CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Ethanol (C2H5OH; ethyl alcohol, alcohol, grain-spirit, grain alcohol, drinking alcohol) is a
volatile, flammable, and colorless liquid. It is a plant fermentation by-product which is natural
and it can also be produced through the hydration of ethylene.

At room temperature, Ethanol is always a liquid, and it has a melting point of 156K and a boiling
point of 351 K. It is one of the most active ingredients of all alcoholic drinks. It is also used in
making many medicines such as cough syrups, tonics as well as tincture of iodine as it is a very
good solvent. Any proportion of ethanol is properly soluble in water.

In the current global landscape, there is a pressing need to shift away from fossil fuels toward
renewable energy sources. Ethanol, a renewable bio-fuel, has emerged as a prominent alternative
due to its lower environmental impact and compatibility with existing fuel infrastructure.
Traditionally produced through the fermentation of biomass-derived sugars, ethanol can
significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions when used as a fuel or fuel additive.

We're all aware of the growing buzz around ethanol. It's not just a fuel; it's a versatile chemical
used in everything from cleaning products to, of course, powering our vehicles. The push for
renewable energy and cleaner fuels has really put ethanol in the spotlight, and the global market
is responding with new and innovative production methods.Globally, ethanol production has
grown significantly with the USA and Brazil accounting for majority of the production .What
makes our approach even more interesting is that we're focusing on corn as our starting material.
Corn processing offers some significant advantages such as production of livestock feed, corn
oils and our feed-stock- corn syrup.

Corn syrup, rich in fermentable sugars like glucose, offers a readily available and efficient
feedstock for ethanol production. Recent technological advancements in fermentation and
separation processes have paved the way for designing plants that are not only technically robust
but also economically viable. This project focuses on the design of a modified process plant
capable of producing 10000 metric tons per year of ethanol using Corn syrup. By utilizing
readily available agricultural feed-stock and operating at 80% plant attainment, this process aims
to offer a sustainable, cost-effective alternative which is also very efficient

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE DESIGN PROBLEM

Ethanol has become an important product in industries ranging from fuel blending to
pharmaceuticals and personal care. With increasing global interest in renewable energy and
sustainable chemical production, there is a need for efficient ethanol production processes that
use renewable raw materials. One widely used feed-stock is corn syrup, which contains
fermentable sugars that can be converted into ethanol through microbial fermentation. The
challenge we're tackling is designing a plant that can produce 10,000 tons of ethanol per annum
from this corn syrup. And we want to make sure it's not just a design on paper; we want it to
actually work! That's why we're aiming for 80% "attainment" – basically, ensuring the plant can
realistically achieve a good chunk of its planned output. In designing this plant, we have to
ensure that the fermentation process is efficient enough to maximize ethanol yield while keeping
energy consumption low, particularly during the distillation and dehydration steps. Other
important factors include selecting the right process equipment, optimizing raw material usage,
and ensuring that the final ethanol product meets industry standards.

So, our goal is to create a detailed engineering design for an ethanol plant that solves all these
challenges. We want to build a plant that's not only efficient and profitable but also
environmentally sound, giving us a sustainable way to produce ethanol from corn syrup right
here in Emohua.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE DESIGN

AIM:
To develop a conceptual design for a practical and profitable chemical plant that produces 10,000
tons per annum of ethanol from corn syrup, operating effectively at an attainment of 80% while
meeting economic, key safety and environmental criteria.

The specific objectives are as follows:

1. Developing a Process Flow Diagram (PFD): First, we'll map out the entire ethanol
production process, from corn syrup in to pure ethanol out, with a detailed process flow
 diagram. We will also create an integrated process scheme covering all major unit operations
—from raw material handling and fermentation to separation (distillation) and final product
storage.
2. Performing Material and Energy Balances:
Here, we will calculate the necessary mass and energy flows to determine raw material
requirements, equipment sizing, including the fermentation tanks, distillation columns, and
dehydration units – the heart of the plant, and utility demands.
3. Sizing Critical Equipment:
By estimating the capacities of essential units such as fermentation reactors, distillation
columns, and heat exchangers based on the design targets.
4. Utilize Process Simulation:
We will apply simulation software to model the process, validate assumptions, and optimize
design parameters.

5. Calculate the plant's costs and evaluate its economic feasibility.

6. Recommend safety measures for the plant operation.

1.4 SCOPE OF THE DESIGN

The scope of this project encompasses the conceptual and preliminary design phases for an
ethanol production plant that utilizes corn syrup as the feed-stock. Our design will cover the
complete ethanol production process, starting with the corn syrup and ending with the final, pure
ethanol product. This includes any necessary pre-treatment of the corn syrup, the fermentation
stage, distillation, dehydration, and even wastewater treatment. We'll also look at the supporting
utility systems, like steam and cooling water, and basic process controls.

Based on the mass and energy balance calculations, this design project will provide preliminary
estimates for key equipment such as fermentation reactors, distillation columns, heat exchangers,
and storage tanks. To validate the design and define operational parameters, we will use a
simulation software. This simulation will facilitate the optimization of critical variables (such as
fermentation time, temperature, and distillation pressures) to enhance product yield and energy
efficiency. This step is crucial for ensuring the process is both economically viable and
technically robust.

This project also covers an economic evaluation that estimates capitals for equipment and
installation, as well as operating expenditures associated with raw materials, utilities, and
maintenance. A significant part of this design will be used to identify potential hazards ranging
from flammability risks associated with ethanol to environmental impacts like CO₂ emissions.
Safety measures and process controls to mitigate risks will also be outlined. While this design
project is based on a plant intended to produce 10,000 tons per annum of ethanol at 80% plant
attainment, potential future expansions or modifications will not be addresses. These would be
considered in a later phase of this design development. This project is limited to the conceptual
and preliminary design stages only.

1.5 METHODOLOGY

In order to ensure that our design is feasible, efficient and cost effective, the following
methodologies were undertaken

1. Explicit definition of our scope and objective: We explicitly defined the scope and the
objectives of this design project giving no room for confusion or ambiguity ,to ensure we work
in line with them.

2. Literature Review and Data Collection: studying already existing material based on the
production of ethanol from corn syrup and alongside studying processes and recent
technologies .Also gathering data on the various reactions, enzyme performance, equipment
specifications and raw material composition.

3. Process Flow Diagram (PFD) Development: Developing a Block Flow Diagram (BFD) and a
Process Flow diagram (PFD) to outline the major steps and material flows, identifying key unit
operations (e.g., steeping, grinding, fermentation, distillation etc.) and their interconnections.

4.Material and Energy Balances: Perform material balances to track the flow of corn, water,
enzymes, and by-products through the process and also perform energy balances to estimate
heating, cooling, and power requirements.
 5. Equipment Selection and Sizing: Selecting appropriate equipment for each unit operation
(e.g., steeping tanks, grinders, fermenters, distillation columns etc.).,Size the equipment based on
throughput, residence time, and efficiency and also consider factors like corrosion resistance,
maintenance, and cost.

6. Employing the use of Software(ASPEN HYSIS): Using software to carry out process
optimization, cost estimation and calculation and also design and sizing of process equipments.

1.6 LOCATION OF THE PROCESS PLANT

After a thorough assessment of different regions in Nigeria, Emohua in Rivers state was chosen
as the plant location. This decision was primarily influenced by Emohua strategic position in the
south-south region of Nigeria, renowned for its proximity to industrialized areas and large acres
of farmlands cultivating corn. Corn is a source of corn syrup which would ensure abundant
feedstock for ethanol production. Additional factors contributing to this choice include access to
essential utilities like electricity and water, suitable land availability, proximity to the target
market, ample labor supply, and supportive government policies.

i)Proximity to Raw Materials: Abundance of cultivating land and rich soil gives rise to abundant
raw materials in this region at low cost. Emohua farms which cultivate large quantities of corn
annually, ensuring a steady and reliable supply of corn. This reduces transportation costs and
enhances economic viability by utilizing local resources.

ii)Industrial Hub: Emohua seats next to several large-scale industrial operations and
manufacturing companies in Nigeria, providing access to existing industrial services and
infrastructure, which is conducive to establishing the process plant.It is also an area in proximity
of the industrial areas.

iii)Availability of Power: The region benefits from its proximity to power generation facilities,
ensuring a stable and reliable electricity supply essential for continuous operations. Potential
renewable energy solutions, such as solar and biomass, can further enhance power availability.

iv)Skilled and Cheap Labor Force: Emohua has a substantial pool of both skilled and unskilled
labor .
v)Access to Markets: The location offers excellent connectivity to local and international
markets via road networks and the Ports of Rivers state (Onne and Port Harcourt complex),
facilitating distribution and export of ethanol.

vi)Financial and Investment Support: Benefits from the robust financial sector in , with
numerous banks and financial institutions offering various loan facilities and financing options.
Government incentives and funding programs further support industrial growth.

vii)Infrastructure: Emohua boasts well-developed infrastructure, including roads, and

communication networks, supporting efficient industrial operations and smooth supply chain
management.

Viii)Community and Environmental Impact: Establishing the plant in Emohua supports local
economic development by creating jobs and fostering community engagement. Utilizing corn
which is a renewable resource and whose by-product are very useful and beneficial to the society
increases both community and environmental sustainability
 CHAPTER 2

RAW MATERIAL AND PRODUCT SPECIFICATION

2.1 Overview

Ethanol (ethyl alcohol, CH3CH2OH) is one of a group of chemical compounds (alcohols) with
molecules that contain a hydroxyl group (OH) bonded to a carbon atom. Ethanol is produced
through the fermentation of agricultural products such as sugarcane, corn, and manioc, among
others. Most ethanol produced worldwide is from sugarcane, mainly in Brazil. In the United
States, ethanol is made from corn.(Coelho et al,2004)
Ethanol is a colorless, clear liquid that looks like water and is completely miscible with it.
Ethanol has a somewhat sweet flavor when diluted with water; a more pungent, burning taste
when concentrated; and an agreeable ether-like odor. Ethanol is considered a volatile organic
compound by the National Pollutant Inventory.It has a melting Point of-114°C, a boiling point of
78.5°C, specific gravity of 0.8 and a flash point of 9-11°C
It is widely used in medicines, lotions, tonics, colognes, rubbing compounds, and solvents and
also for organic synthesis. Beverage ethanol dates back to ancient times, with Sumerians and
Babylonians making beer before 6000 BC. It was also among the earliest compounds investigated
with the study of ethanol from distillation of wine likely in 11th-century Italy.(Wyman,2004)
2.2 Nomenclature,Formula and structure
2.2.1. Nomenclature
Ethanol is a widely used organic compound. Its name originates from its chemical structure and
functional groups which follow systematic naming conventions. The naming of ethanol follows
IUPAC rules which identify it as a substance formed from ethane (C₂H₆) when one hydrogen
atom is substituted with a hydroxyl group (-OH) and the resulting compound receives the suffix -
ol. The naming convention places ethanol in the alcohol category because it functions as a
primary alcohol with the carbon attached to the hydroxyl group only bonded to one additional
carbon atom. Ethanol receives alternative names such as ethyl alcohol to highlight its alcohol
functional group or grain alcohol because it comes from grain-based feedstocks like corn and
wheat. The fermentation process of wine sugars originally gave rise to what was historically
known as spirit of wine. The molecular formula C₂H₅OH shows that ethanol consists of two
carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms together with one oxygen atom while its structural formula
depicts the positioning of these atoms with the hydroxyl group bonded to the second carbon
atom. Ethanol has a CAS number designation (64-17-5) which serves as its unique identifier for
use in chemical databases to maintain regulatory and safety standards. Ethanol functions under
different names including ethyl hydrate as well as hydroxyethane and methylcarbinol.
Appropriate scientific naming of ethanol serves both scientific and industrial communication
needs and ensures accurate chemical identification and regulatory compliance.

2.2.2 Formula and structure

Ethanol has the following chemical formulas: C2H5OH, C2H6O, CH3-CH2-OH structurally
represented in Figure 2.1. Although formulas are written differently, you can see ethanol consists
of 2 carbon atoms, 6 hydrogen atoms, and one oxygen atom. Ethanol's structure consists of two
main components: an ethyl group (C₂H₅-) and a hydroxyl group (-OH). The ethyl group is
derived from ethane (C₂H₆) by the removal of one hydrogen atom, while the hydroxyl group is
characteristic of alcohols and consists of an oxygen atom bonded to a hydrogen atom. The
hydroxyl group is attached to one of the carbon atoms in the ethyl group, forming a primary
alcohol, as the carbon bearing the -OH group is connected to only one other carbon atom. This
structure makes ethanol highly versatile, particularly in reactions such
as oxidation, esterification, and dehydration (Nelson & Cox, 2021). The condensed structural
formula of ethanol is CH₃CH₂OH, and its structure can be visually represented as:

Figure 2.1.: Structural Representation of Ethanol

Key features of ethanol is the -OH group which is polar, allowing ethanol to dissolve in water
and form hydrogen bonds, while the ethyl group is nonpolar, enabling it to dissolve organic
compounds. Ethanol's small size, polarity, and reactivity make it versatile, with applications as a
fuel, solvent, and in beverages. Its structure also allows it to undergo reactions like oxidation,
esterification, and dehydration.

2.1. Raw Materials

Corn syrup, commonly known as glucose syrup, is the essential raw material required for our
process. However, due to a shortage or lack of availability of corn syrup, we produce it from
scratch using corn, which is the primary raw material. This choice is driven by the availability of
corn in our location and our commitment to using high-quality raw materials. The process
generally includes two main parts: first, the production of corn syrup from corn, and second, the
conversion of corn syrup into ethanol. Below is a detailed description of the raw materials used
in the first processes.

1. Corn (Zea mays): also known as maize, is one of the most important cereal crops globally,
widely cultivated for food, feed, and industrial uses.it is a member of the Poaceae (grass family)
and it is an annual crop. It usually grows up to 2-3 meters tall having long,broad and alternately
arranged leaves on it’s stem.The tassel which is the male flower at the top of the plant indicated
in Figure 2.2 produces pollen while the ear, the female flower develops into the cob containing
kernels. The kernels (seeds of corn) are arranged in rows on the cob. These kernels contains; the
pericarp which is the outer layer of the kernel(bran) , the Endosperm which has the high content
of starch, the germ which is the inner layer rich in oils and nutrients as seen in Figure 2.3.
 Figure 2.2. The Maize plant Figure 2.3:Maize kernel: outer layer and internal structure(
Britannica, 1996)

Corn is the primary raw material used to produce corn syrup. It is high in starch, which is the
main source of sugars that are processed into corn syrup. The starch in corn consists of long
chains of glucose molecules that need to be broken down into simpler sugars, such as glucose
and maltose, to create corn syrup. Corn is classified into several types based on the kernel
composition and use: It includes;

I) Dent corn: this type of corm gets its name because of the dent, or dimple, that forms on the top
of each kernel when it starts drying out. It is commonly called “field corn” and is the most
commonly grown corn in the United States. It's typically grown for industrial applications such
as fuel, livestock feed and in thousands of other bio-based products like carpet, cosmetics
and aspirin. Field corn is much higher in starch and doesn’t have as much sugar to make it sweet
like the other types.

II) Sweet corn:Sweet corn is harvested when the kernels are soft and flavorful.It is cultivated
mainly for diirect consumption
III) Flint Corn : Flint corn, which we know as Indian corn, is more common in Central and South
America. There, they use flint corn similar to field corn is used in the united states that is, to feed
livestock.

Corn can be used for various industrial application which include; ethanol production. Food
products, animal feed, biodegradable plastics, industrial starches etc.

Generally, varieties of corn with high starch content, like field corn, are used for ethanol
production, rather than the sweeter varieties intended for direct consumption. The corn kernels
are first cleaned and ground into a coarse powder or slurry. This allows for better access to the
starch in the next steps.

2. Water: Water is essential at multiple stages of corn syrup production, primarily for hydrating
the corn starch and facilitating enzyme activity. Water is added to the ground corn to form a
slurry, which softens the starch and makes it easier for enzymes or acids to break down the starch
chains into simpler sugars. During the hydrolysis process, water also helps in diluting the syrup
to achieve the desired consistency and reduce the viscosity. Water is used in various steps
including mixing, mashing, and controlling temperature for enzymatic or acidic reactions. It
ensures that the slurry is the right consistency for optimal starch breakdown.

3. Amylase (Enzyme): Amylase is a critical enzyme used in the conversion of corn starch into
simpler sugars (like glucose). Starch is a polysaccharide made up of long chains of glucose
molecules, and amylase helps break these chains into shorter chains (maltodextrins) or individual
glucose units.

Types of Amylase Used:

 Alpha-amylase: Breaks down long starch chains into smaller dextrins (maltodextrins). It
works best at high temperatures and pH conditions.

 Glucoamylase: Further hydrolyzes the dextrins into individual glucose molecules. It

works.

The enzymes are added to the slurry or mash during the saccharification step. The starch
is heated to a specific temperature to activate the enzymes, and the breakdown of starch
 into sugars occurs over several hours, depending on the specific enzyme and process
conditions.

Summary of Raw Materials and Their Roles:

Raw Material Role in the Process

Corn (Maize) Corn provides starch, which is then converted into sugars like glucose and
maltose to produce corn syrup.
Water It hydrates and aids enzyme activity, helping create a slurry and adjust the
syrup's consistency.
Amylase Breaks down the starch into simpler sugars (maltodextrins and glucose)
(Enzyme) through enzymatic hydrolysis.
Table 1.1.: Raw materials and their roles in the process

These raw materials, particularly corn, and enzymes, are essential for the efficient production of
corn syrup.

Corn Syrup Production:

 Raw corn → Grinding → Hydrolysis with enzymes → Filtration → Concentration →

Corn syrup.

The second part of the process involves the conversion of corn syrup to ethanol and these are the
raw materials required;

1.Corn Syrup (Glucose): The primary starting material for converting corn syrup to ethanol is
corn syrup itself, which is derived from corn starch. Corn syrup is rich in glucose, a simple sugar
that can be fermented by yeast. It is typically produced through the hydrolysis of corn starch,
breaking it down into glucose. Starch, a complex carbohydrate composed of many glucose units,
must be converted into simple sugars before yeast can ferment it.
2.Water: Water plays several crucial roles in the ethanol production process. It is essential during
hydrolysis, where starch in corn is broken down into glucose using water in the initial stages.
Water is also important during fermentation and distillation.
3.Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae): Yeast is the microorganism that carries out the
fermentation process, in which glucose is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The most
commonly used strain is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a species of yeast known for its efficiency in
fermenting sugars into ethanol. When yeast is added to a glucose solution, it consumes the
glucose and produces ethanol and carbon dioxide as metabolic byproducts. Yeast thrives in a
warm, slightly acidic environment, with optimal fermentation temperatures glucose into ethanol,
and alcohol production usually reaches up to 12–15% by volume in the solution. The chemical
reaction involved is as follows:
C6H12O6→2C2H5OH+2CO2
Where:
 C6H12O6 is glucose,
 C2H5OH is ethanol,
 CO2 is carbon dioxide.
1. Enzymes (Amylase and Glucoamylase): These enzymes play a crucial role in the process of
converting starch into sugars. Amylase breaks down large starch molecules, which yeast
cannot metabolize, into smaller sugars. Specifically, amylase acts on starch to produce
maltose, a disaccharide composed of two linked glucose molecules. This initial step is known
as liquefaction. These enzymes used are properly described below;
 Thermophilic Amylase: In industrial ethanol production, amylase is often sourced from
thermophilic (heat-loving) bacteria, allowing it to function effectively at elevated
temperatures during the cooking of corn slurry.
 Glucoamylase: This enzyme further breaks down maltose into glucose, which is the
ferment-able sugar that yeast can convert into ethanol. The combination of amylase and
glucoamylase ensures the complete conversion of starch into glucose, thereby optimizing the
fermentation process.

Nutrients for Yeast: Yeast needs essential nutrients to grow effectively and convert glucose into
ethanol through fermentation. These nutrients include:

I)Nitrogen: Crucial for yeast growth and protein synthesis.Nitrogen is one of the most important
nutrients for yeast growth and fermentation. Yeast requires nitrogen primarily for the synthesis
of proteins, nucleic acids (RNA and DNA), and other vital cellular components.Corn syrup
typically contains sugars, but it lacks sufficient nitrogen, which is essential for cell growth and
enzymatic function. So nitrogen is needed to aid the process..
II)Phosphorus: Phosphorus is another essential nutrient for yeast growth, particularly for energy
transfer and the synthesis of vital cellular components.Phosphorus is a key component of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main energy currency in the cell. ATP is critical for all
cellular processes, including the fermentation of sugars into ethanol. The presence of phosphorus
in the form of phosphate is required for glycolysis, the metabolic pathway through which glucose
is broken down to generate ATP, pyruvate, and NADH (which later participates in ethanol
fermentation). If there is insufficient phosphorus, yeast may exhibit poor growth, slower
fermentation rates, and lower ethanol yields. In such cases, supplementation with phosphates,
such as potassium or magnesium phosphates, may be necessary.

III)Vitamins and Minerals: Yeast also requires various vitamins, such as B vitamins, and trace
minerals to optimize its metabolism. Vitamin B2, also known as riboflavin, is a water-soluble
vitamin that plays a significant role in the metabolism of yeast during fermentation. Riboflavin is
the precursor for the formation of two important coenzymes—flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and
flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). These co-enzymes are involved in redox reactions and are
essential for various metabolic pathways, including the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) and
electron transport chain.Riboflavin is also important for enzymes involved in the breakdown of
glucose, such as glucose dehydrogenase. Without adequate riboflavin, yeast would struggle to
metabolize sugars and produce ethanol efficiently.

IV)Trace elements, although required in very small quantities, are crucial for proper yeast
metabolism and fermentation.Below are a few trace minerals and the roles they play.

V)Magnesium (Mg²⁺): Magnesium ions are essential as cofactors for enzymes involved in
glycolysis and fermentation. For example, magnesium is required for the activation of
hexokinase and phosphofructokinase, which are key enzymes in glycolysis. It also stabilizes
ATP and is involved in the transport of phosphates within the cell.

VI) Zinc (Zn²⁺): Zinc is a cofactor for several enzymes involved in fermentation, including
alcohol dehydrogenase, which converts acetaldehyde to ethanol. Zinc also plays a role in protein
synthesis and cell membrane stability.
VII) Iron (Fe²⁺): Iron is an essential element for electron transport and oxygen metabolism. It is
a key component of cytochromes in the electron transport chain, which, although not used in
anaerobic fermentation, supports overall cellular metabolism. Additionally, iron is important for
maintaining proper cellular function under aerobic conditions.

VIII) Copper (Cu²⁺): Copper is important for the function of certain enzymes involved in
oxidation-reduction reactions. In yeast, copper is necessary for the activity of cytochrome
oxidase, which plays a role in oxidative phosphorylation when oxygen is present.

IX) Manganese (Mn²⁺): Manganese is involved in the stabilization of enzymes and the activation
of various metabolic processes. It is also important for the functioning of superoxide dismutase
(SOD), an enzyme that protects yeast cells from oxidative stress during fermentation.

X) Sodium and Potassium (Na⁺, K⁺): These ions are critical for maintaining osmotic balance
and regulating cell membrane potentials. Potassium, in particular, is necessary for the activity of
several enzymes involved in glycolysis and ethanol fermentation.

Ethanol Production:

Corn syrup → Fermentation with yeast → Distillation → Dehydration (optional) → Ethanol

+ Distillers grains.

2.2. PRODUCT SPECIFICATION

2.2.1 Ethanol Specifications

The ethanol produced must meet the following specifications to ensure its suitability for
industrial, pharmaceutical, or fuel applications:

Purity: ≥ 99.5% (v/v) - For applications like fuel blending, pharmaceuticals, and solvents, high
purity is essential. Ethanol purity is essential for its intended use; for instance, pharmaceutical-
grade ethanol must be free of impurities to prevent negative health effects, while fuel-grade
ethanol must meet strict purity standards to ensure efficient combustion. High purity is attained
through precise distillation and purification processes, such as molecular sieve dehydration. To
reach the required purity level, impurities such as water, methanol, and fusel oils are eliminated.
Water Content: ≤ 0.5% (v/v) - Excess water can affect ethanol's performance in fuel blends
and industrial applications. One prevalent contaminant in the manufacturing of ethanol is water.
Fuel-grade ethanol's energy content can be lowered and its performance in industrial applications
impacted by an excessive water content. Dehydration methods like azeotropic distillation or
molecular sieves are used to reduce the amount of water. The conventional technique for
determining water content is Karl Fischer titration.

Methanol Content: ≤ 0.1% (v/v) - Methanol is a toxic impurity that must be minimized,
especially for pharmaceutical-grade ethanol. Particularly in pharmaceutical and beverage-grade
ethanol, methanol is a hazardous fermentation byproduct that needs to be kept to a minimum.
Because of its lower boiling point, methanol is separated from ethanol during distillation.
Methanol content is measured using gas chromatography.

Acidity (as Acetic Acid): ≤ 0.002% (w/v) - High acidity can corrode storage tanks and affect
product stability. Acetic acid, which can damage storage tanks and compromise product stability,
is the main cause of ethanol's acidity. By keeping the pH at the right level throughout
fermentation and distillation, acidity is managed. Acidity is determined by titrating with a
specified base.

Aldehydes (as Acetaldehyde): ≤ 0.002% (w/v) - Aldehydes can impart undesirable odors and
affect product quality. Fermentation byproducts called aldehydes, such acetaldehyde, can add
unwanted smells and degrade the quality of a product. Because aldehydes are volatile, they are
eliminated during distillation. Aldehyde content is measured using spectrophotometry or gas
chromatography.

Fusel Oil (Higher Alcohols): ≤ 0.005% (v/v) - Fusel oils are by-products of fermentation that
can affect the taste and odor of ethanol. Fusel oils are a blend of higher alcohols that are created
during fermentation, such as propanol and butanol. They may have an impact on ethanol's flavor
and smell. Because fusel oils have higher boiling temperatures, they are separated during
distillation. Fusel oil content is measured using gas chromatography.

Sulfates: ≤ 1 mg/L - Sulfates can cause corrosion of equipments and affect product stability.
Using premium raw materials and process water reduces sulfates. Sulfate content is measured by
turbidimetry or ion chromatography.
Chlorides: ≤ 1 mg/L - Chlorides can also cause corrosion and are regulated. Chlorides are
controlled by using high-quality raw materials and process water. Ion chromatography or
titration is used to measure chloride content.

Heavy Metals (as Pb): ≤ 1 mg/L - Heavy metals are toxic and must be minimized. Lead is one
of the hazardous heavy metals that should be kept to a minimum, particularly in pharmaceutical-
grade ethanol. Filtration and ion exchange procedures are used to eliminate heavy metals. Heavy
metal content is measured using inductively coupled plasma (ICP) or atomic absorption
spectroscopy (AAS) methods.

Color: Clear and colorless - Ethanol should be free of any discoloration, which could indicate
contamination. Any coloring that would suggest contamination or deterioration should be absent
from ethanol. A colorimeter or visual inspection are used to evaluate color. Investigation is
necessary for any departure from the clear and colorless standard.

Odor: Characteristic, non-offensive - The odor should be neutral, with no foul or pungent
smells. The smell of ethanol should be distinct and neutral. Any strong or unpleasant odor is a
sign that contaminants are present. Sensory evaluation is used to evaluate odor. Usually,
aldehydes, fusel oils, or microbiological contamination are the sources of off-odors.

2.2.2 Corn Syrup Specifications

The corn syrup used as the primary feedstock must meet the following specifications to ensure
efficient fermentation and high-quality ethanol production:

Dextrose Equivalent (DE): 95-98 : DE measures the degree of starch conversion to glucose.
Higher DE values indicate a higher concentration of fermentable sugars.

Dry Solids Content:70-75% (w/w) ; This ensures the syrup has sufficient fermentable sugars
for efficient ethanol production.

pH: 4.0-5.0 - The pH range is optimal for yeast activity during fermentation.

Color: Light amber to clear - Darker colors may indicate impurities or over-processing.

Viscosity: 1,000-2,000 cP at 25°C - Viscosity affects the handling and processing of the syrup.
 Microbial Count: ≤ 1,000 CFU/g - High microbial counts can lead to contamination and
reduced fermentation efficiency.

Heavy Metals (as Pb): ≤ 0.5 mg/kg - Heavy metals can inhibit yeast activity and contaminate
the final product.

Sulfates: ≤ 10 mg/kg - Excessive sulfates can affect fermentation and product quality.

Chlorides:≤ 10 mg/kg - Chlorides can cause corrosion in equipment and affect product quality.

2.3. QUALITY CONTROL

2.3.1 Raw Material Quality Control

Corn Syrup Analysis: Each batch of corn syrup must be tested for DE, dry solids content, pH,
color, viscosity, microbial count, and heavy metals before being accepted for production. A
Certificate of Analysis (CoA) should accompany each batch, detailing the test results.

Water Quality: Process water must be tested for pH, hardness, chlorides, sulfates, and microbial
content. Water used in fermentation and distillation must meet potable water standards.

2.3.2 In-Process Quality Control

Fermentation Monitoring:

pH: Maintained between 4.5-5.5 to ensure optimal yeast activity.

Temperature: Controlled at 30-35°C to maximize fermentation efficiency.

Sugar Concentration: Monitored using refractometry or HPLC to ensure complete

fermentation.

Ethanol Concentration: Regularly checked using gas chromatography or densitometry to

ensure optimal yield.

Distillation Monitoring:

 Temperature Control: Ensure proper separation of ethanol from water and impurities.

 Ethanol Purity: Continuously monitored using gas chromatography or refractometry.

 By-Product Removal: Fusel oils and other impurities must be removed during distillation.
2.3.3 Final Product Quality Control

Ethanol Purity: Tested using gas chromatography to ensure ≥ 99.5% purity.

Water Content: Determined using Karl Fischer titration.

Methanol Content: Analyzed using gas chromatography.

Acidity and Aldehydes: Measured using titration methods.

Fusel Oil: Determined using gas chromatography.

Heavy Metals:Analyzed using atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) or inductively coupled

plasma (ICP) techniques.

Color and Odor: Visual and olfactory inspection to ensure compliance with specifications.

2.3.4 Packaging and Storage Quality Control

Packaging: Ethanol must be stored in clean, dry, and properly sealed containers to prevent
contamination.

Labeling: Each container must be labeled with the batch number, production date, and
expiration date.

Storage Conditions: Ethanol must be stored in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight and
sources of ignition.

Safety Measures: Ensure compliance with safety regulations for flammable liquids.

2.4. QUALITY ASSURANCE

2.4.1 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

Develop and implement SOPs for each stage of production, including raw material handling,
fermentation, distillation, and packaging. Regularly review and update SOPs to reflect current
best practices and regulatory requirements.

2.4.2 Training and Competency

Ensure all personnel are trained in the relevant SOPs and quality control procedures. Conduct
regular competency assessments and provide ongoing training as needed.

2.4.3 Documentation and Record Keeping

Maintain detailed records of all quality control tests, including raw material analysis, in-process
monitoring, and final product testing. Ensure all records are easily accessible and stored securely
for a minimum of 5 years.

2.4.4 Regulatory Compliance

Ensure the plant complies with all relevant local, national, and international regulations and
standards for ethanol production. Regularly audit the plant to ensure ongoing compliance and
address any non-conformities promptly.

2.4.5 Continuous Improvement

Implement a continuous improvement program to identify and address areas for improvement in
the production process and quality control measures.

Regularly review customer feedback and market trends to ensure the product meets customer
expectations and industry standards.

Conclusion

The production of ethanol from corn syrup requires stringent quality control measures to ensure
the final product meets the required specifications and regulatory standards. By implementing
robust quality control and assurance procedures, the plant can consistently produce high-quality
ethanol that meets customer expectations and regulatory requirements. Regular monitoring,
documentation, and continuous improvement are essential to maintaining the quality and
reliability of the ethanol produced. This comprehensive report serves as a guide for ensuring the
successful operation of the ethanol production plant, from raw material sourcing to final product
delivery. Adherence to these standards will ensure the production of high-quality ethanol and the
overall success of the plant.
This expanded report provides a detailed and structured approach to product specification and
quality control, ensuring the plant operates efficiently and produces ethanol that meets the
highest standards.
 CHAPTER 3

3.1 PROCESS ROUTE

There are different process routes we can take in order to produce ethanol. These process routes
are discussed below.

1. Fermentation of Sugary Feed-stocks:

Ethanol production from sugary feed-stocks is one of the oldest and most efficient methods.
Sugarcane and sugar beet are the most common feed-stocks due to their high sucrose content. In
Brazil, sugarcane is the primary feed-stock for ethanol production, where the juice or molasses is
fermented by Saccharomyces cerevisiae to produce ethanol (Goldemberg, 2007). This process is
highly efficient because it does not require additional steps to break down complex
carbohydrates. The process route is illustrated in the Figure 3.1 below.

Figure 3.1.: Ethanol production from molasses using the fermentation process

Here the feed-stock is molasses gotten from sugar cane or sugar beets. The molasses are diluted
with water in a CSTR ( Continous Stir Tank Reactor ) to the required sugar concentration.
Molasses contains suspended solids, colloids, and other impurities that can interfere with
fermentation. If these aren't removed, they might inhibit yeast activity or cause issues in
downstream processes.So from the CSTR the feed-stock flows down to the molasses clarifier
where impurities in the stream are being removed. Yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisia ) is then
being added to the stream then it move down to the fermenter. In the fermenter or fermentation
column, the yeast acts on the sugars and converts them ethanol and carbon dioxide.After
fermentation, the mixture (called "beer") contains 8–12% ethanol, along with water, yeast cells,
and residual sugars is transferred to a wash column, where ethanol is separated from the mixture
based on its lower boiling point (78.3°C) compared to water (100°C).The distillation process
produces a 95% ethanol-water azeotrope, which is further dehydrated to produce anhydrous
ethanol (99.5% pure).

2. Fermentation of Starchy Feed-stocks:

Starchy feed-stocks like corn, wheat, and cassava require an additional step of enzymatic
hydrolysis to convert starch into fermentable sugars. In the United States, corn is the dominant
feedstock for ethanol production. The process involves gelatinization, liquefaction with alpha-
amylase, saccharification with glucoamylase, and fermentation with yeast (Bothast & Schlicher,
2005).For the corn to converted into starch, it can either go through wet-milling or dry milling. A
dry milling process of corn to ethanol can be seen in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2.: Flowchart of a typical corn dry grind fuel ethanol and co-processing
3. Lignocellulosic Biomass Conversion (Second-Generation Bioethanol):
Lignocellulosic biomass, such as agricultural residues (e.g., corn stover, wheat straw) and energy
crops (e.g., switch grass), is a promising feed-stock for second-generation bio-ethanol. The
process involves pretreatment to break down lignin, enzymatic hydrolysis to convert cellulose
and hemicellulose into sugars, and fermentation (Sanchez & Cardona, 2008). This route is more
sustainable as it utilizes non-food biomass and depicted in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3.: Flowchart of a Lignocellulosic Biomass to ethanol conversion

4. Algal Biomass Conversion:

Microalgae and macroalgae are emerging feedstocks for ethanol production due to their high
carbohydrate content and rapid growth rates. Algal biomass can be cultivated in non-arable land
and does not compete with food production. The carbohydrates in algae are extracted and
hydrolyzed into fermentable sugars, which are then converted into ethanol (John et al., 2011).
Figure 3.4 shows the block process flow through which algae is converted into ethanol; from the
hydrolysis down to the distillation/dehydration process to get the product - ethanol. We can also
see that this process is similar to the production of ethanol from corn syrup varying only in the
feedstock.

Figure 3.4.: Block diagram representation of Algal Biomass to ethanol conversion

5. Thermochemical Routes (Gasification and Syngas Fermentation):

Thermochemical processes involve the gasification of biomass or waste materials to produce

syngas, which is then fermented by microorganisms like Clostridium ljungdahlii to produce
ethanol (Daniell et al., 2012). This route seen in Figure 3.5 is versatile and can utilize a wide
range of feed-stocks, including municipal solid waste and industrial waste.

Figure 3.5.:Process Flow Diagram for the production of ethanol through thermochemical route

6. Chemical Synthesis (Ethylene Hydration):

Ethanol can be produced synthetically from ethylene, a petrochemical derived from crude oil or
natural gas. The process involves the catalytic hydration of ethylene in the presence of
phosphoric acid (Zimmerman & Walzl, 2009). This method is less sustainable due to its reliance
on fossil fuels and is shown in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6: Typical process flow for the production of ethanol by hydrating ethylene

7. Waste-to-Ethanol Routes

Ethanol can be produced from various waste materials, such as food waste, paper waste, and
municipal solid waste. These routes contribute to waste management and sustainability. For
example, food waste rich in carbohydrates can be directly fermented into ethanol (Kiran et al.,
2014). In Figure 3.7, dry food waste is been used as a feedstock for the production of ethanol.

Figure 3.7: process flow for the production of ethanol from waste
The choice of route depends on factors such as feedstock availability, economic viability, and
environmental impact.

The desired process route to be followed to obtain ethanol with corn as the starting raw
material is as follows;

 Wet milling
 Hydrolysis of corn starch
 Fermentation
 Distillation and dehydration of Ethanol

3.1.1 WET MILLING

The wet milling process is a method used primarily in the corn (maize) processing industry to
separate the various components of corn kernels into valuable products such as starch, gluten,
fiber, and germ. This process is widely used in the production of corn syrup,ethanol, high-
fructose corn syrup (HFCS), and other corn-based products.

Steps in the Wet Milling Process:

1. Cleaning and Steeping: Corn kernels are cleaned to remove dirt, chaff, and other impurities.
The cleaned kernels are soaked in a solution of water and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) at 50–55°C for
24–48 hours. This softens the kernels and loosens the starch-protein matrix. During steeping, the
kernels absorb water, and soluble components (e.g., proteins, minerals) leach into the water,
forming steepwater, which is later concentrated and used in animal feed (Johnson & May, 2003).

2. Germ Separation: The steeped kernels are coarsely ground to release the germ (the oil-rich
part of the kernel). The germ is separated from the rest of the kernel using hydrocyclones or
which can be seen in Figure, as it is less dense than the other components. The germ is washed,
dried, and processed to extract corn oil(Rausch & Belyea, 2006).

3. Fine Grinding and Fiber Separation: The remaining kernel material (after germ removal) is
finely ground to release starch and gluten from the fiber. The fiber is separated using screens or
centrifugal separators. The fiber is washed, dried, and sold as corn gluten feed for animal
nutrition (Singh & Eckhoff, 1996).
4.Starch-Gluten Separation:The starch and gluten slurry is separated using centrifugal separators
or hydrocyclones.Starch is denser and settles faster, forming the bottom layer. While gluten is
less dense and forms the top layer. The gluten is concentrated, dried, and sold as corn gluten
meal, a high-protein animal feed (Johnson & May, 2003).

5. Starch Washing and Refining: The starch slurry is washed multiple times to remove residual
proteins and impurities. The purified starch can be dried and sold as corn starch,further processed
into modified starches for industrial applications or converted into corn syrup or high-fructose
corn syrup (HFCS) through enzymatic hydrolysis (Rausch & Belyea, 2006).

But in this case,the starch slurry is washed and dewatered using filters or centrifuges. Now the
starch is ready to be processed into Corn Syrup.

This process is represented in Figure 3.8

Figure 3.8.: Wet milling flow diagram

3.1.2 HYDROLYSIS OF CORN STARCH

Corn starch or starch in general can be broken down into simple sugars by hydrolysis.Hydrolysis
of corn starch is a critical step in the production of ethanol, high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS),
and other starch-based products. It involves breaking down the long chains of starch molecules
(composed of glucose units linked by α-1,4 and α-1,6 glycosidic bonds) into smaller, fermentable
sugars like glucose, maltose, and dextrins. This process is typically achieved
using enzymes or acid hydrolysis, with enzymatic hydrolysis being the preferred method due to
its specificity, efficiency, and mild reaction conditions. This hydrolysis can be done by enzymes
under certain conditions.

The hydrolysis of corn starch occurs in 3 main steps, namely;

 Gelatinization
 Liquefaction
 Saccharification

3.1.2.1 GELATINIZATION

The corn starch is heated after being mixed with water, to break down its structure and form a
starch solution to improve its rate of reaction with the enzymes.

This process takes place for 15 to 30 minutes at a temperature range of 62 to 72°C.

3.1.2.2 LIQUEFACTION

The starch solution is treated with Alpha amylase enzyme. This enzyme breaks down the long
starch molecules that consists of amylose and amylopectin into shorter dextrin and
oligosaccharides in liquid form.

This process requires a pH of around 6.0 and a temperature range of 85 to 100°C for 1 to 2
hours. Alpha-amylase

(C6H10O5)n + H2O (C6H10O5)x + (C6H10O5)y

3.1.2.3 SACCHARIFICATION

The liquefied starch is cooled, then Glucoamylase enzyme is introduced which breaks down
dextrin and oligosaccharides into glucose which is the Corn syrup.

This takes place at a pH of around 4.5 and temperatures of 58 to 62°C, for 24 to 48 hours.
Glucoamylase
(C6H10O5)x + H2O x.(C6H12O6)

Overall reaction: Alpha-amylase

Glucoamylase
(C6H10O5)n + n.H2O n.(C6H12O6)

A third and relatively expensive enzyme called Glucose Isomerase is used to convert glucose to
fructose, by isomerizing the glucose to a 90% fructose and 10% glucose mixture called High
fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS).

3.1.3 FERMENTATION

Fermentation is done immediately after Saccharification in the same tank.

After saccharification the syrup is cooled and Yeast is added, Saccharomyces Cerevisiae is
commonly used due to its quick and efficient production of alcohol (Sapna et al 2012/7).
Protease is added to break down corn protein to free amino acids that serve as addition source of
nitrogen for the yeast to act.

This fermentation process can produce 10 to 12% ethanol. The CO 2 formed lowers the pH below
4.0 in order to enhance the activity of the glucoamylase still present.

This process is anaerobic. therefore, oxygen is removed from the tank by purging it with
nitrogen. Yeast

C6H12O6 2(C2H5OH) + 2(CO2)

3.1.4 DISTILLATION AND DEHYDRATION OF ETHANOL

Ethanol is separated from water and other byproducts such as fusel alcohols through distillation
in a column by utilizing the difference in the boiling point of the components to separate them.

The product of the distillation contains about 95% by volume of ethanol, the remaining 5% is
water with can not be removed by distillation because water forms an azeotrope with ethanol.

Dehydration is employed to remove to the remaining water, this is done by Molecular Sieve
Adsorption which leaves Anhydrous Ethanol.
Molecular Sieve
C2H5OH . H2O C2H5OH
3.2 EQUIPMENT IDENTIFICATION

3.2.1 CORN TO CORN STARCH

Corn Cleaning Equipment:

1. Vibrating screens:These are mechanical equipment used to separate materials based on particle
size.They operate by using vibratory motion to separate and classify materials. After germ and
starch separation, vibrating screens shown in Figure 3.9 are used to separate fiber from the
slurry.They help remove residual impurities from starch slurry.

Figure 3.9.:Vibrating screen

2. Aspirators: These are devices used in various industries, including corn processing, to separate
materials based on differences in density, size, or weight using air flow. In corn processing,
aspirators are primarily used to remove light impurities such as husks, chaff, dust, and other
foreign materials from the corn kernels. This ensures the quality and purity of the corn before
further processing. Figure 3.10 depicts an aspirator
Figure 3.10.: An aspirator

Steeping Tanks: This is an important equipment for a wet milling process. It is used to soften
corn kernels and prepare them for the separation of their components, such as starch, germ, fiber,
and gluten. Steeping is the first step in wet milling and involves soaking the corn kernels in water
and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) to break down the protein matrix that binds the starch granules. A
steeping tank is illustrated in Figure 3.11.
.
Figure 3.11.: A steeping tank

Grinding Mills:They are used to break down corn kernels into smaller particles, facilitating the
separation of components like starch, germ, fiber, and gluten.Hammer mills or roller mills can be
used to break down the corn kernels. A typical example of grinding mill can be seen in Figure
3.12.

Figure 3.12.: A grinding mill

Separation Equipment:Hydrocyclones or centrifuges to separate starch from fiber, protein, and
germ. It uses centrifugal force to separate particles based on size and density. A slurry is pumped
into a conical chamber, where heavier particles (e.g., starch) move to the outer wall and exit
through the bottom, while lighter particles (e.g., fiber) exit through the top seen in Figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13.:Hydrocyclone
Washing Equipment:Rotary vacuum filters or washing cyclones to purify the starch slurry. It is
used for separating starch and gluten from water. A slurry (e.g., starch slurry or stillage) is fed
onto a rotating drum covered with a filter medium (e.g., cloth or mesh).A vacuum is applied
inside the drum, drawing liquid through the filter medium and forming a layer of solids (filter
cake) on the surface.The vacuum continues to draw liquid from the filter cake, reducing its
moisture content.The dried filter cake is removed from the drum using a scraper, knife, or blow-
back mechanism.The filter medium is cleaned (e.g., with water or air) to prepare it for the next
cycle. A typical example of this equipment is shown in Figure 3.14.
Figure 3.14.:Rotary vacuum filters

Storage Equipment: Stainless steel are used to store starch slurry.This material is chosen for the
construction of the tank due to its corrosion resistance and the fact that it can easily be cleaned
(maintained).Figure 3.15 shows a stainless steel storage tank and its features.

Figure 3.15.:Stainless steel storage tank

3.2.2 CORN STARCH TO CORN SYRUP

Gelatinization and Liquefaction Tanks: These Heated tanks with agitators for starch solution
formation and starch slurry liquefaction using enzymes (e.g., alpha-amylase).

Figure 3.16.: Gelatinazation/Liquefaction Tank

Saccharification Tanks: Tanks for further enzymatic breakdown (e.g., glucoamylase) to convert
starch into sugars (glucose).Its configuration can be similar to the tank in Figure 3.16.
Filtration Equipment: Filter presses or membrane filters to remove insoluble residues. It
operates by forcing liquid through a series of filter plates, leaving behind solid particles in the
form of a filter cake. It is illustrated in Figure 3.17.
Figure 3.17.:Filter press

Storage Equipment: Stainless steel tanks which are similar to the type used for storing the
starch at the initial phase can also be used for storing corn syrup.

3.2.3 CORN SYRUP TO ETHANOL

Fermentation Tanks:Large, temperature-controlled, stainless-steel fermenters with agitators

and cooling jackets. Although one tank can be used can be used for Saccharification and
Fermentation simultaneously. Its configuration is also similar to the shown in Figure 3.16
Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) Recovery System:
Gas scrubbers or recovery systems to capture CO₂ by-product. It is shown in Figure 3.18
Figure 3.18.:Gas Scrubber Unit
Beer Well:
 Storage tank for fermented mash (beer) before distillation.

3.2.4 ETHANOL - WATER SEPARATION

Beer Column:
 Distillation column to separate ethanol from water and other impurities.

Rectification Column: This is used to further purifies ethanol to near-azeotropic concentration

(~95% ethanol).it is shown in Figure 3.19

Figure 3.19.:Rectification Column

Dehydration Unit:Molecular sieve adsorption system seen in Figure 3.20,is a system used to
remove residual water and produce anhydrous ethanol (99.5%+ purity).

Figure 3.20.:Dehydration Unit

Condensers and Heat Exchangers: Shell-and-tube or plate heat exchangers for cooling and
condensing vapours.A shell and tube heat exchanger is depicted in

Figure 3.20.:A shell and tube heat exchanger

Reboilers:
 Provide heat for distillation columns.

Storage Equipment:
 Stainless steel tanks for storing anhydrous ethanol.

3.2.5 UTILITY AND AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT

Boilers: Steam generation for heating processes.An example of an industrial boiler is shown in
Figure 3.21.

Figure 3.21.:A steam boiler

Cooling Towers: It is been used for cooling water used in condensers and heat exchangers.it
cools the water typically by means of draught(I.e) the action of air. It is depicted in Figure 3.22.
Figure 3.22.:Cooling Tower
Pumps:In a chemical plant, pumps are vital for moving fluids between different processing
stages, ensuring continuous flow. They convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy to
create pressure, overcoming friction and elevation differences in the piping. Various pump types,
such as centrifugal and positive displacement, are used depending on the process requirements.
(Felicia et al,2024).Centrifugal pumps depicted in Figure 3.23 are primarily used for liquid
transfer in this process.

Figure 3.23.:Centrifugal pump

Compressors:Compressors are essential for carbon dioxides CO₂ recovery and other gas
handling. Multi-stage centrifugal compressors are typically used due to their efficiency and
reliability (Brown & Zhao, 2018). Air Compressors can be classified based on operating
principles, these include, Positive Displacement Compressors and Dynamic Compressors.A
typical example of a compressor can be seen in the Figure 3.24.

Figure 3.24.:A well labelled compressor

Wastewater Treatment System: This is a series of processes that remove contaminants from
waste water to produce an effluent suitable for discharge back into the environment. It is used
typically to treat process water and meet environmental regulations.It occurs in three stages
which are the primary treatment system, the secondary treatment system and lastly, the tertiary
treatment system. Figure 3.25 shows a water treatment systems indicating the treatment stages
and unit component waste water passes through in order to be fit for disposal.
Figure 3.25.: Waste water treatment system

3.3 BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM AND PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

Block Flow Diagrams (BFDs) is a simplified, high-level schematic representation of a process,

showing major equipment and process flow using labeled blocks and connecting lines. BFDs are
commonly used in chemical engineering and process industries to provide an overview of a
system without detailed instrumentation or minor components.

3.3.1 BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM OF FROM WET MILLING TO ETHANOL

Figure 3.26 is a block flow diagram that outlines the process from wet milling of corn to the
production of ethanol. Each block represents a major step in the process, and the arrows indicate
the flow of materials.
Figure 3.26.:Block flow diagram of from wet milling to ethanol

3.3.2 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM (PFD)

A Process Flow Diagram (PFD) is a more detailed representation of a process than compared
Block Flow Diagram (BFD). It provides a clear and structured view of the main equipment,
process streams, and operational conditions in a chemical or industrial process.Figure 3.27 is a
representation of the process flow from corn syrup to ethanol showing the major equipments
involved.
Figure 3.27.:Process flow diagram of from wet milling to ethanol
 CHAPTER FOUR

MATERIAL BALANCE

Material balance serves as a cornerstone for designing a chemical process by analyzing and
quantifying the mass flows at each stage of the process.It is the application of the law of
conservation of mass which states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed.

4.1 PLANT ATTAINMENT

Plant Attainment is the fraction of the total days in a year (365 days) that the plant is in
operation. Plant Attainment % = hours operated * 100𝑎𝑦
𝑠 8760

For a plant with 80% attainment

80% = hours operated * 100

8760

Hours operated = 7008 hours

7008 hours = 292 days of operation

24 hours

From the problem statement of 80% plant attainment we can further get the daily production
rate. This production rate is given as

Daily production rate (kg/day) = 10000 tonnes * 1000kg * 1yr

1 yr 1ton 292days

=34246.57534 kg/day ≈ 34247 kg/day

Hourly production rate is given by;

Hourly production rate (kg/hr) = 10000 tonnes * 1000kg * 1yr * 1day

 1 yr 1ton 292days 24hrs

=1426.94064 kg/hr ≈ 1427 kg/hr

From the calculations we can deduce that a plant with 80% attainment would have to run at a
daily production rate of 34246 kg/day or 1427kg/hr to be able to attain a target production of
10,000 metric tonnes per year of ethanol from corn syrup.

4.2 UNIT MATERIAL BALANCE ANALYSIS

1)Carrying out material balance on the molecular sieve dehydrator

Assumptions:

Input: 95% ethanol and 5% water

Output: 99.5% ethanol and 5% water

Ethanol Azeotrope = P1

Water = P2
Ethanol = P3

Overall material balance on the dehydrator unit;

P1 = P2 + P3……..eqn.(1)

Balance on ethanol

0.95P1 = 0.995P3…….eqn(2)

Balance on water

0.05P1 = P2 + 0.005P3…….eqn(3)

Where P3 the outlet stream = 34247 kg/ day

Substituting P3 in equation (2) we have;

0.95P1 = 0.995*34247

0.95 P1 = 34075.765

0.95 0.95

P1 = 35869 .22632 kg/ day

To get P2;

P2 =P1-P3

=35869 .22632 - 34075.765

= 1793.46 kg/ day

COMPONEN INPUT OUTPUT

T
kg kmol kg kmol

Water - - 1793.46 -

Ethanol - - 34247 -
 Ethanol-water 35869 .22632 - - -
Azeotrope

2) Carrying out material balance on the rectification column

Assumptions

1)Steady- state system

(I.e) Input(W1) = output (W2)

Where Output = 95% of ethanol and 5% water

W2 = W1=35869 .22632 kg/ day

COMPONEN INPUT OUTPUT

T
kg kmol kg kmol

Water 1793.46 - 1793.46 -

 Ethanol 34075.765 - 34075.765 -

3)Carrying out Material balance on the distillation column

Assumptions

Input(D1): 16% ethanol and 84% water

Output: (D2) 95% ethanol and 5% water

(D3) 0.005 fusel alcohol and 99.995% water

Total balance on the unit;

D1 =D2 +D3 ………….eqn(1)

Ethanol balance:

0.16 D1 = 0.95 D2………eqn(2)

Water balance
0.84D1 = 0.05D2 + 0.99995D3………eqn(3)

From equation(2) where

D2 =35869 .22632 kg/day

D1 = 35869 .22632 * 0.95

0.16

D1 = 212973.5313 kg/day

D3 = (0.84* 212973.5313) -(0.05*35869.22632)

0.99995

D3 = 177113.1606 kg/day

COMPONEN INPUT OUTPUT

T
kg kmol kg kmol

Water 178897.7663 - 177104.3049 -

+1793.461316

Ethanol 34075.765 - 34075.765 -

Fusel alcohol - - 88.5565803

4)Material balance on the beer still column

Assumption:

Input: B1 =10% ethanol, 88% water and 2% other components(impurities)

Output:B2 = 16% ethanol and 84% water

B3 = 5% ethanol, 91.5% water and 3.5% impurities

Total balance of the unit:

B1 = B2 + B3………..eqn(1)

Ethanol balace:

0.1B1 = 0.16B2 + 0.05B3……..eqn(2)

Water Balance:

0.88B1 = 0.84B2 + 0.915B3…………eqn(3)

From eqn.(1)

B3 = B1 -B2………….eqn.(4)
Substituting the above equation into Eqn.( 2)

0.1B1 = 0.16B2 + 0.05(B1-B2)

0.1B1 - 0.16 B2 = 0.05B1 - 0.05B2

Collecting like terms

0.1B1 - 0.05B1 = 0.16B2 -0.05B2

0.05B1 = 0.11B2

Where B2 = 212973.5313 kg/day

B1 = 0.11 * 212973.5313

0.05

B1 = 468541.7689kg/day

Therfore; B3 = B1 - B2

B3 = 468541.7689 -212973.5313

=255568. 2376 kg/day

5) Carrying Out Material balance on the fermentation column

Assumptions:

Yeast
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO

From Stoichiometry

1 mole of glucose gives 2 moles of ethanol

Amount of ethanol produced (amount of ethanol leaving the fermentation) = 468541.7689kg/day

Molar mass of = ethanol = 0.046kg/mole

No. of moles of ethanol = 468541.7689

0.046

= 101856890.63 moles/day

1 mole of glucose = 2 moles of ethanol

X = 101856890.63 moles of x
 101856890.63 *1 =X

X =5092845.314 moles of glucose per day

We know the molar mass of glucose = 0.18 kg/mole

5092845.314 moles/day * 0.18 kg/mole =916712.1565 kg/day

For CO2;

1 mole of glucose ---------- > 2 moles of carbon dioxide

5092845.314 moles of glucose ------------> X

X = 5092845.314 * 2

= 10185690.63 moles

Multiplying through by it’s molar mass;

Where the molar mass of carbon dioxide = 0.044kg/mole

10185690.63 moles/day * 0.044 kg/mole

= 448170.3876 kg/day

To get the amount of feed entering the fermentation unit

The corn syrup is made up of;

97% glucose and 3% water

97% glucose = 916712.1565 kg/day

97% of X = 916712.1565

Where X = 916712.1565 * 97%

The amount of corn syrup water solution entering the fermentation unit = 889210.7918 kg/day