Experiment List - First Semester Physics Lab (P141) 2014-15

1. Measurement of ‘g’ by free fall.

2. Measurement of ‘g’ by compound pendulum.
3. Moment of Inertia of a fly wheel.
4. Measurement of Young’s modulus of a beam by non uniform bending.
5. Harmonic oscillations of soft massive spring.
6. Measurement of Specific heat of graphite.
7. Thermal conductivity of a poor conductor by Lee’s method.
8. Latent heat of fusion of ice using calorimeter.
9. Measurement of Viscosity of liquids by falling ball method.
10. Surface tension by capillary rise method.
 Motion of a Freely Falling Body

Objectives:
1) To determine the acceleration due to gravity i.e. gravitational acceleration ‘g’.

Apparatus:
1) A solid spherical iron ball
2) A long stand with a solenoid, two photogate detectors and a plastic box
3) An intelligent timer with connecting cords and power supply
4) A plumb line for leveling the stand

Introduction:
Galileo and Newton probably began the systematic experimental study of the motion of a
body falling freely under the influence of force of gravity. Now, it is well established that all
bodies (near the surface of the earth) in the absence of air resistance, fall with a uniform
acceleration. The acceleration of all freely falling bodies is the same (which is independent of
the mass of the falling object) at a given point on the surface of the earth. Air resistance
distorts the laws of free fall since it mainly depends on the size and shape of the body.

Theory:
Motion of every object falling freely under the influence of gravity near the surface of the
earth is accelerated. This acceleration g is a constant and is independent of the mass of the
falling object and is given by the relation,
1
s = u t + g t2 (1)
2
where, u is the initial velocity and t is the time the object takes to fall freely through a
distance s. (We neglect air resistance.)

Description of Experimental Setup:

In this experimental problem, we will study the motion of a freely falling spherical ball and
determine the acceleration due to gravity g. We will use a spherical steel ball (for which we
may neglect the air resistance) and let the ball fall freely under the influence of force of
gravity. We will record the time t the ball takes to fall freely through a prefixed distance s.
Thus for different distances, we need to record the s and t data. From this data, we will
determine the value of acceleration due to gravity g.
The experimental setup to be used in this problem consists of a stand on the top end of which
a small solenoid is clamped to hold an iron ball. Pressing the ‘START’ switch of the
intelligent timer cuts off the power supply to the solenoid and the ball gets released. The
solenoid is used to hold and release the ball from the same position each time.
An ‘intelligent timer’ unit, connected to two C-shaped detectors is provided to measure the
time. The position of detectors can be changed using the boss heads/clamps. The detectors
should be horizontal and should be along a common vertical axis. The detectors detect the
crossing of the ball and the timer displays the time t0 and t1. Here t0 is the time the ball takes
to fall through the distance between the initial position and the first (upper) detector and t1 is
the time the ball takes to fall through the distance between the initial position and the second
(lower) detector.

1
Markings made on the stand and the pointers fixed to the detectors can be used to mark the
positions of the detectors and hence measure distance.

Procedure:
1. Clamp a detector below the solenoid and the other below the first. Adjust and level the
experimental setup using the given plumb line by hooking its ‘terminal’ end to the solenoid.
For the alignment of the detectors a precaution needs to be observed such that, the ball when
released (or the plumb line thread) should not miss the detection line of the detectors and the
detectors should be horizontal.
2. Hold and release the given ball using the solenoid and the timer.
3. Note the positions of the solenoid and the detectors. Measure the distance between the
ball’s initial position and the two detectors (say S0 and S1). Record the time t0 and t1, i.e. the
ball takes to fall freely through the distances, S0 and S1 respectively. Repeat the measurement
thrice in each case.
4. Increase the distance S0 and S1 by moving down the detectors and measure the time t0 and
t1. Repeat this step for different positions of the detectors and distances (with appropriate
range and interval) and record the corresponding t0 and t1.
5. Plot an appropriate graph to represent the collected data. Think of possible methods,
which one can use to determine the acceleration due to gravity g. Use the most appropriate
method, carry out the data analysis and determine the value of acceleration due to gravity g.
6. Carry out the necessary error analysis and determine the percentage, absolute and
standard error in the value of ‘g’. Report your results with the error margins.

Photograph of free fall experimental arrangement

2
Observations:

Graph:

Error analysis:

Results/Discussions:

Question 1: Why is it suggested to plot a graph? What are the advantages of using a
graphical method?

Question 2: What are the possible sources of error in the value of g? Suggest modifications
in the experimental setup and the method to minimize the error.

References:
1) D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, Extended 5th Ed, John
Wiley and Sons Inc, 1997, pp. 760-761.
2) H. D.Young, M. W. Zemansky and F. W. Sears, University Physics, 6th Ed (Indian Ed),
Narosa Pub. House, New Delhi, 1985, pp. 642-643.
3) R. A. Serway, Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 2nd Ed, Saunders College Pub., 1983,
pp. 714-716.
4) R. L. Weber et al, College Physics, 5th Ed, Tata McGraw Hill Pub. Co. Ltd., New Delhi,
1977, p. 720.
5) Kushwaha U. S., Datta S. S., Practical Physics for Pre-University Students, 2nd Ed,
University Leadership Project, Department of Physics, Punjab University, Chandigarh,
India, 1983.
6) Squires G. L., Practical Physics, 3rd Ed., Cambridge University Press, The Edinburgh
Building, Cambridge, CB2 2RU, U. K., 1985, ISBN-0 521 65820 9.
7) Taylor John R., An Introduction to Error Analysis (The Study of Uncertainties in Physical
Measurements), University Science Books, 20 Edge hill Road, Mill Valley, CA 94941,
1982, ISBN-0-935702-10-5.

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 Measurement of acceleration due to gravity (g) by a compound pendulum

Aim: (i) To determine the acceleration due to gravity (g) by means of a compound pendulum.
(ii) To determine radius of gyration about an axis through the center of gravity for the
compound pendulum.
Apparatus and Accessories: (i) A bar pendulum, (ii) a knife–edge with a platform, (iii) a sprit
level, (iv) a precision stop watch, (v) a meter scale and (vi) a telescope.
Theory:
A simple pendulum consists of a small body called a “bob” (usually a sphere) attached to
the end of a string the length of which is great compared with the dimensions of the bob and the
mass of which is negligible in comparison with that of the bob. Under these conditions the mass
of the bob may be regarded as concentrated at its center of gravity, and the length of the
pendulum is the distance of this point from the axis of suspension. When the dimensions of the
suspended body are not negligible in comparison with the distance from the axis of suspension to
the center of gravity, the pendulum is called a compound, or physical, pendulum. A rigid body
mounted upon a horizontal axis so as to vibrate under the force of gravity is a compound
pendulum.
In Fig.1 a body of irregular shape is pivoted about a horizontal frictionless axis through P and is
displaced from its equilibrium position by an angle θ. In the equilibrium position the center of
gravity G of the body is vertically below P. The distance GP is l and the mass of the body is m.
The restoring torque for an angular displacement θ is
τ = - mg l sinθ …(1) P

For small amplitudes (θ ≈ 0),

l
, …(2) L

where I is the moment of inertia of the body through the axis P.

Eq. (2) represents a simple harmonic motion and hence the time G
period of oscillation is given by
θ
2 …(3) O

Now , where IG is the moment of inertia of the

body about an axis parallel with axis of oscillation and passing
through the center of gravity G.
IG = mK2 …(4) Fig. 1
where K is the radius of gyration about the axis passing through
G. Thus,

1
 2 2 …(5)

The time period of a simple pendulum of length L, is given by

2 …(6)
Comparing with Eq. (5) we get
…(7)

This is the length of “equivalent simple pendulum”. If all the mass of the body were concentrated
at a point O (See Fig.1) such that , we would have a simple pendulum with the same
time period. The point O is called the ‘Centre of Oscillation’. Now from Eq. (7)

0 ...(8)

i.e. a quadratic equation in l. Equation 6 has two roots l1 and l2 such that

and …(9)

Thus both and are positive. This means that on one side of C.G there are two positions of
the centre of suspension about which the time periods are the same. Similarly, there will be a pair
of positions of the centre of suspension on the other side of the C.G about which the time periods
will be the same. Thus there are four positions of the centers of suspension, two on either side of
the C.G, about which the time periods of the pendulum would be the same. The distance between
two such positions of the centers of suspension, asymmetrically located on either side of C.G, is
the length L of the simple equivalent pendulum. Thus, if the body were supported on a parallel
axis through the point O (see Fig. 1), it would oscillate with the same time period T as when
supported at P. Now it is evident that on either side of G, there are infinite numbers of such pair
of points satisfying Eq. (9). If the body is supported by an axis through G, the time period of
oscillation would be infinite. From any other axis in the body the time period is given by Eq. (5).
From Eq.(6) and (9), the value of g and K are given by

4 …(10)

…(11)

By determining L, and graphically for a particular value of T, the acceleration due to

gravity g at that place and the radius of gyration K of the compound pendulum can be
determined.

2
Description:

The bar pendulum consists of a metallic bar of about one meter long. A series of circular holes
each of approximately 5 mm in diameter are made along the length of the bar. The bar is
suspended from a horizontal knife-edge passing through any of the holes (Fig. 2). The knife-
edge, in turn, is fixed in a platform provided with the screws. By adjusting the rear screw the
platform can be made horizontal.

Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Procedure:
(i) Suspend the bar using the knife edge of the hook through a hole nearest to one end of the bar.
With the bar at rest, focus a telescope so that the vertical cross-wire of the telescope is coincident
with the vertical mark on the bar.
(ii) Allow the bar to oscillate in a vertical plane with small amplitude (within 40 of arc).
(iii) Note the time for 30 oscillations by a precision stop-watch by observing the transits of the
vertical line on the bar through the telescope. Make this observation three times and find the
mean time t for 30 oscillations. Determine the time period T.
(iv) Measure the distance d of the axis of the suspension, i.e. the hole from one of the edges of
the bar by a meter scale.
(v) Repeat operation (i) to (iv) for the other holes till C.G of the bar is approached where the time
period becomes very large.

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(vi) Invert the bar and repeat operations (i) to (v) for each hole starting from the extreme top.
(vii) Draw a graph with the distance d of the holes as abscissa and the time period T as ordinate.
The nature of graph will be as shown in Fig. 3.
Draw the horizontal line ABCDE parallel to the X-axis. Here A, B, D and E represent the point
of intersections of the line with the curves. Note that the curves are symmetrical about a vertical
line which meets the X-axis at the point G, which gives the position of the C.G of the bar. This
vertical line intersects with the line ABCDE at C. Determine the length AD and BE and find the
length L of the equivalent simple pendulum from .

Find also the time period T corresponding to the line ABCDE and then compute the value of g.
Draw several horizontal lines parallel to X-axis and adopting the above procedure find the value
of g for each horizontal line. Calculate the mean value of g. Alternatively, for each horizontal
line obtain the values of L and T and draw a graph with T2 as abscissa and L as ordinate. The
graph would be a straight line. By taking a convenient point on the graph, g may be calculated.

Similarly, to calculate the value of K, determine the length AC, BC or CD, CE of the line
ABCDE and compute √ ΧB or √ Χ . Repeat the procedure for each horizontal line. Find
the mean of all K.
Observations:
Table 1-Data for the T versus d graph

Serial no of Distance d of Time for 30 Mean time t for Time period

holes from one the hole from oscillations (sec) 30 oscillations T = t/30 (se)
end one end (cm) (sec)
One 1 ….. …. ….. …..
side of ….
C.G ….
2 ….. ….. …. ……
……
….
3 …… …. ….. ……..
.….
……
Other 1 ….. …. ….. …..
side of ….
C.G ….
2 ….. ….. …. ……
……
……
3 …… …… ….. ……..
…….
……

4
TABLE 2- The value of and K from T vs. d graph

No. of obs. T Mean‘ ’ K Mean ‘K’

4
(cm) (sec) (cm/sec2) (cm) (cm)
(cm/sec2)
1. ABCDE (AD+BE)/2 .. .. √ ΧB
or
√ Χ
2. .. .. .. ..
3. .. .. .. ..

Computation of proportional error:

We have from Eq. (10)

/
4 …(12)

Since L = Lx/2 (Lx= AD+BE) and T = t/30, therefore, we can calculate the maximum proportional
error in the measurement of g as follows

2 … (13)

= the value of the smallest division of the meter scale

= the value of the smallest division of the stop-watch

Precautions and Discussions:

(i) Ensure that the pendulum oscillates in a vertical plane and that there is no
rotational motion of the pendulum.
(ii) The amplitude of oscillation should remain within 40 of arc.
(iii) Use a precision stop-watch and note the time accurately as far as possible.
(iv) Make sure that there is no air current in the vicinity of the pendulum.
References:
1. Fundamentals of Physics: Resnick & Halliday
2. Practical physics: R.K. Shukla, Anchal Srivatsava, New Age Internation (P) Ltd, New Delhi
3. Eric J. Irons, American Journal of Physics, Vol. 15, Issue 5, pp.426 (1947)

5
 Moment of Inertia of a Flywheel

Aim: Determination of Moment of Inertial of a Flywheel about its own axis of rotation

Concepts: Moment of Inertia, relation between linear and angular motion, direction of angular
velocity and Torque.

Apparatus: The flywheel, weights, thread, stop-watch and metre scale

Description of Apparatus: Flywheel is a heavy wheel with a long axle which when properly
supported in bearings may remain at rest in any position, i.e. its centre of gravity lies on the axis
of rotation. Its moment of inertia can be determined by setting it in motion with known amount
of energy. The flywheel is mounted in its bearings with its axle horizontal and at a suitable
height from the ground. A string carrying a suitable mass m at one end is evenly wrapped around
the axle of the flywheel. The length of the spring is kept less than the height of the axle from the
ground. When the mass m is released, the string unwinds and sets the flywheel in rotational
motion reaching a maximum speed at the point when the string leaves the axle.

Theory:

Let h be the distance fallen through by the mass before the string leaves the axle and the mass
drops off, and let v and ω be the linear velocity of the mass and angular velocity of the flywheel
respectively at the instant the mass drops off. As the mass descends a distance h, it loses
potential energy mgh via the following three routes

і) Providing kinetic energy of translation to the falling mass

іі) Giving kinetic energy of rotation to the flywheel (where I is the moment of inertial of
the flywheel about the axis of rotation)

ііі) in doing work against friction

If the work done against friction is steady and F per turn, and, if the number of rotation
made by the flywheel till the mass detaches is equal to n1, the work done against friction is equal
to n1F. Hence, by the principle of conservation of energy,

(1)

After the mass has detached the flywheel continues to rotate for a time t before it is
brought to rest by friction. If it makes n2 rotations in this time, the work done against friction is
equal to n2F and evidently it is equal to the kinetic energy of the flywheel at the instant the mass
drops off. Thus

1
 (2)

Therefore, equation (1) modifies to (3)

If r is the radius of the flywheel v = r ω

Substituting for v in equation (3) and simplifying, ⁄

(4)

After the mass has detached, the angular velocity of the flywheel decreases on account of
friction and after some time t, the flywheel finally comes to rest. At the time of detachment of the
mass the angular velocity of the wheel is ω and when it comes to rest its angular velocity is zero.

Assuming force of friction is steady, the motion of the flywheel is uniformly retarded
till it comes to rest and the angular velocity during the interval can be approximated to
(ω+0)/2=ω/2. In one complete rotation the angular displacement is 2 radian.

Thus (5)

Procedure:

1. Take a string of length less than the height of the axle from the floor. Make a loop at its
both ends and attach weight hanger in one loop.
2. Slip on the other loop to steel pin projecting on the axle of the flywheel and wrap the
string evenly round the axle counting the desired number of turns wound.
3. Let the mass be released. Count the number of rotations (n1) the fly wheel makes before
the loop comes off the steel pin. The number n1 must be equal to the number of turns of
thread wound on the axle.
4. Measure the time t starting from the moment the mass detaches until it comes to rest
using a stop watch and count the number of rotations n2 the flywheel makes during this
time.
5. Measure h (distance travelled by mass before mass leaves the flywheel)
6. Calculate radius r of the flywheel by measuring perimeter of the aluminium flywheel.
7. Assuming Friction is steady, determine ω using equation (5) and find the moment of
inertia.
8. Compute moment of inertia of the flywheel.
9. Repeat the experiment with different masses and different number of n1.
10. Theoretically determine the moment of inertia of the disc (flywheel) by using the relation
I = Mr2/2 and compare.

Density of the Aluminium is 2.7 X 10-3Kg/m3.

2
Observations:

Perimeter of the wheel (2 r) = … m, radius of the flywheel = … m

Mass of the flywheel (M) =… Kg

S.No. n1 n2 m (kg) t (sec) ω (rad/sec) h (m) I (Kg-m2)

Average I

Theoretical Moment of Inertia (I) = … Kg-m2

Error Analysis:

Questions:

1. What is the direction of angular velocity and torque of the flywheel?

2. Does the assumption that force of friction is steady during the retardation of flywheel
is valid? Why? (hint: with the increase in speed, gear of automobiles is changed to
higher ones as lesser torque is required at higher speeds).

3
TO DETERMINE YOUNG’S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY OF THE MATERIAL OF A
BAR BY THE METHOD OF FLEXURE

Aim: To determine the Young’s modulus of elasticity of the given material.

Apparatus: sprit level, meter scale, screw gauge, travelling microscope and slide caliper

Theory: If a light bar of breadth b and depth d is placed horizontally on two Knife-edges
separated by a distance L, and a load of mass m, applied at the mid-point of the bar, produces a
depression l of the bar, then Young’s modulus Y of the material of the bar is given by

(1)

where g is the acceleration due to gravity. This is the working formula of the experiment, and is
valid so long as the slope of the bar at any point with respect to the unstrained position is much
less than unity. Here Y is determined by measuring the quantities b, d, L and the mean depression
l corresponding to a load m. If b, d, L and l are measured in cm, m in gm, g is expressed in
cm/sec2, and then Y is obtained in dyne/cm2.

Description: A rectangular bar AB of uniform cross-section and about one meter long is taken
(Fig. 1). The bar is placed horizontally and symmetrically on two steel knife-edges N1 and N2.
The knife-edges in turn are mounted on two steady iron stands. At the mid-point of the bar is
placed a light frame F containing a vertical pointer P and a scale pan or hanger S. Weights are
placed on the hangers to depress the bar. A microscope, capable of sliding along a vertical scale,
is conveniently placed in front of the pointer.

Procedure:
(i) Measure the length of the given bar with a meter scale and mark its mid-point. Draw
marks on the scale corresponding to some length L1 L1/ of the bar (say 70 cm).
(ii) Mount on the bar, the frame F carrying a knife-edge. Now place the bar with its least
dimension vertical, on the knife-edges N1 and N2 such that the L1 L1/ marks coincide with
the knife-edges. Mount a spirit level on the bar and adjust the leveling screws until the
bar is horizontal.
(iii) Bring the knife-edge of the frame F on the central transverse mark of the bar. Place the
microscope and view the pointer P. Adjust the leveling screws of the microscope until the
vertical scale is perfectly vertical and the axis of the microscope is horizontal. Focus the
eye-piece on the cross-wires by keeping one of the cross-wires horizontal. Focus the tip

1
 of the pointer and adjust the vertical position of the microscope until the image of the tip
of the pointer touches that of the horizontal cross-wire. As far as possible, avoid parallax.

AB

F
S

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of Flexure method arrangement

(iv) Determine the vernier constant of the microscope. With zero loads on the hanger, record
the position of the microscope on the vertical scale.
(v) Place a load of 50 gm on the hanger. This will produce a depression of the bar. Alter the
vertical position of the microscope until the image of pointer touches that of the
horizontal cross-wire. Note again the vertical scale reading of the microscope. The
difference of the two microscope readings gives the depression of the bar for the load of
50 gm.
(vi) Increasing gradually the load in steps of 50 gm and at each observation, and at each step
record the vertical scale reading of the microscope. Now decrease the load to zero in the
same steps as used for increasing the load, and record the corresponding vertical scale-
readings of the microscope. Determine the mean of these two readings, and calculate the
depression by subtracting the zero-load reading.
(vii) Remove the bar without disturbing the position of the stands, and measure accurately the
distance between the knife-edges (i.e. L1 L1/) by placing vertically the marked face of a
meter scale across the knife-edges.
(viii) Determine the vernier constant of the slide callipers and measure with it the breadth b of
the bar at three different places. Calculate the mean breadth of the bar. Note the zero
error, if any, of the slide callipers and find the correct value of b.
(ix) Determine the least count of the screw gauge and measure depth d of the bar at a number
of places along the length of the bar. Find the mean value. Note the zero error, if any of
the screw gauge and obtain the correct value of d.
2
(x) Draw a graph with the load m in gm along the X-axis and the corresponding depression l
in cm along the Y-axis and determine the value of Y.

Experimental Results:
Table-1
Vernier Constant (v.c.) of the microscope
….. Divisions (say m) of the vernier scale = ………… divisions (say n) of the main scale.

Value of l smallest main Value of 1 vernier division Vernier constant

scale division (l1) ( ) (cm) v.c. = ( (cm)
…………. ……………… …………………..

Table-2 : Load-depression data for chosen length

Distance between the knife-edges L = ……cm
No. Load Microscope reading for Microscope reading for Mean Depression
of in Increasing load (cm) decreasing load (cm) reading l (cm)
obs. (kg) Main Vernier Total Main Vernier Total (cm)
scale scale
1 0 .. .. .. .. .. .. ….(a) 0
2 0.5 .. .. .. .. .. .. …..(b) (b)-(a
3 1.0 .. .. .. .. .. .. …….(c) (c)-(a)
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. … …
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. … …

Table-3
Vernier Constant (v.c.) of the slide calipers
….. Divisions of the vernier scale = ………… divisions of the main scale.
Value of l smallest main Value of 1 vernier division Vernier constant
scale division (l1) ( ) (cm) v.c. = ( (cm)
…………. ……………… …………………..

Table-4: Measurement of breadth (b) of the bar by slide calipers

No. Readings (cm) of Total Mean b Zero error Correct b
of the reading b (cm) (cm) (cm)
obs. Main Vernier (cm)
scale

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 Table-5: Least count (L.C.) of the screw gauge
Pitch of the screw p (cm) No. of divisions n on the Least count = p/n (cm)
circular scale

……. ………… ……………

Table–6: Measurement of depth (d) of the bar by the screw gauge

No. Readings (cm) of Total Mean d Zero error Correct d
of the reading (cm) (cm) (cm)
obs. Main Vernier d (cm)
scale
1 … … …
2 … … … … … …
3 … … …

Discussions:

Even though entire scale or bar deforms by applying stress to given bar or scale, length L in
correspond to the portion between two knife edges but not the total length of the
given bar or meter scale. Why? Refer to Appendix for the answer.

Computation of proportional error: We have . The quantities L, b, d, and are

measured in this experiment. The maximum proportional error in Y due to errors in the
measurement of L, b, d, and is given by

3 3

Precautions: (i) In the expression for Y, both the length L between the knife-edges and the depth
d of the bar occur in powers of three. But as d is much smaller than L, much care should be taken
to measure to minimize the proportional error in Y.

(ii) Care should be taken to make the beam horizontal and to load the bar at its mid-point.

(iii) Try to avoid parallax and back-lash errors during measurements.

4
 SOFT MASSIVE SPRING
Objectives:
1) To determine the spring constant and the mass correction factor for the given soft massive
spring by static (equilibrium extension) method.
2) To determine the spring constant and the mass correction factor for the given soft massive
spring by dynamic (spring mass oscillations) method.
3) To determine the frequency of oscillations of the spring with one end fixed and the other
end free i.e. zero mass attached.
4) To study the longitudinal stationary waves and to determine the fundamental frequency of
oscillations of the spring with both the ends fixed.

Apparatus:
1) A soft massive spring
2) A long and heavy retort stand with a clamp at the top end
3) A set of calibrated mass with hooks (including fractional mass)
4) A function generator with its connecting cord
5) A dual output power amplifier with the connecting cords
6) A mechanical vibrator mounted on the retort stand
7) A digital multimeter (to be used as frequency counter)
8) A digital stopwatch
9) A measuring tape (3.0 m)
10) Two measuring scales (1.0 m and 0.6 m)
11) A tissue paper

Introduction:
A spring is a flexible elastic device, which stores potential energy on account of straining of
the bonds between the atoms of the elastic material of the spring. A variety of springs are
available which are designed and fabricated to suit the various mechanical systems. Most
common types of springs are compression springs, extension springs and torsion spring.
There are some special types of springs like leaf spring, V-spring, spiral spring etc. The coil
or helical type of springs can have cylindrical or conical shape.

Robert Hooke, a 17th century physicist studied the behavior of springs under different loads.
He established an equation, which is now known as Hooke’s law of elasticity. This law states
that the amount by which a material body is deformed (the strain) is linearly proportional to
the force causing the deformation (the stress). Thus, when applied to a spring, Hooke’s law
implies that the restoring force is linearly proportional to the equilibrium extension. F = −
K x, where F is the restoring force exerted by the spring, x is the equilibrium extension and K
is called the spring constant. (The negative sign indicates that the force F is opposite in
direction to the extension x. Hence also the term ‘restoring force’.) For this equation to be
valid, x needs to be below the elastic limit of the spring. If x is more than the elastic limit, the
spring will exhibit ‘plastic behavior’, where in the atomic bonds in the material of the spring
get broken or rearranged and the spring does not return to its original state. It may be noted
that the potential energy U stored in a spring is given by U = ½ K x2.

Depending on the value of the spring constant, a spring can be called as a soft or hard spring.
A spring can be called mass-less or massive, depending on the mass, which needs to be

1
attached to get a considerable extension in the spring. Sometimes springs are also categorized
by the ratio of spring constant to the mass of the spring (K/ms). A soft massive spring has a
low spring constant and its mass can not be neglected.

In the determination of the spring constant of a spring, we generally neglect the effect of the
mass of the spring on the equilibrium extension or the time period of oscillation of the spring
for a given mass attached. In the case of soft massive springs the mass of the spring cannot be
neglected. These types of springs have extension under their own weight and therefore need a
correction for the extension. Similarly, they oscillate without any attached mass, which
implies that the standard formula for the time period of oscillations of a spring needs
modification. People have theoretically worked out the modification and corrected the
formula for the equilibrium extension and also the time period of oscillations. Interestingly,
one finds that the mass correction factors in these two cases are not the same. In this problem,
we will experimentally study and verify the modified formulae.

An extended soft massive spring clamped at both the ends can be assumed to be a uniformly
distributed mass system. It has its own natural frequencies of oscillations (corresponding to
different normal modes) like a hollow pipe closed at both the ends. Using the method of
resonance we will excite and study different normal modes of vibrations of the spring. Here
the longitudinal stationary waves will be set up on the extended soft massive spring.

Description:
In Part A, we will use the static method, where the equilibrium extension of a given spring
will be measured for different attached mass and the spring constant and the mass correction
factor will be determined. In Part B, we will use the dynamic method, where different mass
will be attached to the lower end of the spring with its upper end fixed and corresponding
time period of oscillations for such a spring-mass system will be measured. Also the
frequency of oscillations of the spring with the upper end fixed and the lower end free i.e. the
zero attached mass will be determined graphically. In Part C, we will use a mechanical
vibrator to force oscillations on the spring and excite different normal modes of vibrations of
the spring. Thus the longitudinal stationary waves will be set up on the spring. We will
measure the frequencies of excitation corresponding to different normal modes. From these,
the fundamental frequency of oscillation with both the ends fixed will be determined. We will
compare this frequency with the frequency of oscillations with one end fixed and the other
end free as determined earlier in Part B.

Theory:
Part A:
Let Lo be the length of the spring when the spring is kept horizontal under no tension, m be
the mass attached to the free end of the spring, Lm be the length of the spring when the mass
is attached at its lower end, Sm be the equilibrium extension of the spring for mass m, ms be
the mass of the spring, K be the spring constant and g be the acceleration due to gravity.

Thus,
S m = Lm − Lo (1)
Note that the tension in the spring varies along the spring from (m + ms)g at the top to mg at
the bottom.

We can write,

2
 T ( x) = (m + m s ) g − C g x
where, C is a constant of proportionality. C = ms/Lo and x is the distance from the top of the
given point; x varies from 0 to Lo.

We can determine the expression for Sm, by taking extension of a small element of length ∆x
and integrating over the total length of the spring.
The final expression, which we get is,
⎛ m ⎞⎛ g ⎞
Sm = ⎜ m + s ⎟⎜ ⎟ (2)
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ K ⎠
where, (ms/2) is called the mass correction factor (static case) mcs.
Part B:
The expression for the time period of oscillations T for an ideal (mass-less) spring-mass
system is given by,
m
T = 2π
K
In case of the soft massive springs, we cannot neglect the mass of the spring since these
springs can oscillate without any attached mass. We thus need to modify the above
expression for T. This can be done using the principle of conservation of energy,
i.e. Potential Energy + Kinetic Energy = constant.

The modified expression, which we get is,

⎛m ⎞
m+⎜ s ⎟
T = 2π ⎝ 3 ⎠ (3)
K
where (ms/3) is again the mass correction factor (dynamic case) mcd. Note that the mass
correction factors in Part A and Part B are different.

1
The corresponding frequency of oscillations f ' is given by, f '=
T
Part C:
The extended spring serves as a uniformly distributed mass system. It has its own natural
frequencies like a hollow pipe closed at both the ends [Note that, both the ends of the spring
may be taken to be fixed. The upper end is fixed in any case and the amplitude of the lower
end is so small, as compared to the extended length of the spring that it can be taken to be
zero].

The natural frequencies correspond to stationary waves; their wavelengths are given by
⎛2⎞
λn = ⎜ ⎟ L, n =1, 2, 3, ...
⎝n⎠
Now, λn fn = velocity Vo of the waves on the spring, where fn is the frequency of the
longitudinal stationary waves set up on the spring; n = 1 is the fundamental, n = 2 the second
harmonic and so on:
V V n
fn = o = o (4)
λn 2L
V V
f1 = o , f 2 = o ,. ........., f n = n f1
2L L

3
This fundamental frequency f1 in this case should be twice that of the fundamental frequency
fo ' of the spring with zero mass attached to the spring.

Experimental Setup:
For Part A and B, you will need a soft massive spring, a retort stand with a clamp, a set of
mass, a measuring tape / scales and a digital stopwatch.

For Part C, you will need a soft massive spring, a long and heavy retort stand with a clamp at
the top end and a mechanical vibrator clamped near the base of the stand. We will also need a
function generator. In this case, the soft massive spring should be clamped at the upper end
on the long retort stand. The lower end of the spring should be clamped to the crocodile clip
fixed at the centre of the mechanical vibrator. The lower end of the spring will be subjected to
an up and down harmonic motion using the mechanical vibrator. It must be ensured that the
amplitude of this motion is small enough so that these ends could be considered to be fixed.

Warning:
1) Do not extend the spring beyond the elastic limit. Choose ‘thoughtfully’ the value of the
maximum mass that may be attached to the lower end of the given spring.
2) Keep the amplitude of oscillations of the ‘spring-mass system’ just sufficient to get the
required number of oscillations.
3) Remember always to switch ‘ON’ the power supply to any instrument before applying the
input to it.
4) Use the mechanical vibrator very carefully. You should not get hurt with the sharp
edges/corners. Be extremely careful while clamping the lower end of the spring to the
vibrator using the crocodile clip.
5) The amplitude of vibrations should be carefully adjusted to the required level using the
voltage selection and amplitude knob of the function generator.
6) Use the measuring tape carefully to avoid any injury. The tape is metallic, and the edges
are very sharp.

Procedural Instructions:
Part A:
(i) Measure the length Lo of the spring keeping it horizontal on a table in an unstretched
(all the coils touching each other) position.
(ii) Hang the spring to the ‘clamp’ fixed to the top end of the retort stand. The spring gets
extended under its own weight.
(iii) Take appropriate masses and attach them to the lower end of the spring. (Choose the
range of the mass carefully, keeping in mind the elastic limit).
(iv)Measure the length Lm of the spring in each case. (For better results you may repeat
each measurement two or three times.) Thus determine the equilibrium extension Sm
for each value of mass attached.
(v)Plot an appropriate graph and determine the spring constant K of the spring and also
the mass correction factor mcs. (Take g = 980 cm/s2 = 9.80 m/s2).

Question 1: State and justify the selection of variables plotted on X and Y axes. Explain the
observed behavior and interpret the X and Y intercepts.

Part B:

4
 (i) Keep the spring clamped to the retort stand.
(ii) Try to set the spring into oscillations without any mass attached, you will observe that
the spring oscillates under the influence of its own weight.
(iii)Attach different masses to the lower end of the spring and measure the time period of
oscillations of the spring mass system for each value of the mass attached. (Choose
the masses carefully, keeping in mind the elastic limit). You may use the method of
measuring time for a number of (may be 10, 20, 30 …..) oscillations and determine
the average time period.
(iv)Perform the necessary data analysis and determine spring constant K and the mass
correction factor mcd using the above data.
(v) Also determine frequency fo ' for zero mass attached to the spring from the graph.
Using the Eq.
1 K
fo '= (5)
2 π mc
and the value of K from Part A, determine mc (the mass correction factor). Check
whether this is the same mass correction factor mcd obtained earlier.

Question 2: Does the above method of measuring the total time for a number of oscillations
help us to increase the reliability of time period measurement?

Part C:
(i) Keep the spring clamped to the long retort stand.
(ii)Clamp the lower end of the spring to the crocodile clip attached to the vibrator.
(iii) Connect the output of the function generator to the input of the mechanical vibrator
using BNC cable
(iv) Starting from zero, slowly go on increasing the frequency of vibrations produced by
the vibrator by increasing the frequency of the sinusoidal signal/wave generated by
the funtion generator. At a particular frequency you will observe that the midpoint of
the spring will oscillate with large amplitude indicating an antinode there. (You may
use a small piece of tissue paper to observe the amplitude at the antinode.) This is the
fundamental mode (first harmonic) of oscillation of the spring. Adjust the frequency
to get the maximum possible amplitude at the antinode. Measure and record this
frequency using the display on the function generator.
(v) Increase the frequency further and observe higher harmonics identifying them on the
basis of the number of loops you can see between the fixed ends.
(vi) Plot a graph of frequency for different number of loops (i.e. the harmonics) versus
the number of loops (harmonics). Determine this fundamental frequency fo from the
slope of this graph.
(vii) Compare this fundamental frequency fo with the frequency fo ' of the spring mass
system with one end fixed and the zero mass attached (as determined in Part B) and
show that fo ' = (fo/2).

Question 3: Explain why the two frequencies should be related by a factor of two? (Take the
analogy between the spring and an air column.)
References:
1) T. C. Heard, N. D. Newby Jr, Behavior of a Soft Spring, Am. J. Phys, 45 (11), 1977,
pp. 1102-1106.

5
2) H. C. Pradhan, B. N. Meera, Oscillations of a Spring With Non-negligible Mass, Physics
Education (India), 13, 1996, pp. 189-193.
3) B. N. Meera, H. C. Pradhan, Experimental Study of Oscillations of a Spring with Mass
Correction, Physics Education (India), 13, 1996, pp. 248-255.
4) Rajesh B. Khaparde, B. N. Meera, H. C. Pradhan, Study of Stationary Longitudinal
Oscillations on a Soft Spring, Physics Education (India), 14, 1997, pp. 130-19.
5) H. J. Pain, The Physics of Vibrations and Waves, 2nd Ed, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 1981.
6) D. Halliday, R. Resnick, J. Walker, Fundamentals of Physics, 5th Ed, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 1997.
7) K. Rama Reddy, S. B. Badami, V. Balasubramanian, Oscillations and Waves, University
Press, Hyderabad, 1994.

6
 Measurement of specific heat of graphite

Aim: Determination of the room temperature using a thermocouple and estimation of the
specific heat of graphite

Apparatus: (i) Graphite sample, (ii) Heater filament, (iii) Copper constantan (T type)
thermocouple, (iv) Variac (variable transformer), (v) Voltmeter, (vi) Ammeter, (vii) Stop watch,
viii) Digital multi meter, ix) Thermos flask and x) Ice water

Description:

This experiment is carried out in three parts. First part is to make an experimental
arrangement to find the room temperature with copper constantan thermocouple (T type
thermocouple). Second part is to find the equilibrium temperature for a given setting of variac
and calculating the power at equilibrium temperature. In third part the specific heat is estimated
at equilibrium temperature.

Part- I: Make an arrangement to measure the room temperature with given thermocouple
by keeping one of the junction of thermocouple in ice water at 0°C and other junction freely
standing in the air. Thermocouple works based on the Seebeck effect. To get the voltage
developed due to difference in temperatures of the two junctions, make the connections to the
thermocouple as in figure 1. Record the amplified thermoelectric voltage developed in the
thermocouple using multimeter. Find the temperature corresponding to thermoelectric voltage
using thermocouple chart of T type thermocouple.

Junction 1(T1) Junction2 (T2)

Multimeter

Amplifier

Figure 1: Schematics showing arrangement to measure temperature using thermocouple:

Junction 1 (Ice water at 00C) and Junction 2 (Experimental object)

1
Procedure to use the thermocouple chart: In the thermocouple chart for T type, reading in the
first row second column is -6.114 mV. This corresponds to -240 °C (by looking at the row value)
+ 1 °C (by looking at the column value). That is -6.105 mV thermoelectric voltage corresponds
to -241 °C

Part II: In the second part, a graphite sample is heated by a variable power unit called variac.
The variac supplies a constant voltage to the coils as shown in fig. 2. To measure the temperature
of graphite rod connect the junction 2 of the thermocouple to the graphite rod assembly. Apply
constant voltage with variac to the heater filament (say 30 V). Record the thermoelectric voltage
with time on a graph paper. Wait till graphite attains equilibrium temperature (Teq). At
equilibrium, the rate of loss of heat by the Graphite is equal to the rate at which the heat is
supplied. Therefore we can write,

Q = m s ∆T ……………………………… (1)

Or ………………………………. (2)

where Q is the heat supplied;

m is the mass of the sample;

s is the specific heat of the sample;

∆T is the change in the temperature.

But at equilibrium, the rate of heat supplied, ,equals the rate of heat lost by sample due
Teq
to radiation. Therefore,

……………………(3)

Where PTeq is the power input at Teq;

V is the voltage applied to the heating coil;

I is the current through the heating coil.

From Eq. (2) and (3), we get

…………………………(4)

Record the equilibrium temperature and estimate the by measuring voltage supplied (V) and
current in the circuit (I).

2
Part – III:

This part of the experiment is carried out in order to determine dT/dt at Teq, i.e. [dT/dt]Teq

To find the , Graphite is heated to a temperature slightly above Teq by increasing

the supplied voltage to the filament. Ensure that graphite is heated to Teq +5 °C and then turn off
the variac. Temperature of the sample continuously falls down due to radiation. Record the
temperature of graphite versus time. Slope of the tangent drawn at Teq of T vs. t graph provides
us with [dT/dt]Teq

Thus the specific heat at a temperature Teq is given by,

Teq
Teq J/Kg/0C ……………………….(5)

here time ‘t’ should be recorded in seconds.

Experimental Setup: The figure 2 gives a diagrammatic sketch of the apparatus consisting of
the sample with a built-in heating element, a thermo-couple and variac. The voltmeter and the
ammeter are used for measuring voltage and current, respectively.

To Thermocouple
connection Variac
V
A

Graphite Sample

Heater Filament

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of specific heat of graphite experiment

3
Procedure:

1) Set the thermocouple junctions (first part) appropriately and record room temperature.
For this part you need thermos flask with ice water, amplifier, multimeter and given
thermocouple chart.
2) Make connections for the second part of the experiment and give an AC voltage of about
25- 35 V by using Variac to heat the Graphite.
3) Record the temperature while heating and plot it simultaneously till temperature of
graphite becomes constant and estimate the equilibrium temperature.
4) At the equilibrium, note down the voltage across the heating coil and current passing
through it, as displayed respectively by the voltmeter and ammeter. To accurately read
the current you need to use digital multimeter. At the end of the experiment replace
analog ammeter with digital multimeter and measure the current.
5) After reaching the equilibrium, increase the voltage by 5 V and observe that temperature
increases by few degrees.
6) Switch off the power supply and then record the voltage/temperature versus time while
cooling.
7) Plot Temperature ‘T’ vs time ‘t’ graph and then determine specific heat.

Questions: 1) What are Seebeck, Peltier and Thompson effects?

2) Does specific heat vary with temperature? Is it same for every material?

3) What are the possible errors in this method? How one can improve the accuracy?

4) What is the relation between thermoelectric voltage and temperature difference of the
junctions?

Additional reading: Susane Picard, David T Burns, Philippe Roger, Determination of specific
heat of graphite sample using absolute and differential methods, Metrologia 44 (2007) 294-302

4
Type T Thermocouple: Table for Thermoelectric voltage as a function of temperature (°C);
reference junctions at 0 °C

5
 Measurement of Thermal Conductivity by Lee’s method

Aim:

To determine thermal conductivity of a bad conductor (glass) in form of a disc using

Lee’s method.

Requisites:

(1) Lee’s apparatus and the experimental specimen in the form of a disc.
(2) Two thermometers, (3) Stop watch, (4) Weighing balance, (5) Special lamp stand
(6) Boiler and (7) Heater

Theory:

Thermal conductivity, k, is the property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct
heat. Conduction will take place if there exists a temperature gradient in a solid (or stationary
fluid) medium. Energy is transferred from more energetic to less energetic molecules when
neighboring molecules collide. Conductive heat flow occurs in direction of the decreasing
temperature because higher temperature is associated with higher molecular energy. Fourier’s
Law expresses conductive heat transfer as

(1)

where H is the steady state rate of heat

transfer, k is the thermal conductivity of
the sample, A is the cross sectional area
and (T 2 – T1) is the temperature difference
across the sample thickness ‘x’ (see Fig.
1), assuming that the heat loss from the
sides of the sample is negligible. To keep x
the loss from the sides small, the sample is
made in form of a thin disk with a large
cross sectional area compared to the area
exposed at the edge. Keeping ‘A’ large and
‘x’ small produces a large rate of energy
transfer across the sample. Keeping x small
Fig. 1
also means that the apparatus reaches a
steady state(when temperature T1 and T2 are constant) more quickly.
Generally speaking, there are a number of possibilities to measure thermal conductivity, each of
them being suitable for a limited range of materials, depending on the thermal properties and the
medium temperature. The most commonly used methods are Searle’s method and Lee’s disc
method, for good and bad conductors of heat, respectively. In the experiment, we will use Lee’s
disc method to determine the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor, e.g. Glass.

1
Description of Lee’s apparatus:
The apparatus shown in Fig. 2 consists of two parts. The lower part C is circular metal
disc. The experimental specimen G, usually rubber, glass or ebonite (here it is glass) is placed on
it. The diameter of G is equal to that of C and thickness is uniform throughout. A steam chamber
is placed on C. The lower part of the steam chamber, B is made of a thick metal plate of the same
diameter as of C. The upper part is a hollow chamber in which two side tubes are provided for
inflow and outflow of steam. Two thermometers T1 and T2 are inserted into two holes in C and
B, respectively. There are three hooks attached to C. The complete setup is suspended from a
clamp stand by attaching threads to these hooks.

Steam in
Steam
Chest
Steam Out

T2 Brass Base B
Glass disc (G)
T1 Brass Disk C x

Fig.2

When steam flows for some time, the temperatures recorded (T1 and T2) gradually remain steady.
This is the steady state.
Let at the steady state, temperature of C = T1°C.
Temperature of B = T2°C.
Surface area of G = A cm2
Conductivity of G = k cal/s/cm/°C
Thickness of G = x cm
Hence amount of heat flowing through G per second, H is given by Eq. (1). When the apparatus
is in steady state (temperatures T1 and T2 constant), the rate of heat conduction into the brass disc
C is equal to the rate of heat loss from the bottom of it. The rate of heat loss can be determined
by measuring how fast the disc C cools at the previous (steady state) temperature T1 (with the top
of the brass disk covered with insulation). If the mass and specific heat of the lower disc are m
and s, respectively and the rate of cooling at T1°C is dT/dt then the amount of heat radiated per
second is,

………(2)

Equating (1) and (2) and simplifying, k can be determined as,

2
 ………(3)

Procedure:

1. Fill the boiler with water to nearly half and heat it to produce steam.
2. In the mean time, take weight of C by a weighing balance. Note its specific heat from a
constant table. Measure the diameter of the specimen by a scale or slide calipers, if
possible. Calculate the surface area, A = π r2.
3. Measure the thickness of the specimen by screw gauge. Take observations at 5 spots and
take the mean value.
4. Put the specimen, steam chamber etc. in position and suspend it from the clamp stand.
Insert the thermometer. Check if both of them are displaying readings at room
temperature. If not, note the difference θ, is to be added to (T2 – T1) later.
5. Now stem is ready. Connect the boiler outlet with the inlet of the steam chamber by a
rubber tube.
6. Temperatures recorded in the thermometers will show a rise and finally will be steady at
T1 and T2.
7. Wait for 10 minutes and note the steady temperature. Stop the inflow of steam.
8. Remove the steam chamber and the specimen G. C is still suspended. Heat C directly by
the steam chamber till its temperature is about T1 + 7 °C.
9. Remove the steam chamber and wait for 2 – 3 minutes so that heat is uniformly
distributed over the disc C.
10. Place the insulating material on C. Start recording the temperature at ½ minute intervals.
Continue till the temperature falls by 100 from T1.

Observations:

(I) Details of the sample G

(a) Diameter: (using scale/slide calipers)

Table-1:

Serial No. Diameter (cm) Mean Diameter (cm)

1
2
3

Surface area of G = A = ………………………………cm2 Thickness: (using screw gauge)

3
Table – 2:

Pitch = …………… Least count=…………………………

Sl No. Initial Reading I Final Reading F (cm) Difference Mean

(cm) (I ~ F) in (cm)
cm

.
.
.

(II) Details of the lower disc C

Mass of the disc, m = ……..
Specific heat of the material, s = 0.38 J/g °C
(III) Correction of Thermometers
Room temperature recorded T2 = ………………… °C
Room temperature recorded T1 = ………………… °C
So correction of thermometers θ = T2 – T1
(IV) Steady Temperature
Temperature of C = …………………………………..°C
Temperature of B = ……………………………………°C
Taking thermometer error in to account, the difference = (T2-T1+θ)

Table-3: Time – Temperature record during cooling

Time (minute) 0 ½ 1 …. ….. ….. ….. …… …….

Temperature
°C

4
Graph:

Using the data from Table – 3, plot

Temperature
the cooling curve (time versus
(Celsius)
temperature) and determine the
slope dT/dt = ∆T/∆t at the steady
temperature T1 (Fig. 3).
∆T
Calculation: k = ……………. T1

Discussion and conclusion:

∆t

Time (Seconds)
Probable errors and precautions:
Fig. 3
1. Don’t record T1 and T2
unless they have remained steady for at least 10 minutes.
2. The tangent to the cooling curve should be done very carefully. An error in dT/dt will
result in a wrong result for k.
3. The radiation loss only due to the surface of G in contact with C is taken into account
here while there is some loss at the edges. Therefore, the diameter of the specimen disc S
should be sufficiently large than its thickness.
4. Since room temperature might change during the course of the experiment, it is advised
to complete the experiment quickly.

Error analysis:

5
 Laten
nt heat of ice
i
Aim: Too determinee the latent heat of fuusion of icee by using calorimetryy, with radiiation
corrections.

Apparattus Requireed: (1) Coppper Calorimeeter, (2) Stirrrer (3) Ice (4) Balance (5)
( Thermom
meter
and (6) sttopwatch

Theory:

When a ch hemical or phhysical channge takes plaace in any syystem, heat is either giveen off
or absorbbed. That is the
t change is i either exotthermic (thee process releeases energyy) or endotheermic
(the systeem absorbs energy).
e It iss important to
t be able too measure thiis heat. Meaasurements of
o this
sort are made
m in a deevice called calorimeter. The techniique used in making these measurem ments
is called calorimetry..

Latent heat:
h The am
mount of heeat required (Q) that caauses a tem
mperature change of ∆T in a
substancee of mass m and specificc heat c

Q = mc ∆ T (1)

Howeverr, situations exist wherre heat addeed to a substance does not cause a change inn the
temperatuure. In these cases, the added heatt causes a change in phhase to occuur. Two com mmon
changes in phase aree from solid to liquid andd from liquiid to gas. Thhe amount off heat requirred to
accompliish a phase change
c is caalled the heaat of transforrmation. Moore specificaally, for a solid to
liquid phhase change, it is referreed to as the heat
h of fusioon; and for a liquid to gas
g phase change,
o vaporization. The heaat of fusion or
the heat of o vaporizatiion can be exxpressed maathematicallyy as

Q = mL (2)

Where L is the latentt heat of fusiion or vaporrization (Jkg -1), dependiing on the phhase trasitionn that
occurs.

Piccture of a caalorimeter wiithout and with

w a woodeen chamber

1
Principle of Calorimeter :

The basic principle on which a colorimeter works is that when two bodies at different
temperatures are in contact with one another, heat will flow from the warmer body to the colder
body. Thus, the heat lost by one body will be gained by other. The exchange of heat will
continue until the two bodies are at the same temperatures. In a calorimeter, heat is exchanged
between the water and the materials undergoing change. The experiment makes a direct
measurement of the temperature change of the water. From this information, the heat gained (or
lost) by the water can be calculated. These data is then used to determine the heat lost (or gained)
by the materials undergoing change.

In this experiment, an ice cube, assumed to be at 00C, is placed in a calorimeter containing a

known mass of water at a room temperature T1. The heat required to melt the ice will be supplied
by the water. After the ice cube melts, by measuring the temperature change of the water, we can
calculate the quantity of heat exchanged between the water and the ice. When the heat lost is
equated to the heat gained, the resulting equation is solved to determine the latent heat of fusion,
L, as follows:

Let, mass of calorimeter + stirrer = m1 gm

Specific heat of its materials = S1

Mass of water taken in the calorimeter = m2 gm

Specific heat of water = S2

Temperature of water = T1 0C

Let, mass of ice added to water = M gm

Since the mixture is at a lower temperature, it absorbs heat continuously from the surrounding.
Hence the observed temperature of the mixture is slightly higher than the actual temperature. Let
T be the actual steady temperature of the mixture after applying radiation correction.

Hence, heat gained by ice and resulting water at T is

Q ice = ML + MS2( T – 0) = ML + MS2T (3)

and heat lost by the calorimeter and water inside at T is

Q water = (m1S1 + m2S2) (T1-T) (4)

Equating (3) and (4) and simplifying

L water = [(m1S1 + m2S2) (T1-T)/M]- S2T (5)

2
PROCEDURE:

1. Take the weight of the clean and dry calorimeter with stirrer. Let it be m1. Fill the calorimeter
with water to half its volume. Take its weight W. So, mass of water, m2 = W-m1
2. Put the calorimeter in outer wooden enclosure and put a thermometer in water. Note the
temperature T10.
3. Take some ice cubes and wipe them with clean and dry tissue paper so that water does not
stick to it. Drop the ice pieces in calorimeter and start the stop watch simultaneously.
4. Stir the water and fill up first two columns of Table 1 by noting the temperature at 0.5 minute
intervals. Continue adding ice and noting temperature till the temperature falls by 100C from
the initial temperature of T10. Stop addition of ice, but continue to note temperature. The
temperature will continue to fall and then rise. Note the minimum temperature and thereafter
for about 10 minutes.
5. Remove the calorimeter from the enclosure and wait till the temperature rises to nearly room
temperature.
6. Wipe clean the outer surface of the calorimeter for any dew deposited on it. Take the weight,
W1 so the mass of ice melted, M = W1- W.
7. To estimate the radiation correction, fill up Table-2 by taking some 8 to10 observations from
columns I and IV of Table-1 while temperature is increasing (why?). Find the mean of all
temperatures (Tm) chosen from the column IV. Calculate the rise of temperature for every
two minutes (since the increase is too small in half minute interval) and find their average.
Thus find the average rise of temperature, Xav, due to radiation in a half minute interval at the
mean temperature Tm.
8. Plot a straight line by joining the two points (T1,0) and (Tm,Xav) on a graph sheet as shown in
Graph 1. Use this plot to fill up column V of Table-1 at various mean temperatures listed in
column IV.
9. Complete Table-1 with rest of the calculations and finally plot T2~ time (without radiation
correction) and (T2-x) ~ time (with radiation correction) on the same graph sheet. Determine
T from the relevant graph and calculate L.

OBSERVATION:

Mass of calorimeter + stirrer, m1 = ………………………………………….. gm

Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + water, W = ………………………………..gm
Mass of water, m2 = (W1 – m1) = ………………………………………………..gm
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + water +ice melted, W1 = ………………gm
Mass of ice melted, M = (W1 – W) = ……………………………………………..gm
Specific heat of the calorimeter material, S1 = ………………………………..cal/gm/0C
Specific heat of water, S2 = ……………………….cal/gm/0C
3
 Table -1 Initial temperature of water, T1 = ………………….0C

Note: Only the columns II and III are filled up from direct observations. Rest are filled by
estimations from graph 1 plotted using Table-II. A sample table is shown here.

Time Temp. at the Temp. at Mean Rise of Temp. Total Rise of Temp. with
( Minute) start of the end of Temp. of during the Temp. during radiation
interval (0C) interval the interval due to the interval correction
(0C) interval radiation (0C) due to (T2 –x)(0C)
(T2)(0C) (From graph 1) radiation(x)
(0C)
I II III IV V VI VII

0 (T1) 25.0 (T1) 25.0 (T1) 25.0 0 0 25.0

Temp. decreasing

Ice added & stirred

0.5 25.0 19.0 22.0 0.005 0.005 21.095
1 19.0 15.0 17.0 0.020 0.025 16.075
1.5 15.0 10.0 12.5 0.030 0.055 12.445
Stop adding ice and continue stirring
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Temp. increasing

.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..

Table- II Estimation of Radiation Correction

(A sample data is shown below.)

Time Temperature Rise of Mean rise in Mean rise in

( minute) (0C) (From temperature in temperature Temperature in
column IV of 2 minutes ( 0C) In 2 minutes (0C) ½ minute (0C)
table-1)
4 26.9
4.5 26.9
5 27.0 0.2
5.5 27.0 0.2 0.2 0.05
6 27.1 0.2
6.5 27.1 0.2
7 27.2
7.5 27.2

4
 Mean temperature, Tm = 27.05 0C

(Tm , Xav)

Rise in temperature Uncorrected

for ½ minute (°C)

Temp. in 0C
Corrected

(T1,0)

Time in minute
0
Temperature ( C)

Graph 1 Graph 2

CALCULATIONS:

L = ……………………………..cal/gm

Standard value of L for water = 80 cal/gm

% of error = ………………

DISCUSSIONS:

PROBABLE ERRORS & PRECAUTIONS:

(1) Wipe the ice cubes before adding so that no water sticks to it.
(2) While melting, ice should not float in which case it will absorb heat from atmosphere.
(3) Add ice carefully so that water does not splash.
(4) Ice to be used should be free of dirt.
(5) Continuously stir water while ice is being melted.

Specific heat of copper: 0.9 cal/gm0C at 20 0C

5
 MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY OF LIQUID

Objectives:
To measure the viscosity of a sample liquid.

Apparatus:
(i) Glass tube (ii) Steel balls, (iii) Retort stand and clamps, (iv) Weighing balance, (v)
Screw gauge, (vi) Stopwatch, (vii) Sample liquid (castor oil/glycerin), (viii) Tweezers
and (ix) Rubber bands for marking calibration points, (x )Cleaning accessories

Introduction:
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by
either shear stress or tensile stress. In everyday terms (and for fluids only), viscosity is
“thickness”. Thus, water is “thin”, having a lower viscosity, while honey is “thick”,
having a higher viscosity. Put simply, the less viscous the fluid is, the greater its ease of
movement (fluidity).In general, in any flow, layers move at different velocities and the
fluid’s viscosity arises from the shear stress between the layers that ultimately opposes
any applied force.
In a Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the strain rate is linear
with the constant of proportionality defined as the viscosity. In the case of a non-
Newtonian fluid, the flow properties cannot be described by a single constant viscosity.
Some non-Newtonian fluids thicken when a shear stress is applied (e.g. cornflour
suspensions), whereas some can become runnier under shear stress (e.g. non-drip paint).
Industrially, understanding the viscous properties of liquids is extremely important and
relevant to the transport of fluids as well as to the development and performance of
paints, lubricants and food-stuffs.

Theoretical background
A body moving in a fluid feels a frictional force in a direction opposite to its
direction of motion. The magnitude of this force depends on the geometry of the body, its
velocity, and the internal friction of the fluid. A measure for the internal friction is given
by the dynamic viscosity η. For a sphere of radius r moving at velocity v in an infinitely
extended fluid of dynamic viscosity η, G.G. Stokes derived an expression for the
frictional force:
F1 = 6π ⋅ η ⋅ r ⋅ v (1)

If the sphere falls vertically in the fluid, after a time, it will move at a constant velocity v,
and all the forces acting on the sphere will be in equilibrium (Fig. 1): the frictional force
F1 which acts upwards, the buoyancy force F2 which also acts upwards and the downward
acting gravitational force F3. The two forces F2 and F3 are given by:

1
 4π 3
F2 = ⋅ r ⋅ ρ1 ⋅ g (2)
F1 = 6π ⋅ η ⋅ r ⋅ v 3
4π 3
F3 = ⋅ r ⋅ ρ2 ⋅ g (3)
3
where ρ = density of the fluid
1
ρ = density of the sphere
2
g = gravitational acceleration
The equilibrium between these three forces can be
described by:
F1 + F2 = F3 (4)
The viscosity can, therefore, be determined by measuring
the rate of fall v:
2 (ρ − ρ 1 ) ⋅ g
Fig. 1 η = ⋅r2 ⋅ 2 (5)
9 v

where v can be determined by measuring the fall time t over a given distance s.

In practice, equation 5 has to be corrected since the assumption that the fluid
extends infinitely in all directions is unrealistic and the velocity distribution of the fluid
particles relative to the surface of the sphere is affected by the finite dimensions of the
fluid. For more accurate values of viscosity two corrections due to boundary conditions
of container is proposed by Ladenberg. If R is the finite inner radius and L is the length
of the cylinder containing the fluid, then the modified expression for viscosity using
Ladenburg correction is as follows:
2 2 (ρ 2 − ρ 1 ) ⋅ g
⋅r ⋅
η= 9 v (6)
⎛ 2.4 r ⎞ ⎛ 3.3 r ⎞
⎜1 + ⎟ ⋅ ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠

While Stokes’ Law is straight forward, it is subject to some limitations.

Specifically, this relationship is valid only for ‘laminar’ flow. Laminar flow is defined as
a condition where fluid particles move along in smooth paths in lamina (fluid layers
gliding over one another). The alternate flow condition is termed ‘turbulent’ flow. This
latter condition is characterized by fluid particles that move randomly in irregular paths
causing an exchange of momentum between particles.

Units: The SI physical unit of viscosity is Pascal-second (Pa.s, equivalent to N.s/m2 or

kg/ms). The CGS unit is poise (P), named after Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille. It is more
commonly expressed as centipoise (cP) or milli Pascal-second (mPa.s). The convertion
factor is 1cP = 1mPa·s = 0.001Pa·s. Castor oil at room temperature has a viscosity of ~
650 cP or ~0.65 N.s/m2.

2
Experimental Setup
The experimental set up, shown in Fig. 2, is
based on Stokes’ Law. It is filled with the
sample liquid under investigation. A steel ball
is allowed to fall down this tube over a
calibrated distance. The falling time is recorded
and then utilized to determine the viscosity at
room temperature.

Procedure:

1.Mesurement of diameter of falling ball:

Determine the least count (vernier constant) of

the screw gauge.
Measure the radii of at least three balls using
the screw gauge.

2. Measuring the falling times:

Carefully clamp the glass tube to the retort

stand and make sure it is vertically aligned.
Choose and adjust three calibrated positions
using the rubber bands to ensure that the ball
indeed falls with terminal velocity.
Pick one of the given balls and roll it in the
sample liquid to wet its surface thoroughly
before dropping into the glass tube. Fig. 2
Keep two stopwatches ready to measure the fall time between two different calibrated
positions.
Bring the ball with a tweezers over the tube and drop it carefully into the liquid at the
centre of the tube.
Watch the ball falling centrally through the liquid. When it reaches the first calibration
mark, start both the stopwatches. Note down the time taken by the ball separately to reach
the second and third calibration marks.
Measure the falling times similarly for all the balls supplied to you.
Measure the distance from first to second and third calibration marks to determine the
terminal velocity.
Finally calculate viscosity using Ladenburg correction as given in Eq. 6.

Observations:
Specification of glass tube
Inner diameter of the measuring tube = …….cm,
Length of the cylinder = ………. cm

3
Radius of the steel ball
Vernier constant of screw gauge = ……..

Observation # Linear scale Circular scale Total reading Average radius

reading reading
1
2
3

Density of the sample liquid:

Calculated density of sample liquid, ρ = 0.956 ± 0.01 g/cc

1
Density of the steel ball
Least count of weighing balance = …………….

Observation # Mass Average Mass Average

density, ρ
2
1
2
3

Determination of viscosity

Distance between 1st and 2nd calibration mark = …………

Distance between 1st and 3rd calibration mark = …………
Least count of the measuring scale = ……..

Ball # Falling Falling Velocity Velocity Average Average

time from time from between between terminal viscosity
1st to 2nd 1st to 3rd 1st and 2nd st rd
1 and 3 velocity, v with
calibration calibration calibration calibration correction,
mark, t1 mark, t2 mark, v1 mark, v2 η

Error estimation: Estimate the propagation of error and report it with the final result.

Precautions:

1. Avoid contaminating the balls, use tweezers or tissue paper to hold the balls.
2. Drop the balls centrally into the sample liquid.

4
 Measurement of surface tension of a liquid by capillary rise method
Objective:

To determine of the surface tension of a liquid by capillary rise method

Apparatus:

(i) Capillary tubes of different radii, (ii) Experimental liquid (water/soap solution/salt solution),
(iii) Beaker, (iv) Travelling microscope, (v) Glass plate to fix the tubes, (vi) A needle, (vii)
Laboratory Jack/support base to keep the beaker, (viii) Support stands and clamps.

Theory:

A molecule well within a liquid is surrounded by other molecules on all sides. The
surrounding molecules attract the central molecule equally in all directions, leading to a zero net
force. In contrast, the resulting force acting on a molecule at the boundary layer on the surface of
the liquid is not zero, but points into the liquid. This net attractive force causes the liquid surface
to contract toward the interior until the repulsive collisional forces from the other molecules halt
the contraction at the point when the surface area is a minimum. If the liquid is not acted upon by
external forces, a liquid sample forms a sphere, which has the minimum surface area for a given
volume. Nearly spherical drops of water are a familiar sight, for example, when the external
forces are negligible.
The surface tension γ is defined as the magnitude F of the force exerted tangential to the
surface of a liquid divided by the length l of the line over which the force acts in order to
maintain the liquid film.
γ =F/l (1)

In this experiment we will determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise
method. Capillarity is the combined effect of cohesive and adhesive forces that cause liquids to
rise in tubes of very small diameter. In case of water in a capillary tube, the adhesive force draws
it up along the sides of the glass tube to form a meniscus. The cohesive force also acts at the
same time to minimize the distance between the water molecules by pulling the bottom of the
meniscus up against the force of gravity.

Consider the situation depicted in Fig. 1, in which the

end of a capillary tube of radius, r, is immersed in a liquid
of density ρ. For sufficiently small capillaries, one
observes a substantial rise of liquid to height, h, in the
capillary, because of the force exerted on the liquid due to
surface tension. Equilibrium occurs when the force of
gravity on the volume of liquid balances the force due to
surface tension. The balance point can be used to measure
the surface tension.
Thus, at equilibrium force of gravity is given as,
ࡲࢍ ൌ ࣋ࢎሺ࣊࢘૛ ሻࢍ (2) Fig. 1

1
where ࢍ is the acceleration due to gravity.
Force due to surface tension (see Fig. 2) is along the perimeter of
the liquid. Let θ be the angle of contact of the liquid on glass. The
vertical component of the force (upward) at equilibrium is given as
ࡲ ൌ ࢽ ൈ ૛࣊࢘ ൈ ࢉ࢕࢙ ࣂ (3)

Assuming θ to be very small and neglecting the curvature of liquid

surface at the boundaries, one can obtain surface tension by
equating Eqs. 2 and 3 as follows:
૚
ࢽ ൌ ࣋ࢍ࢘ࢎ (4)
૛
Fig. 2
It should also be noted that surface tension of a liquid depends very markedly upon the presence
of impurities in the liquid and upon temperature. The SI unit for surface tension is N/m.

Procedure:

1. Fix the supplied capillary tubes on the glass plate

parallel to each other (see Fig. 3). The lower ends
of the tubes, which are to be immersed in water,
should be nearly at the same level. Fix the tubes
as close as possible. Fix the needle at about 1 cm
away from the capillary tubes.
2. Clamp the glass plate to the support stand and
check that the tubes remain perfectly vertical.
3. Keep the beaker filled with water on the support
base. Bring the clamp stand near the beaker. Let
the tubes immerse in water. Adjust the needle
such that the lower tip just touches the water
surface.
4. Determine the vernier constant of the travelling
microscope to be used. Fig. 3: Experimental set up

5. Focus the travelling microscope so that you can see the inverted (convex) meniscus of
water. Adjust the horizontal crosswire to be tangential to the convex liquid surface. Note
down the readings (say R1) on the vertical scale.
6. Turn the microscope screws in horizontal direction to view the next capillary tube and
follow the above step to note the position of liquid surface.
7. After noting the positions of liquid surface for all the tubes, move the microscope further
horizontally and focus to the needle. Now move the microscope vertically and let the
lower tip of the needle be focused at the point of intersection of the two cross wires. Note
down the readings on the vertical scale (say R).
8. Thus the height of the liquid can be calculated from the difference of the two readings
noted above, e.g. (R1-R).
9. Now to find the radius of the tube, lower the height of the support base and remove the
beaker. Carefully rotate the glass plate with the tubes so that the immersed lower ends
face towards you.

2
 10. Focus one of the tubes using travelling microscope to clearly see the inner walls of the
tube. Let the vertical crosswire coincide with the left side inner wall of the tube. Note
down the reading (say L1). Turn the microscope screws in horizontal direction to view the
right side inner wall of the tube. Note down the reading (say R1). Thus the radius of the
tube can be calculated as ½(L1~R1).
11. Turn the microscope screws in horizontal direction to view the next capillary tubes and
follow the above step to find the radius of each tube.
12. Finally calculate the surface tension and estimate error in your experiment. Report the
result at the noted room temperature.

Observations:

Vernier constant of travelling microscope = ……..

Table # 1: Height of the liquid, h

Tube # Microscope reading for the position Microscope reading for the Height of
of lower meniscus of liquid position of lower tip of the needle the liquid
Main scale Vernier Total Main Vernier Total h
reading scale reading scale scale reading
reading reading reading
1
2
3

Table # 2: radii of the capillary tubes, r

Tube # Microscope reading for the Microscope reading for the Radius of the
position of inner left wall of the position of inner right wall of the capillary tube
tube tube r
Main Vernier Total Main Vernier Total
scale scale reading scale scale reading
reading reading reading reading
1
2
3

Table # 3: Surface tension of the liquid, γ

Tube # Height of the Radius of the Surface tension Mean γ

liquid h capillary tube r of the liquid, γ

1
2
3

3
Estimation of error:

Precautions:

(i) Capillary tubes should be perfectly vertical and fixed parallel to each other.
(ii) Presence of impurities in the liquid or the immersed tubes can alter the surface
tension. So cleanliness is desired.
(iii) Avoid bubbles in the liquid column.
(iv) Handle the glassware with extreme care.
(v) There should not be too much fluctuation of surrounding temperature.