Cell structure and functions of

cell components

 Nucleus:
o Structure: Enclosed by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope; contains
nucleoplasm, chromatin, and the nucleolus.
o Function: Stores the cell's genetic material (DNA) and coordinates activities such
as growth, metabolism, and reproduction by regulating gene expression.
 Mitochondria:
o Structure: Double-membraned organelle with inner membranes folded into
cristae; contains its own DNA.
o Function: Generates ATP through cellular respiration, often referred to as the
powerhouse of the cell.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
o Structure: Network of membranous tubules and sacs; divided into rough (with
ribosomes) and smooth regions.
o Function: Rough ER synthesizes proteins; smooth ER is involved in lipid
synthesis and detoxification.
 Ribosomes:
o Structure: Composed of two subunits made of RNA and proteins; not membrane-
bound.
o Function: Site of protein synthesis, translating mRNA into amino acid sequences.
 Golgi Apparatus:
o Structure: Stacks of flattened membrane-bound sacs.
o Function: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport to
different destinations inside or outside the cell.
 Lysosomes:
o Structure: Membrane-bound organelles containing hydrolytic enzymes.
o Function: Break down waste materials and cellular debris; involved in cell
digestion.
 Chloroplasts (in plant cells):
o Structure: Double-membraned organelles with internal stacks of thylakoids
(grana); contains chlorophyll and its own DNA.
o Function: Conduct photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical energy
stored in glucose.
 Cell Membrane:
o Structure: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, carbohydrates, and
cholesterol.
o Function: Protects the cell, controls the movement of substances in and out, and
facilitates communication with other cells.
 Cytoskeleton:
o Structure: Network of protein filaments and tubules, including microtubules,
actin filaments, and intermediate filaments.
 o Function: Provides structural support, facilitates cell movement, and organizes
the components of the cell.
 Centrosomes and Centrioles:
o Structure: Centrosomes consist of two centrioles surrounded by a mass of
proteins.
o Function: Play a key role in cell division by organizing microtubules and
ensuring the proper distribution of chromosomes.
 Vacuoles:
o Structure: Membrane-bound sacs, larger in plant cells.
o Function: Storage of substances, waste disposal, growth, and maintaining internal
hydrostatic pressure in plant cells.
 Peroxisomes:
o Structure: Small, membrane-enclosed organelles containing enzymes.
o Function: Break down fatty acids and amino acids; detoxify poisons, produce
hydrogen peroxide and convert it into water.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS?

Read More: https://www.sciencing.com/ten-characteristics-living-organisms-
8119158/
All living organisms — from small to big — share characteristics that separate them
from the divisions in nature that do not exhibit life, like rocks or soil. Living creatures
have cells, DNA, the ability to convert food into energy, grow, reproduce, respire and
move. These characteristics become the criteria for scientists to separate the living
elements in nature from the non-living ones.

Cells and DNA

All living creatures consist of cells. Organized into groups such as organelles,
molecules and other multi-cellular classifications, cells can also reproduce
themselves, showcase movement and display a response to certain stimuli for a
scientist to consider the organism as living. Each cell carries deoxyribonucleic acid or
DNA, the material made up of chromosomes that passes down genetic information
which includes inherited traits of its lineages.

Metabolic Action
For something to live, it must consume food and convert that food into energy for the
body. All living entities employ interior chemical reactions to convert eaten food into
energy through a form of digestion, and then transmit the energy extracted to the cells
of the body. Plants and trees convert energy from the sun into food and absorb
nutrients in the soil through their roots.

Internal Environment Changes

Organisms that are alive make changes to their internal environment. Called
homeostasis, this represents the actions a body takes to protect itself. For instance,
when the body gets cold, it shivers to generate heat. All living organisms share this
feature.

Living Organisms Grow

To grow, a living organism must have cells that divide in an orderly way to create
new cells. As cells grow, expand and divide, the creature becomes larger over time.
Scientists use growth and development as a measure of life.

The Art of Reproduction

Living organisms grow and reproduce to make more living organisms like themselves.
This can occur through asexual reproduction or by producing other living organisms
through sexual reproduction. The new organism's DNA is like that of the cell it came
from.

Ability to Adapt
Plants, animals, people, and even microorganism that live can adapt to the world
around them. Adaptability involves the traits that help a living organism survive in its
environment. One such trait includes the way different animal's coats change through
the seasons to make it hard for prey or predator to be seen.

Ability to Interact
A living organism will interact with another living organism — whether it is the same
type of organism, a threat or a neutral organism, there is some form of interaction
between the two. For example, flowers interact with bees by releasing pollen for it to
be picked up and dispersed among female plants during reproduction. Plants like the
Venus flytrap interact with nature by enclosing itself over flies, lizards and other
edible insects that land within its grasp.

The Process of Respiration

Respiration is more than just breathing. It represents the ability of a living organism to
convert energy to feed the cells, using oxygen to break down sugars and produce
carbon dioxide as a by-product expelled during exhalation. All living organisms have
some form of respiration, though the process may differ between them.

Living Creatures Move

To classify an organism as living, it must exhibit some form of movement. Though
humans and animals obviously move, other items such as plants also move though it
is hard to see without a time-lapse camera. Plants move their buds or leaves toward
sunlight or away from shaded areas to promote growth.

What Are Non-Living Things, And What Are

Their Types?
The meaning of non-living things is simply the things around us that are not living.
Such objects do not possess life and don’t have a lifespan or need food and energy as
living things do. Non-living things merely just exist and share space in the world we
call our home.

Non-living things can be characterised as Natural Things and Man Made or Artificial
Things.
1. Natural Things
These are things that have formed and existed on their own forever.
Examples
 Rivers
 Oceans
 Mountains
 Hills
  Planets and Stars

2. Man-Made Things
These are objects or items that have been made by humans. Their existence depends
on humans.
Examples
 Tables
 Chairs
 Gadgets
 Cars
 Clothes

What Are The Characteristics Of Non-Living Things?

Non-living things, too, have their own characteristics, which help us identify them.
Some basic characteristics of non-living things are:
 Non-living things are lifeless objects that do not possess life. They are not
made up of living cells and do not perform metabolic activities.
 They cannot travel from one place to another without the help of an external
force. Hence, they do not show locomotion.
 They don’t require nutrition. They simply exist without the need for any form
of life-supporting processes such as respiration or metabolism.
 They do not reproduce offspring, and there is no process of reproduction
involved in their life cycle.
 They do not die. They need to be destroyed using external force or must be
consumed for the production of other items.

Difference Between Living Things And Non-Living Things

Below are the differences between living VS nonliving things –

Living Things Non-Living Things

1. Living things possess life. 1. They do not possess life.

2. Made up of living cells which

are also called the building blocks 2. Made up of non-living
of life. cells of different materials.

3. Don’t generate energy and

3. Carry out metabolic activities
do not carry out any
in their bodies to generate energy.
metabolic activities in their
 body.

4. They reproduce to keep the

population going. 4. They do not reproduce.

5. They are sensitive and respond 5. They do not respond to

to stimuli. stimuli.

6. Non-living things do not

6. Living things respire. respire.

7. Non-living things can’t

7. Living things age and cease to exist without any
eventually die from disease or cell external forces destroying
death. them.

8. They need nutrients and water 8. They do not need such

to survive. things to survive.

9. Most express emotions and 9. They do not have or

feelings. express emotions.

10. They show signs of growth

from within and often change
their shape and size throughout 10. They do not show signs
their life. of any form of growth.

FAQs
1. Why are plants classified as living things when they cannot move?
Plants are classified as living things because they are made up of living cells and do
show signs of growth. In fact, some plants even move!
2. Why is water a nonliving thing?
Water is considered to be a non-living thing as, on its own, it does not have any life. It
is a habitat for other life forms but is not an organism on its own. However, other life
forms, such as fish and whales, do call it their home!
3. How do living and nonliving things interact with one another in different
habitats?
Living and non-living things interact with each other in every habitat! Air helps birds
fly, while the water in the oceans helps aquatic organisms swim and sustain their
lives. Us humans constantly interact with natural non-living things for sustenance.
Both non-living and living things are equally important!

Euglena
What Is Euglena?
Euglena is a motile, single-celled (unicellular) organism that is
commonly found in aquatic habitats. They were among the first
organisms in the kingdom Protista to be seen under the microscope,
looking like a tiny particle making small movements in the
water. Euglena is generally green in color due to the presence
of chloroplast, the organelle that helps them to
perform photosynthesis.
Unlike the photosynthetic group, there is a parasitic group
of Euglena that causes serious blood and tissue diseases such as
African sleeping sickness and leishmaniasis in humans.

Euglena Image
Where do Euglena Live?
Over 1000 different Euglena species are found in freshwater and
saltwater habitats such as ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, and
waterlogged areas like marshes.

Scientific Classification
Domain Eukaryota

Kingdom Protista

Phylum Euglenozoa

Class Euglenoidea

Order Euglenales

Family Euglenaceae

Genus Euglena
Structure
Euglena is an elongated or spindle-shaped cell with a size around 15-
500 x 10-6 m.
Parts

The internal structures found in a typical photosynthetic Euglena are

as follows:
1. Pellicle: A thin, flexible membrane that supports the plasma
membrane and helps them to change shape
2. Plasma Membrane: The selectively permeable membrane that
protects the inner content of the cell from the outside
environment
3. Cytoplasm: A jelly-like substance distributed throughout the
cell that contains all the cell organelles
4. Chloroplast: Contains the green pigment chlorophyll that helps
them to produce food using sunlight by photosynthesis
5. Nucleus: A membrane-bound organelle that contains the
genetic material, DNA. It also contains a distinct nucleolus that
contains RNA and helps the cell to synthesize proteins
6. Mitochondria: The energy-producing organelle that forms ATP.
All cellular activities such as movement and reproduction are
performed using the mitochondrial energy source
7. Ribosomes: Consists of RNA and proteins, and are responsible
for producing all cellular proteins
8. Golgi Apparatus: Manufactures, stores, and transports large
molecules such as carbohydrates and proteins within the cell
9. Endoplasmic Reticulum: The extensive network of membranes
that helps to package and transport proteins to different
organelles. It is of two types: rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER) – containing ribosomes attached to it;
and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) – devoid of
ribosomes
10. Lysosomes: Small membrane-bound organelles filled with
hydrolytic enzymes that break down large molecules such as
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
11. Contractile Vacuole: It maintains the water and salt
balance within the cell
12. Reservoir: The inward pocket present near the base of
the flagella where contractile vacuole dispels excess water
13. Flagellum: A long whip-like structure attached externally
to the cell body that helps in cell movement.
 An amoeba contains two flagella, a short one that does not
protrude out of the cell, and a long one that helps in swimming
14. Eyespot: A region that is highly colored and contains red-
colored carotenoid pigments that help in the detection of light.
It is sometimes called a stigma
15. Photoreceptor: Also known as the paraflagellar body, it is
the light-sensitive region located near the flagellum that helps
to detect light. It also helps in their movement towards and
away from light stimuli, a process known as phototaxis
16. Paramylon: They are stored starch-like carbohydrate
granules composed of glucose produced during
photosynthesis. Paramylon enables the organism to survive in
low-light conditions when photosynthesis is not possible by
acting as the food reserve for the cell. When the paramylon is
enclosed in a sheath of polysaccharide, it is called the
paramylon sheath of pyrenoid.

Characteristics
How Is Euglena Similar to Plants?
It is unique as it shows the features of both plant and animal cells.
Like plant cells, some Euglena species are autotrophs and thus have
the ability to use sunlight to prepare their food. However, others
show features of an animal cell as they move from one place to
another to acquire food from the environment.

How do They Move?

Euglena moves forward and backward (bidirectional movement)

using a long whip-like structure called a flagellum that acts like a
little motor. The other part that plays a vital role in giving a sense of
direction to its movement is the eyespot that helps to detect
sunlight and produce food by photosynthesis. This is
how Euglena responds to stimuli and performs the movement.
How Do Euglena Eat
It exhibits a mixotrophic mode of nutrition that uses a mix of both
autotrophic and heterotrophic modes. While the photosynthetic
species are autotrophs, others are found to be heterotrophs that
obtain nutrients in the form of bacteria and algae through
absorption by phagocytosis.
How Do They Respire

Euglena takes in free oxygen dissolved in water and breathe out

carbon dioxide by diffusion through the pellicle and thus have
ecological importance in purifying the atmosphere.
How do Euglena Reproduce?
Most of the Euglena life cycle consists of a free-flowing stage and a
non-motile stage. During the free-flowing stage, Euglena reproduces
by an asexual method known as binary fission, where the parent cell
divides equally to form two equal daughter cells. When the growth
conditions become unfavorable, the cells of Euglena enclose
themselves within a thick-walled protective covering called a cyst.
This is the characteristic of their non-motile stage.
Some Euglena species also reproduce by forming reproductive
cysts. During this period, they discard their flagella and become
enveloped in a gelatinous, gummy substance to form reproductive
cysts. Individual cysts then undergo binary fission to produce as
many as 32 or more identical daughter-Euglena cells. When the
conditions become favorable for growth, these daughter cells
become flagellated and are released from the gelatinous mass to
form actively dividing reproductive cells.
They have some other characteristic features, including the
following:
  Lack a cell wall
 Require organic nutrients and vitamins such as vitamin B 12 for
their growth and development
 Some species contain vitamin E (⍺-tocopherol) and high
content of astaxanthin in their cell
 Some species produce an alkaloid known as euglenophycin,
which is found to kill fishes

FAQs

Q1. Is Euglena prokaryotic or eukaryotic?

 Ans. Euglena is a eukaryotic organism because of the presence
of membrane-bound organelles, including a well-defined
nucleus similar to all higher animals.

Paramecium
What is Paramecium?
A Paramecium is a free-living, motile, single-cell (unicellular)
organism belonging to the kingdom Protista that are naturally found
in aquatic habitats. They have a lifespan of a hundred, a thousand
or even a million years. They are the most common of all ciliate
organisms that are characterized by the presence of cilia all along
their transparent and colorless body. Some of the common species
of Paramecium include Paramecium aurelia, Paramecium
caudatum, Paramecium woodruffi, and Paramecium trichium.
The word ‘Paramecium’ was coined in 1752 by John Hill and later
studied in detail by O. F. Müller.
Where are They Found?
They live widely in fresh, brackish, and marine water
bodies. Paramecium is also abundantly found to live in stagnant
basins, ponds, streams, and in decaying organic matter.

Scientific Classification
Domain Eukaryota

Kingdom Protista

Phyllum Ciliophora

Class Oligohymenophorea

Order Peniculida

Family Parameciidae

Genus Paramecium

Structure
How Big is a Paramecium?
Species of Paramecium vary widely in size from 50 to 330 µm
(0.0020 to 0.0130 in) and thus can be viewed under a light
microscope. Cells are typically oval, elongated, foot or cigar-shaped
which are rounded at the front and pointed at the back.

Parts

The basic anatomy of Paramecium shows the following distinct and

specialized structures in their cell:
1. Pellicle: Flexible, thin, elastic membrane consisting of outer
plasma membrane and an inner membrane called epiplasm, but
lacking a cell wall. Pellicle protects the cell from the outside
environment.
2. Cilia: It is of two types. Primarily short, hair-like projections
arranged in longitudinal rows throughout the body that helps in their
movement. The others are long and fewer in number, present at the
posterior end of their body that helps to catch and eat prey.
3. Cytoplasm: The jelly-like fluid that fills up the entire cell. The
outer thin, dense and clear layer of cytoplasm that is bound to
pellicle on one side is called ectoplasm. Below this lies the
endoplasm, a fluid-type, granular cytoplasm that contains the
majority of cell organelles. Being a cell that is non-photosynthetic in
nature and performing respiration in presence of oxygen, the
endoplasm of Paramecium contains organelles such
as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, a Golgi apparatus, and a
phagosome-lysosome system similar to a eukaryotic cell.
4. Nucleus: It is of two types which differ in their shape, content and
function:
a) Macronucleus: Kidney like or ellipsoidal in shape that is densely
packed with DNA. The macronucleus controls all the vegetative
functions of Paramecium hence called the vegetative nucleus.
All Paramecium species contain a single macronucleus.
b) Micronucleus: Found close to the macronucleus, it is a small and
compact structure, spherical in shape that is uniformly distributed
throughout the cell. The micronucleus controls reproduction
in Paramecium and is found to vary in number from species to
species.
5. Vacuole: It is of two types:
a) Contractile Vacuole: It has a complex structure surrounded by
several canals. It collects fluids from the entire cell and expels them
out of the cell. It thus helps in maintaining the water and salt
balance of the cell, a process known as osmoregulation. There are
two contractile vacuoles present close to the dorsal side, one on
each end of the body.
b) Food Vacuole: Non-contractile vacuole that is spherical in shape.
They contain digestive enzymes that help in the digestion of food
in Paramecium.
6. Oral Groove: Also known as vestibulum, it is a long, narrow
depression found in the anterior side of the cell, lined with cilia
which beat continuously to draw food inside the cell.
7. Gullet: Also known as buccal cavity, it is present at the posterior
end of the oral groove. Gullet is the opening that collects food and
passes them to the adjacent cell mouth. It eventually brakes off to
form the food vacuole.
8. Cytostome: Also known as cell mouth, it is a narrow aperture in
the cell membrane that helps to catch prey and send them to food
vacuoles for digestion. The rest of the invagination is called
cytopharnyx, which is a long tube-like structure that works in
conjunction with the cytostome in order to import large molecules
inside the cell.
9. Cytoproct: Also known as cytopyge or cell anus, it is the excretory
pore of Paramecium that lies on the ventral surface just behind the
cytostome. All the undigested food gets eliminated through the
cytopyge.
10. Trycocysts: Spindle-shaped bodies found in the ectoplasm and
filled with dense refractive fluid which may be used as an anchoring
device, and as a means of defense against potential threats or for
catching prey.
Characteristics

How
do Paramecium Move?
It travels using the whiplash movements of cilia. The coordinated
action of cilia propels the organism forward in a counter-clockwise
fashion. The Paramecium spirals through the water as it progresses.
On hitting an obstacle it reverses the beat of cilia to swim backward
for a brief time before resuming its forward progress. If it runs into
an obstacle again, it repeats this process, until it can get past the
object.
How do They Eat and Digest Food?

Paramecium is mostly heterotrophic and thus a consumer that feed

on microorganisms such as bacteria, algae, and yeasts for their
nutrition. To obtain food, the Paramecium uses its cilia to make
movement that helps to sweep the prey through the oral groove and
into the cell. The food passes from the oral groove into the gullet
from where the particles enter the cytostome. Once it enters the
cell, it is gathered to form a food vacuole which then circulates
throughout the cell by a streaming movement called cyclosis or
cytoplasmic streaming. Once the digestion is complete, the vacuole
starts to shrink and the digested nutrients enter into the cytoplasm.
When the completely digested food particles reach the anal pore, it
ruptures, thus expelling its wastes outside the cell.

How do They Respire?

Paramecium takes in dissolved oxygen from the surrounding water

through osmosis. The carbon dioxide that is breathed out is expelled
by diffusion across the cell membrane.

How do Paramecium Reproduce?

Asexual Reproduction
The most common mode of reproduction and the only asexual
means found in Paramecium is binary fission. Here a fully grown
Parameciacell divides at right-angle to the longitudinal axis of the
body into two equal daughter cells which develop into new
organisms. Nuclear division is followed by the cytoplasmic division.
During binary fission the gullet along with the two nuclei undergoes
division to be distributed equally among the two daughter cells.
Sexual Reproduction
During unfavorable or stressful growth conditions such as scarcity of
food, Paramecium reproduces by sexual means, which are of
following types:
a) Conjugation: Two Paramecium of compatible mating types fuse
temporarily and exchange genetic material. Conjugation results in
rejuvenation and formation of four daughter cells from two
participating mother cells. An individual cell has to multiply
asexually at least 50 times before participating in conjugation.
b) Autogamy: Also called self-fertilization, it is similar to conjugation
but occurs within a single individual without the transfer of genetic
material. As a result of autogamy, a new macronucleus is formed in
the daughter cells which rejuvenate the cell by increasing its vitality.
c) Endomixis: It is a process of nuclear organization in a single cell.
At the end of endomixis four daughter Paramecia cells are produced
from a single individual from divisions of the micronucleus.
d) Cytogamy: It is less frequent among all reproductive processes. In
cytogamy two Paramecia cells form a pair and become attached at
their oral surface as in conjugation. But unlike conjugation no
nuclear exchange takes place between the individuals. Similar to
autogamy a new macronucleus is formed in the daughter cells which
rejuvenates the daughter Paramecia cells.

Importance to Humans and the Environment

 Plays an ecologically important role in the carbon cycle where

they eat upon the dead organic matter in addition to the
bacteria, further aiding in decomposition.
 Helps to control algae, bacteria, and other organisms of
kingdom Protista that can be found in water. They can also
help clean up tiny particles of debris in the water bodies.
 Makes an ideal model organism that are well suited for
biological study as most Paramecium species can be cultivated
easily in the laboratory
FAQs

Q1. Can Paramecium cause disease in humans?

Ans. Although a protist, Paramecium is not known to cause any
infections or diseases in humans.
Q2. Is Paramecium a bacteria?
Ans. Paramecium are eukaryotic organisms with well-developed
nucleus and membrane bound organelles and thus not a bacteria
which are prokaryotic in origin.
Q3. How is Paramecium similar to the bacteria E. coli?
Ans. Paramecium is similar to E. coli in that they are both single-cell
or unicellular organisms.
Q4. Explain why Paramecium conjugation is not considered reproduction?
Ans. Conjugation is considered a sexual process and not a mode of
reproduction in Paramecium because it only involves exchange of
genetic material between two participating cells with no new
organisms being formed.
Q5. What is the difference between an amoeba and a Paramecium?
Ans. Although both are unicellular organisms, amoeba moves by
forming pseudopodia whereas Paramecium uses cilia to for their
movement.
Epithelial Tissue
Every cell in our body is specialised to perform a certain function. Similar kinds of cells
constitute a tissue, which is classified based on the structure and functions performed by them.
The human body has four main types of tissue; epithelial, connective, neural and muscular.

What Is Epithelial Tissue?

Epithelial tissue or epithelium forms the outer covering of the skin and also
lines the body cavity. It forms the lining of respiratory, digestive,
reproductive and excretory tracts. They perform various functions such as
absorption, protection, sensation and secretion.
What Is Epithelial Tissue?
Epithelial tissue or epithelium forms the outer covering of the skin and also
lines the body cavity. It forms the lining of respiratory, digestive,
reproductive and excretory tracts. They perform various functions such as
absorption, protection, sensation and secretion.

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Structure of Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue is formed from a tightly fitted continuous layer of cells. One
surface of the epithelial tissue is exposed to either the external environment
or the body fluid. The other surface is attached to tissue by a membrane,
which consists of fibres and polysaccharides secreted by epithelial cells.

There is little intercellular material present between cells. There are

specialised junctions present between the cells of the epithelium that link
individual cells.

Tight junctions- prevent leakage across tissues

Adhering junctions- keep the neighbouring tissues well cemented together

Gap junctions- facilitate the movement of ions and molecules across the
tissue

Epithelial cells form membranes. The epithelial membrane consists of a layer

of epithelial tissue and has underlying connective tissue. There are two types
of epithelial membranes, mucous membrane and serous membrane.

Mucous membrane: It is also known as mucosa. There are goblet

cells present, which secrete mucus. The mucus helps in lubrication,
protection and easy movement of materials. It prevents tissues from drying.
It lines the body cavities such as respiratory and digestive tracts, which open
outside the body.

Serous membrane: The serous membrane lines the body cavities, which do
not open outside the body, such as the lining of the pleural cavity, pericardial
membranes. These membranes secrete the fluid inside the cavity and are
made up of simple squamous epithelium.

Glands are made up of epithelial cells. There are two types of glands,
exocrine and endocrine. Exocrine glands secrete their product into a duct,
e.g. goblet cells, sweat glands. Endocrine glands are called ductless glands
and they release their product directly into the blood or intestinal fluid, e.g.
hormones.

Epithelial Tissue Functions

Protection: As it covers the entire body surface, it is the first line of defence
against any kind of mechanical injury, chemical exposure, excessive fluid
loss and infections. Ciliary projections present in the nose or upper
respiratory tract, trap the dust particles and prevent it from entering the
body

Absorption: The epithelial lining of the digestive tract absorbs water and
nutrients

Exchange of substances: Epithelial tissue regulates the exchange of

substances between body and external environment as well as the internal
exchange between different parts of the body. Everything that enters the
body or enters the bloodstream by absorption has to cross the epithelial
barrier

Sensation: Sensory receptors are present in the epithelial tissue of the

nose, eyes and ears, taste bud, etc. that help in transmitting signals from the
external stimuli to the brain

Secretion: Various glands made up of epithelial cells secrete hormones,

enzymes, saliva, mucus, sweat, etc.

Types of Epithelial Tissue

There are three types of epithelial cells, which differ in their shape and
function.
Squamous Epithelium – They are thin and flat cells

Cuboidal Epithelium – They are short cylindrical cells, which appear

hexagonal in cross-section

Columnar Epithelium – They are long or column-like cylindrical cells, which

have nucleus present at the base.

On the basis of the number of layers present, epithelial tissue is divided into
the simple epithelium and stratified or compound epithelium

Simple Epithelium- it is composed of one layer of a cell and mostly has a

secretory or an absorptive function

Compound (Stratified) Epithelium- it is made up of two or more than two

layers of cells and mostly has a protective function.

The glandular epithelium is made up of cuboidal or columnar cells. They

are specialised for secretion.

Unicellular- isolated glandular cells, e.g. goblet cells

Multicellular- a cluster of cells, e.g. salivary glands

The columnar or cuboidal epithelium may bear cilia and are referred to
as ciliated epithelium. They help in the movement of mucus in a specified
direction, e.g. fallopian tubes and bronchioles.

Types of Location Structure Function

Epithelial Tissue

Simple squamous Blood vessel A single layer of flat cells having Transport by diffusion
lining, air sac irregular boundaries and where minimal
lining of lungs protection is required

Simple Cuboidal The tubular A single layer of short cylindrical Absorption and
Epithelium lining of cells. It may have microvilli as in secretion
kidneys, proximal convoluted tubules
glandular ducts

Simple Columnar Digestive tract A single layer of columnar cells (tall Protection, absorption,
Epithelium and upper and slender) and often ciliated mucus secretion and
respiratory movement in a specific
 tract lining direction

Stratified The lining of Made up of several layers of cells, Protection

Squamous the mouth and continuously sloughed off and
Epithelium vagina regenerated. The older layer of
cells is pushed upwards and
becomes flat. The lower layer is
columnar and metabolically active

Stratified Cuboidal Mammary The upper layer is cuboid and other Protection of ducts of
glands, sweat layers may be cuboidal or other various glands
gland and types
salivary glands

Stratified Male urethra There is a layer of columnar cells Protection and

Columnar and lobar ducts present on squamous, columnar or secretion
of salivary cuboidal epithelial cells
glands

Pseudostratified Respiratory Similar to columnar epithelium but Protection, secretion

Columnar passage and all the cells are not of similar and movement of
ducts of many height mucous
glands

Transitional Urinary Stratified epithelium, which can Stretch readily to

epithelia or bladder, contract or expand as per the accommodate the
urothelium urethra, ureter requirement. Cells are cuboidal different volume of
when not stretched, but when the liquids
organ stretches, then tissue gets
compressed and cells appear
irregular and squamous-shaped Act as a barrier and
have tight junctions
to prevent
reabsorption of toxic
substances
Keratinised The outer or Mostly dead and devoid of nucleus Protection against
apical layer of and cytoplasm. The cytoplasm gets abrasion
the cell replaced by keratin, which makes
the layer waterproof

Frequently Asked Questions on Epithelial Tissue

Q1
What Is The Function Of Epithelial Tissue?
Epithelial tissues are involved in multiple functions such as – absorption,
secretion, protection, transportation, receptor function etc. rapid
regeneration of these cells are critical in them being protective.
Q2

How Many Types Of Epithelial Tissue?

There are 8 types of epithelial tissues.
Simple squamous, Stratified Squamous, Simple Cuboidal, Stratified Cuboidal,
Simple Columnar, Stratified Columnar, Pseudostratified Columnar and
Transitional epithelia or urothelium.
Q3

Where Is Epithelial Tissue Found?

These tissues are widespread across the body. From blood vessel lining, air
sac lining of lungs, digestive tract and upper respiratory tract lining, the
tubular lining of kidneys, glandular ducts, the lining of the mouth and vagina,
the lining of the male urethra and lobar ducts of salivary glands, mammary
glands, sweat gland and salivary glands lining, urinary bladder, urethra,
ureter lining, lining of respiratory passage and ducts of many glands, to the
lining of an outer or apical layer of the cell, these tissues are found almost
everywhere.
Q4

What Are The General Characteristics Of Epithelial Tissue?

All different types of epithelial tissues must have these characteristics –
attachment, regeneration, polarity, cellularity and vascularity.
Q5

What Cells Are In Epithelial Tissue?

Based on the shape of cells, epithelial tissues have three types of cells: they
are squamous, cuboidal, and columnar.
Q6

How Does Connective Tissue Differ From Epithelial Tissue?

The main difference between epithelial and connective tissue is in cells, that
they are made up of and their functions. Epithelial tissue consists of three
types of cells – squamous, cuboidal and columnar. Cells in connective tissue
are immersed in an indefinite matrix in addition to cartilaginous, collagen,
elastic or fatty tissues. The most common cell is fibroblasts, some others are
macrophages, mast cells, adipocytes, plasma cells, leukocytes etc. Epithelial
tissue lines body cavities, blood vessels, digestive tract, and other delicate
internal organs, helping in excretion, transportation, absorption, protection
and secretion. Connective tissue, on the other hand, connects, supports and
binds to other tissues.