Surveying is the art of and science of determining the relative positions of various

points or stations on the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal and vertical
distances, angles, and taking the details of these points and by preparing a map or plan
to any suitable scale.

Surveying is a method used to ascertain the positions of various features on, above, or
below the Earth's surface through direct or indirect measurements, with the results
depicted on a plan or map.

Surveying and Mapping, it encompasses both the scientific and artistic aspects of
measuring and representing the relative positions of points and details, whether
physical or cultural, in a practical format.
Branches of Surveying
Surveying encompasses several specialized branches, each serving distinct purposes.
Geodetic surveys establish a framework for lower-order surveys by locating distant
points with high accuracy, accounting for Earth's curvature.
Topographic surveys create small-scale representations of the Earth's surface, often
utilizing aerial photography and photogrammetry, typically managed by national
organizations.
Hydro graphic surveys map the seabed, producing navigational charts crucial for
offshore oil industries, and may involve positioning large structures using electronic
fixing equipment.
Cadastral surveys focus on determining land boundaries, essential for land
registration systems in various countries.
Lastly, engineering surveys support civil engineering projects by providing detailed
design drawings at large scales. Each branch necessitates specialized knowledge to
ensure accuracy and effectiveness.
Large-scale surveying refers to the practice of measuring and mapping large areas of
land with a high degree of precision. It is essential for various applications, including
construction, land development, infrastructure planning, and environmental
management.

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN SURVEYING

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING FROM WHOLE TO PART
• It is a fundamental rule to always work from the whole to the part. This implies a
precise control surveying as the first consideration followed by subsidiary detail
surveying.
• This surveying principle involves laying down an overall system of stations whose
positions are fixed to a fairly high degree of accuracy as control, and then the survey
of details between the control points may be added on the frame by less elaborate
methods.
• Once the overall size has been determined, the smaller areas can be surveyed in the
knowledge that they must (and will if care is taken) put into the confines of the main
overall frame.
• Errors which may inevitably arise are then contained within the framework of the
control points and can be adjusted to it.
Surveying is based on simple fundamental principles which should be taken into
consideration to enable one get good results.
(a) Working from the whole to the part
It is achieved by covering the area to be surveyed with a number of
spaced out control point called primary control points called primary control points
whose pointing have been determined with a high level of precision using
sophisticated equipments. Based on these points as theoretic, a number of large
triangles are drawn.
Secondary control points are then established to fill the gaps with lesser precision than
the primary control points. At a more detailed and less precise level, tertiary control
points at closer intervals are finally established to fill in the smaller gaps. The main
purpose of surveying from the whole to the part is to localize the errors as working the
other way round would magnify the errors and introduce distortions in the survey. In
partial terms, this principle involves covering the area to be surveyed with large
triangles. These are
further divided into smaller triangles and the process continues until the area has been
sufficiently covered with small triangles to a level that allows detailed surveys to be
made in a local level. Error is in the whole operation as the vertices of the large
triangles are fixed using higher precision instruments.
(b) Using measurements from two control parts to fix other points.
Given two points whose length and bearings have been accurately
determined, a line can be drawn to join them hence surveying has control reference
points. The locations of various other points and the lines joining them can be fixed
by measurements made from these two points and the lines joining them. For an
example, if A and B are the control points, the following operations can be performed
to fix other points.
i) Using points A and B as the centers ascribe arcs and fix (where they intersect).
ii) Draw a perpendicular from D along AB to a point C.
iii) To locate C, measure distance AB and use your protractor to equally measure
angle ABC.

FIG 6.1
iii) To locate C the interior angles of triangle ABC can be measured. The lengths of
the sides AC and BC can be calculated by solving the triangle. Fig. 6.1: Fixing the
third points using two points

The process of surveying:

The survey process passes through 3 main phases – the reconnaissance, field work
and measurements, and, the office work.
(a) Reconnaissance survey
This is a pre-field work and measurement phase. It requires taking an overall
inspection of the area to be surveyed to obtain a general picture before
commencement of any serious survey. Walking through the site enables one to
understand the terrain and helps
in determining the survey method to be adopted, and the scale to be used. The initial
information obtained in this stage helps in the successful planning and execution of
the survey.
(b) Field work and measurement:
This is the actual measurements in the field and the recordings in the field notebook.
To get the best results in the field, the surveyor must be acquainted with the functions
of the equipments and take good care of them.
(c) Office work: This is the post field work stage in which data collected and
recordings in the field notebooks are decoded and used to prepare the charts, planes
and maps for presentation to the clients and the target audience.

IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC HONESTY

• Honesty is essential in booking notes in the field and when plotting and
computations in the office. There is nothing to be gained from cooking the survey or
altering dimensions so that points will tie-in on the drawing. It is utterly
unprofessional to betray such trust at each stage of the survey.
• This applies to the assistants equally as it does to the surveyor in charge.
Assistants must also listen carefully to all instructions and carry them out to the later
without questions.
CHECK ON MEASUREMENTS
• The second principle is that; all survey work must be checked in such a way that an
error will be apparent before the survey is completed.
• Concentration and care are necessary in order to ensure that all necessary measures
are taken to the required standard of accuracy and that nothing is omitted. Hence they
must be maintained in the field at all times.
• Surveyor on site should be checking the correctness of his own work and that of
others which is based on his information.
• Check should be constantly arranged on all measurements wherever possible. Check
measurements should be conducted to supplement errors on field. Pegs can be moved,
sight rails etc
• Survey records and computations such as field notes, level books, field books,
setting out record books etc must be kept clean and complete with clear notes and
diagrams so that the survey data can be clearly understood by others. Untidy and
anonymous figures in the field books should be avoided.
• Like field work, computations should be carefully planned and carried out in a
systemic manner and all field data should be properly prepared before calculations
start. Where possible, standardized tables and forms should be used to simplify
calculations. If the result of a computation has not been checked, it is considered
unreliable and for this reason, frequent checks should be applied to
every calculation procedure.
• As a check, the distances between stations are measured as they are plotted, to see
that there is correspondence with the measured horizontal distance. Failure to match
indicates an error in plotting or during the survey.
• If checks are not done on observations, expensive mistake may occur. It is always
preferable to take a few more dimensions on site to ensure that the survey will resolve
itself at the plotting stage.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION

These terms are used frequently in engineering surveying both by manufacturers
when quoting specifications for their equipments and on site by surveyors to describe
results obtained from field work.
Accuracy refers to how closely a measured value aligns with a standard or true value.
It is achieved through taking small readings, which help minimize calculation errors.

• Accuracy allows a certain amount of tolerance (either plus or minus) in a

measurement, while;
Precision refers to the consistency of repeated measurements of a substance,
indicating how closely the values align with one another, regardless of whether they
are close to the true value. For instance, repeatedly measuring a substance as 3.2 kg
showcases high precision but may lack accuracy if the actual weight differs. Thus,
precision and accuracy are distinct concepts, where one can be precise without being
accurate or vice versa.
• Precision demands exact measurement. Since there is no such things as an
absolutely exact measurement, a set of observations that are closely grouped together
having small deviations from the sample mean will have a small standard error and
are said to be precise.
If you're simply accurate, that means you're throwing darts that are landing close to
the bullseye, but you're not hitting the bullseye every time. If you're simply precise,
that means your darts are landing close to one another, but not necessarily close to the
bullseye.
In the field of surveying, achieving absolute accuracy is an ideal that professionals
continuously strive for, yet it remains elusive due to various inherent factors. This
reality introduces the critical concept of errors in surveying – a fundamental aspect
that every surveyor must thoroughly understand and manage.

1. Introduction to Surveying Classification:

- To understand surveying better, it is essential to classify it based on instruments
used, purposes, the area surveyed, and methods employed.
2. Classification Based on Instruments Used:
- Surveying can be categorized into chain tape surveys, compass surveys, plane
table surveys, and theodolite surveys depending on the instruments utilized.
3. Classification Based on Area Surveyed:
- Land survey involves topographic, Cadastral, engineering, and city surveys, while
marine or hydrographic surveys are conducted on large water bodies. Astronomical
surveys use celestial observations to locate places.
4. Classification Based on Purpose:
- Different types of surveys are carried out for specific purposes such as amanat
survey, control survey, geological survey, military or defense survey, and
archaeological survey.
5. Classification Based on Instrument Used:
- Chain/tape, compass, plane table, leveling, and theodolite surveys are methods
used for measuring various aspects of the earth's surface.
6. Classification Based on the Method Used:
 - Triangulation surveys involve dividing the area into triangles, while traverse
surveys establish positions of points based on bearings and distances. Traverses can
be open or closed circuits, with closed traverse forming a loop in the survey lines.

Fig 2.1 (a) Closed traverse is suitable for the survey of boundaries of ponds, forests etc.

2. Open Traverse:
When a sequence of connected lines extends along a general direction and does not
return to the starting point, it is known as open traverse or (unclosed traverse).

Here ABCDE represents an open traverse. Fig 2.2 (b)

Fig 2.2 (b) Open traverse is suitable for the survey of roads, rivers etc.

The Nature of Surveying Errors

Errors in surveying represent the inevitable discrepancies between measured values
and the true values of quantities being measured. These errors are intrinsic to the
surveying process and distinct from mistakes, which are avoidable blunders caused by
carelessness or misunderstanding.
Significance of Error Understanding
Realistic Expectations: Acknowledging the presence of errors allows surveyors to set
pragmatic goals for accuracy in their work.
Enhanced Precision: A deep understanding of error sources and types empowers
surveyors to implement strategies that minimize their impact, thereby improving
overall precision.
Quality Assurance: Familiarity with errors enables the Implementation of robust
checks and balances, ensuring the reliability of survey results.
Informed Decision Making: Comprehensive knowledge about errors enhances a
surveyor’s ability to make sound judgments in varied field conditions.
The Elusive Nature of True Error
A critical aspect of surveying errors is that their exact magnitude remains unknown.
This uncertainty arises from the fact that the true value of any measurement is never
known with absolute certainty. Surveyors work with estimates and probabilities,
constantly striving to maintain errors within acceptable limits for their specific tasks

Sources of Errors in Surveying

Errors in surveying can arise from various sources. Understanding these sources is
crucial for surveyors to minimize their impact. The main categories of error sources
are:

1. Natural Sources
These are errors resulting from environmental factors beyond the surveyor’s control.
Examples include:

Temperature fluctuations affecting equipment: Changes in temperature can cause

materials to expand or contract. For instance, a steel tape may lengthen on a hot day,
leading to longer measurements.
Atmospheric refraction: Light bends as it passes through air layers of different
densities. This can affect optical measurements, especially over long distances.
Obstacles to measurements: Natural features like trees, hills, or water bodies can
interfere with direct measurements or line-of-sight observations.
Magnetic declination: The Earth’s magnetic field varies across locations and changes
over time. This affects compass readings.

2. Instrumental Sources
These errors stem from imperfections in the surveying instruments. Some examples
are:

Incorrect graduations on measuring devices: Manufacturing defects or wear can lead

to inaccurate markings on instruments like tapes or theodolites.
Improper adjustment of instrument components: Misaligned or improperly calibrated
parts in instruments like levels or total stations can lead to systematic errors in
measurements.
Wear and tear of equipment: Over time, surveying equipment can degrade, leading to
decreased accuracy.
3. Personal Sources
These errors arise from the limitations of human senses and judgment. They include:

Errors in visual alignment: When sighting targets or reading scales, small

misalignment due to human visual limitations can occur.
Inaccuracies in reading instruments: Misreading scales or digital displays can
introduce errors.
Variations in personal judgment: Different surveyors might make slightly different
decisions in the field.
Types of Errors in Surveying
Understanding the nature of errors is crucial for surveyors to manage and mitigate
them effectively. Errors in surveying are generally classified into two main categories:

1. Systematic Errors
Systematic errors are those which follow a consistent pattern or mathematical rule.
They have specific characteristics:

Predictability: These errors occur from well-understood causes and can often be
calculated or predicted.
Consistency: They tend to have the same magnitude and sign under the same
conditions.
Cumulative nature: Systematic errors can accumulate over multiple measurements,
potentially leading to significant inaccuracies if not addressed.
Systematic errors can be further classified into:

Constant systematic errors: These maintain the same magnitude and sign as long as
conditions remain unchanged. For example, an incorrectly calibrated tape measure
will consistently give the same error in all measurements.
Variable systematic errors: These change in magnitude as conditions change. For
instance, the error due to thermal expansion of a steel tape will vary with temperature.
Importantly, systematic errors can often be reduced or eliminated through proper
calibration, applying corrections, or using compensating measurement techniques.

Examples of systematic errors in surveying include:

Incorrect instrument calibration

Misalignment of instrument components
Errors due to refraction in optical measurements
Errors caused by the Earth’s curvature in long-distance measurements
Consistent personal bias in reading instruments
To address systematic errors, surveyors may:

Regularly calibrate instruments against known standards

Apply mathematical corrections based on known error patterns
Use compensating methods, such as taking measurements in both directions
Employ more advanced instruments that automatically correct for certain systematic
errors1. Survey accuracy is crucial in equipment selection, where achieving a high
degree of accuracy is more important than precision. The cost of the survey increases
with greater effort and time needed, and the equipment chosen must match the
required level of accuracy for the drawings.
2. Selecting appropriate equipment is essential, ensuring that instruments have a
similar level of precision. Using equipment with a precision that exceeds the required
accuracy is unnecessary and inefficient, leading to potential errors in survey work.
3. After choosing the necessary equipment, thorough checks should be conducted to
identify and rectify any deficiencies. Regular maintenance of field equipment can
alleviate the task of adjustments, repairs, or replacements, ensuring accurate and
reliable survey measurements.
4. Horizontal distance measurement methods vary based on the required accuracy,
with options like pacing, odometer of a vehicle, tachometry, taping, and Electronic
Distance Measurement (EDM) available. Each method offers different levels of
accuracy and efficiency, suitable for various surveying operations.

Chain Surveying:
- Chain surveying is the basic method of land surveying that involves linear
measurements using equipment like a chain, steel band, or tape. It includes direct
measurements and is suitable for small surveys with chains made of steel wire links
and tally markers for accuracy.
Equipments Used in Chain Surveying:
- The equipment used in chain surveying can be categorized into linear
measurement tools (like chains, steel bands, and tapes), tools for slope angle
measurement and right angle measurement (such as Abney level, clinometer, and
cross staff), and other items like ranging rods, arrows, and pegs.

1. Chain:
- Chains used in surveys are made of steel wire with links measuring 200 mm
each, having brass handles at the ends, and tally markers at every whole meter
position for clear readings. Chains are marked from both ends to avoid confusion,
with three types being Engineer’s chain, Gunther's chain, and steel bands.

2. Steel Bands:
- Steel bands in surveying are 30m, 50m, or 100m long, 13mm wide with
handles similar to chains, and wound on a steel cross. They are more accurate but less
robust than chains and should indicate the operating tension and temperature they
were graduated for.
3. Tapes:
- Tapes are used for precise measurements in settings like building and road
construction. They come in lengths of 15m or 30m, marked in meters, centimeters,
and millimeters, and classified into types like Linen, Fiber Glass, and Steel tapes
based on their strength and accuracy.

4. Arrows:
- Arrows in surveys are steel wire pieces used for marking temporary stations,
often attached with colored cloth or ribbon for visibility in the field.

5. Pegs:
- Pegs made of wood are used to mark permanent points like intersection points
of survey lines by driving them into the ground with a mallet.
6. Ranging Rod:
- Ranging rods are long poles painted with red and white bands and tipped with a
steel shoe for easy ground insertion.
They assist in measuring lines with a tape and marking visible points during
surveys.
7. Clinometer
- Used for measuring slope angles.
- Common form is the Watkings Clinometer with a small disc.
- Consists of a weighted ring that hangs free to measure angles.

8. Abney Level
- Instrument used for roughly obtaining the slope angle of the ground.
- Consists of a telescopic tube with a graduated arc.

- A small bubble and vernier arm help in reading the angle.

Necessary Precautions in Using Chain Surveying Instruments

• Chains should be cleaned and steel tapes dried after use in wet weather.
• Colored cloth should be attached to arrows for clear visibility in the field.
• Ranging rods should be set up as vertically as possible at the station point.
• Steel bands/tapes should indicate the operating tension and temperature.
• Linen tapes need regular length testing, especially after repairs.
• Always keep tapes reeled up when not in use.
General Procedure in Making a Chain Survey
• Begin with reconnaissance by walking over the area to note its layout.
• Choose stations and mark them using station pegs.
• Station marks should be tied to permanent objects and easily replaceable.
• Make sketches of the area around stations to facilitate relocation.
• Offsets are taken perpendicular to avoid obstacles on chain lines.
• Sketch the layout in the chain book for reference.

Criteria for Selecting Survey Lines/Offsets

• Opt for a minimal number of survey lines, yet enough for plotting and checking.
• Position a long base line across the site for building triangles.
• Ensure triangles have angles greater than 30o but not exceeding 150o.
• Include check lines in all parts of the survey for plotting and off-setting.
• Avoid obstacles like steep slopes and rough areas whenever possible.
• Choose short offsets for close features to enable single-person measuring.
• Position stations on the extension of check lines or triangles for easy plotting.
Ranging
• Ranging involves placing ranging poles to create straight lines for measurements.
• These poles mark stations and help establish a clear path for measurements.
Chain surveying instruments are tools used to measure distances and angles in land
surveying. When using these instruments, there are important precautions to follow to
ensure accurate results. For example, after using the instruments in wet weather, it's
essential to clean the chains and dry steel tapes to prevent rust. Additionally, using
colored cloth or ribbons can help make the instruments more visible in the field.
In the process of conducting a chain survey, there are specific steps to follow. First, a
reconnaissance is done by walking over the area to be surveyed to understand its
layout and features. Then, stations are chosen and marked with pegs. It's important to
tie station marks to permanent objects for easy relocation during the survey.
Witnessing involves making sketches of the area around the stations to aid in future
relocation.
Offsets are taken perpendicular to chain lines to avoid obstacles, and the layout is
sketched in a chain book. Criteria for selecting survey lines include using a minimal
number of lines, having a long base line, and creating well-conditioned triangles with
specific angles. Ranging involves placing poles along the route to ensure straight lines
and mark stations.
Overall, chain surveying involves careful planning and attention to detail to ensure
accurate measurements and reliable results.

In surveying, precise measurement tools are essential for collecting accurate data
about land and its features. Below is an explanation of how measurement is conducted
using linen tape, a compass, and a theodolite, as well as the significance of each tool
in the surveying process.
1. Measurement Using Linen Tape
Linen Tape:
Description: Linen tape (or surveyor's tape) is a flexible, lightweight tape used for
measuring distances. It is typically made of linen, fiberglass, or steel and can be
marked in feet, meters, or other measurement units.
Usage:
Setting Out Lines: Surveyors use linen tape to measure and mark straight lines
between two points. This is often done in the initial stages of setting out a survey area
or establishing control points.
Distance Measurement: The tape can be stretched between two points to measure the
distance directly. The tape must be kept taut to ensure accuracy.
Terrain Navigation: When traversing uneven terrain, surveyors can use the tape to
measure distances while accounting for obstacles and slopes.
Advantages:
Lightweight and portable.
Useful for short distances and in areas where other equipment may be cumbersome.
Disadvantages:
Less accurate over long distances compared to more advanced tools.
Susceptible to stretching or environmental factors (like temperature and humidity).

2. Measurement Using a Compass

Compass:
Description: A surveyor’s compass is a magnetic compass that helps determine
directions (bearings) and angles relative to the Earth's magnetic field. It usually
consists of a magnetic needle, a graduated circular dial, and sighting vanes.

Usage:
Determining Directions: By aligning the compass with a landmark or point, surveyors
can determine the magnetic bearing of that point.
Setting Out Angles: The compass can be used to measure the angle between two lines
or features, which is crucial for laying out boundaries or infrastructure.
Navigational Aid: While moving through a survey area, a compass can guide
surveyors by helping them maintain a specific direction.

Advantages:
Simple and easy to use.
Essential for establishing orientations and directions in the field.

Disadvantages:
Magnetic declination (the angle difference between magnetic north and true north)
can lead to inaccuracies if not accounted for.
Less effective in areas with strong magnetic interference.

3. Measurement Using a Theodolite

Theodolite:
Description: A theodolite is a complex optical instrument used for measuring
horizontal and vertical angles accurately. Modern theodolites may have electronic
components (total stations) for distance measurement and data collection.

Usage:
Angle Measurement: It allows surveyors to measure angles with high precision, both
horizontally and vertically.
Setting Up Control Points: By measuring angles between known points, surveyors can
establish control points and create reference frameworks for larger surveys.
Triangulation: Theodolites enable the process of triangulation, where surveyors can
calculate distances and positions based on angle measurements from multiple points.
Advantages:
High accuracy and precision, suitable for large-scale surveying.
Can be integrated with electronic distance measurement (EDM) for comprehensive
data collection.

Disadvantages:
More complex and requires training to operate effectively.
Heavier and less portable compared to simpler tools like linen tape and compass.

Conclusion
In summary, linen tape, compass, and theodolite are fundamental tools in surveying,
each playing a unique role in the measurement process. Linen tape is ideal for
straightforward distance measurements, a compass is essential for determining
directions and angles, and a theodolite is used for precise angle measurements and
establishing control points. By using these tools in conjunction, surveyors can achieve
accurate and reliable results in their assessments and planning activities.

Maps in Geography
- Maps are essential tools in geography to represent and visualize spatial
information.
- They help us understand and navigate the world around us by depicting features
like land-forms, bodies of water, and human-made structures using symbols and
colors.
- Maps allow for understanding spatial relationships and measuring distances.

Different Types of Maps:

- Reference Maps:
• Provide basic information about location and geography including natural and
man-made landmarks, bodies of water, and political boundaries.
• Commonly used for navigation, population analysis, and market research.
- Political Boundary Maps:
• Define the boundaries of countries, states, provinces, and territories.
• Help understand political structures, jurisdictional boundaries, and political
changes over time.
- Thematic Maps:
• Emphasize specific themes in a geographic region such as climate, population
density, and health.
• Highlight spatial variations in various geographic distributions.
- Topographic Maps:
• Display detailed quantitative information about natural and human-made features
using contour lines.
• Provide data on elevations, land-forms, forest covers, and water bodies for
geographical planning and civil engineering.
3. Geological Maps:
- Used to display geological information and data, providing insights into the Earth's
structure and composition.
Map symbols and conventional signs are utilized in cartography to represent various
features and information on maps, allowing for easy interpretation and understanding.
Here are some common symbols and conventions used on maps:

1. Physical Features
Water Bodies:
Blue lines for rivers and streams.
Blue areas for lakes and oceans.
Elevation:
Contour lines to indicate elevation changes.
Hachures (short lines) indicating slopes.

2. Cultural Features
Cities and Towns: Dots or circles of various sizes representing population size (larger
dots for larger cities). Roads and Highways: Solid lines for major roads, Dotted or
dashed lines for secondary roads.
Different line thicknesses often indicate the type of road.

3. Boundaries
Political Boundaries: Solid lines for country borders, Dotted lines for state or
provincial boundaries.
Administrative Areas: Different colors or shading to represent various regions or
districts.

4. Transport
Railways: Solid black lines for major railways. Dotted lines for minor railways.
Airports: Airplane symbols or specific icons to represent airports.

5. Land Use
Forest Areas: Green shading or tree symbols.
Agricultural Land: Yellow or brown shading.
Urban Areas: Gray shading or built-up area symbols.

6. Symbols for Services and Amenities

Hospitals: Red cross symbol.
Schools: Book or graduation cap symbol.
Parks: Tree or leaf symbols.

7. Legend/Key
Most maps include a legend or key, explaining the symbols used on the map, which is
crucial for understanding the map's information.

8. Scale
A scale bar or ratio to indicate distances represented on the map.

9. Orientation
A compass rose to show directions (North, East, South, West).
Conclusion
The use of these symbols and conventional signs makes maps a powerful tool for
navigation, planning, and understanding geographic information. When interpreting a
map, referring to the legend will help clarify the meaning of the symbols used. Maps
utilize conventional symbols to represent features in a plan view, aiding in the
visualization of various elements from an aerial perspective. These symbols, which
include drawings, letters, and colored areas, are explained in a map's legend or key,
making it essential for interpretation. Most symbols are universally recognized,
simplifying the process of map reading and understanding. Man-made features, like
cities and roads, are depicted larger than their actual size to emphasize their
importance, while colors help categorize and clarify these symbols.

Color Geographical Feature

Dark green Near-sea level elevations
Brown Higher elevations
Blue Water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans.

(Light blue for shallow areas and Dark blue for deep waters)
White Ice and glaciers