.
❖​Pools - deep parts of a river on the outside bend.
❖​Riffles - in between the pools, where it is shallower.
❖​Infiltrating - water soaking into the soil
❖​Run off - water running over the surface of the land
❖​Surface run off - water running over the surface of the land
❖​Erosion makes the neck of the meander narrower.
❖​As the loop of the meander bend becomes extreme, the meander neck is cut
through completely as water takes the quickest route and makes the straight
path connect.
❖​It leaves the meander loop detached, forming an ox-bow lake.
 ❖​Meanders & ox-bow lakes are found in the middle to lower course of the
river.
❖​Meanders come first before ox-bow lakes.

(Unit 7.1 What is development?)

Myanmar Geography 🧘💆😤😊

❖​ကမ္ဘာက့ ို လွှာထုကြီးများဖြင့် ဖွဲ့စည်းထားကြောင်း ငလျင်လှိုင်းလေ့လာမှုများမှ
သိရှိနငုိ ်သည်
❖​ကမ် ဘာကို (က) ကမ္ဘာအ ့ ပေါ် ယံလာွှ (ခ) ကမ္ဘာကြ
့ ားလွှာ (အပေါ် ပိုင်းနှင့်
အောက်ပိုင်းနှင့်အောက်ပိုင်း) နှင့် (ဂ) ကမ္ဘာဗ
့ ဟိပု ိုင်း (အပြင်လာွှ နှင့်အတွင်းပိုင်း)
ဟူ၍ ၃ ပိုင်း ပိုင်းခြာနိင
ု ်သည်။

(က) ကမ္ဘာအ
့ ပေါ် ယံလာွှ

❖​အပူချ ိန် - ၂၂ ဒီဂရီ ဆဲလ်စီးယပ်

❖​အခြေအနေ - အစိုင်အခဲ အခြေအနေ

❖​သမုဒ္ဒရာအောက်ခင်းလွှာဆီ မာ (Sima)ကို ဆီ လီကာနှင့် မဂ္ဂနဆ

ီ ီ ယမ် ပါဝင်သော
တွင်းထွက်များဖြင့်တည်ဆောက်ထားပြီ း တိက ု ်ကြီးများ အောက်ရှိ ကမ္ဘာအ
့ ပေါ် ယံ
လွှာ ဆီ အယ် (Sial) ကို ဆီ လီကာနှင့် အလူမီနယ
ီ မ် ပါဝင်သော တွင်းထွက်များဖြင့်
တည်ဆောက်ထားသည်။

❖​ကမ္ဘာအ
့ ပေါ် ယံလာွှ သည် အပါးဆုံးအလွှာဖြစ် သည်
 ❖​မြေမျက်နှာပြင်အောက် ၈ ကီလိမ
ု ီ တာမှ ၇၀ ကီလိမ
ု ီ တာအထိ အနက်တင
ွ ်တွေ့ရသည်

❖​ဆီ အယ်လာွှ သည် တိက

ု ်ကြီးများအောက်တင
ွ ် ထူပြီး သမုဒ္ဒရာအောက်ခင်းပိုင်းတွင်
ပါးသည်

❖​အပေါ် ပိုင်အလွှာသည် ဆီ အယ်လာွှ ဟုခေါ် ပြီ း တိက

ု ်ကြီးများတည်ရှိသော
အပေါ် ယံလာွှ ဖြစ် သည်။ ဂရက်နစ် ကျောက် (Granite) များဖြင့်
တည်ဆောက်ထားသည်။

❖​ဆီ အယ်လာွှ ၏အောက်တင ွ ် ပိုမိုလေးလံသိပ်သည်းသည့်ကျောက်များဖြင့်

ဖွဲ့စည်းထားသော ဆီ မာလွှာခေါ်သည့်အလွှာရှ ိ ပြီး သမုဒ္ဒရာအောက်ခင်းများ
တည်ရှိသောအလွှာဖြစ် သည်။

❖​ဗဆော့ကျောက် (Basalt) များဖြင့် တည်ဆောက်ထားသည်

English translation

❖​The Earth is made up of layers, which is why there can be earthquakes ??

❖​The Crust, the Mantle (upper and lower), and the Core (outer and inner), are
the 3?? Layers of Earth.

The crust
❖​Temperature - 22 Degrees celsius
❖​It is Solid ????
❖​The layer of crust underneath oceans is called Sima which is made up of
Magnesium and Silica.
❖​The layer of crust underneath plates or mountains are called Sial which is
made up of Silica and Aluminium.
❖​
​

​ Myanmar
(နာမ် )
❖​နာမ် = အမည်ဟသ
ူ မျှအားလုံးကို နာမ် ဟခေ
ု ါ်သည်

❖​နာမ် သည် သက်ရှိ၊ သက်မဲ့ဒြပ် ရှိ၊ ဒြပ် မဲ့ တို့ ၃ မျ ိုးရှ ိ သည်။

❖​သက်ရှိ = ခွေး၊ လူ၊ ကြောင်

❖​သက်မဲ့ဒြပ် ရှိ = ရေဘူး၊ စားပွဲ၊ ဖိ နပ်

❖​ဒြပ် မဲ့ = ဝမ် နန်၊ ပျောရွှ င်မှု၊ အချစ်

(နာမ် စား)
❖​နာမ် ၏အစားသုံးသောပုဒ်ကို နာမ် စားဟုခေါ်သည်။

(eg.) သူ၊ နင်၊ မင်း၊ ငါ

(ကြိ ယာ)
❖​ကြိယာ၏အရှေ့တွင် “အ” ထည့်၍ဖြစ် စေ၊ ကြိယာ၏ နောက်တင ွ ် “ခြင်း၊ မှု၊ ချက်၊
ဖွယ်၊ စရာ၊ ဖို့ ၊ ရန်၊ ရေး စသည် တို့ ကိုထည့်၍ ဖြစ် စေ ကြိယာနာမ် ပြုလုပ်နင ုိ ်သည်။

❖​ကြိယာနာမ် - ကြိယာ + ခြင်း၊ မှု၊ ချက်၊ ဖွယ်၊ စရာ၊ ဖို့ ၊ ရန်၊ ရေး

❖​ပြုခြင်း၊ ဖြစ် ခြင်း၊ ရှ ိ ခြင်း ကို ဖောင်ပြသော စကားလုံးကို ကြိယာဟုခေါ်သည်။

❖​ဥပမာ - ရှ ိ ၊ ကြည့်၊ ဆို၊ ထမ် း၊ ချ

(နာမ် ပေါင်းကြိ ယာ)

 ❖​နာမ် နှင့်ကြိယာပူးကပ် ထားသည့်စကားလုံးကို နာမ် ပေါင်းကြိယာဟုခေါ်သည်။
❖​ဥပမာ - လူသိများ၊ တာဝန်ကျေ၊ စာသင်ကောင်း၊ စာဖတ်

(ကြိ ယာထောက် )
❖​ကြိယာ၏နောက်ကနေ၍ ကြိယာ၏အဓိ ပ္ပါယ်ကိုကူညီထောက်ယံ့ပေးသောစကား
လုံးကို ကြိယာထောက်ဟခေ ု ါ်သည်။
❖​ဥပမာ - နိင ု ်၊ ပံ့၊ တတ်၊ မိ ၊ ဖူး

(နာမ် အထူ းပြု)

❖​သော၊ သည်၊ မည့်၊ တဲ၊့ မဲ့ ဖြစ် သော နာမ် ကိုအထူးပြုသော စကားလုံးများ
❖​သော၊ သည်၊ မည့် = အရေးဝါကျ
❖​တဲ၊့ မဲ့ = အပြောဝါကျ

Global Perspective