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INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTATIONS

Experiments:

An experiment involves the manipulation of an independent variable, the

measurement of a dependent variable, and the exposure of various participants to

one or more of the conditions being studied (APA Dictionary) Experiment involves

manipulation of variables to establish cause and effect relationship. Main features

are random allocation of participants in controlled and experimental groups and

under controlled circumstance.

An experiment in psychology is when there is a study conducted that investigates

the direct effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable.

Independent variable:

The independent variable in psychology is the variable that the researcher

manipulates or changed and or the quantity that is being manipulated in an

experiment (Cherry, k.) For example, in an experiment looking at the effects of

studying on test scores, studying would be the independent variable. Researchers

are trying to determine if changes to the independent variable (studying) result in

significant changes to the dependent variable (the test results).

Dependent variable:
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The outcome that is observed to occur or change after the occurrence or

variation of the independent variable in an experiment It is a factor in an

experiment that can change depending on the independent variable (APA

dictionary).

One way to help identify the dependent variable is to remember that it depends on the

independent variable. When researchers make changes to the independent variable,

they then measure any resulting changes to the dependent variable. The dependent

variable is the effect. Its value depends on changes in the independent variable

(Bhandari, P)

Extraneous Variable:

These are those variables that researcher is not investigating that can affect

the outcome of research study. Or anything that is not the independent variable that

has the potential to affect the results is called an extraneous variable. (Dr McLeod,

S.) For example

Types of experiments:

1.Lab experiment

2.Field experiment

3.Quasi experiment

Lab experiment:
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A laboratory experiment is an experiment conducted under highly controlled

conditions (not necessarily a laboratory), where accurate measurements are

possible. All the things were decided by researcher i.e where the experiment will

take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances etc.

Participants are randomly allocated in groups

Advantage:

1.It is easier to replicate (i.e., copy) a laboratory experiment. This is because a

standardized procedure is used.

Disadvantages:

1.The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural behavior that does not reflect

real life, i.e., low ecological validity. This means it would not be possible to

generalize the findings to a real-life setting.

Field experiment:

Field experiments are done in the everyday (i.e., real life) environment of the

participants. The experimenter still manipulates the independent variable, but in a

real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous variables).

Advantage:

1.Behavior in a field experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of its natural

setting, i.e., higher ecological validity than a lab experiment.

Disadvantage:

1.There is less control over extraneous variables that might bias the results.
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Quasi experiment:

Quasi-experiment is an experiment where participants cannot be randomly

assigned to the independent variable. Like a true experiment, a quasi-experimental

design aims to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between an independent

and dependent variable, a quasi-experiment does not rely on random assignment.

Instead, subjects are assigned to groups based on non-random criteria.

Advantage:

1.There are several designs to choose from that you can adapt depending on your

context

Disadvantage:

1.You’re our control caused the results of your evaluation.

Characteristics of scientific experiments:

(By Edeh Samuel)

1. Objectivity: Scientific knowledge is objective. Simple objectivity means the

ability to see and accept facts as they are, not as one might wish they were. To

be objective, one has to protect oneself against one’s own prejudices, beliefs,

desires, values and preferences. Objectivity requires that one should set aside

all kinds of subjective considerations and prejudices.

2. Replicability: Reliable in this sense means that any other person may replicate

similar results by following the systematic procedures laid down. If a research

work cannot be relied upon by others and a similar result replicated, then it

cannot be qualified as scientific research.

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3. Predictability: A good scientific research work should be predictable. This

simply means that at the very early stages of the research work, a researcher

should be able to predict the outcome.

4. Replicated: A scientific work will be of little to no relevance of it cannot be

replicated following a systematic exploration/ procedure laid down by the

originator. The possibility of replicating a particular research work and

attaining a result which is exact with the original research is what makes for the

general acceptability of scientific works

5. Validity: This refers to how well a scientific test or research actually measures

what it sets out to, or how well it reflects the reality it claims to represent.

6. Standardization: The use of uniform procedures in test administration to

ensure that all participants take the same test under the same conditions and are

scored by the same criteria, which in turn ensures that results can be compared

to each other.

Research Question:

A research question is an inquiry that the research attempts to answer. It is

most important thing in whole research. It provides enough detail that the audience

understands its purpose without any additional explanation. It is written in the

shortest possible words. Creswell (2005) explains that the research topic is a broad

area in which “a central phenomenon is the key concept, idea, or process studied in

qualitative research” The research questions “narrow the purpose statement to

specific questions that researchers seek to answer”

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Hypothesis: A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a precise, testable statement of what

the researchers predict will be the outcome of the study. By (Monash University)

Types:

1.Null

2.Alternative

Null hypothesis: Null hypothesis (H0): There’s no effect. A null hypothesis is a

statistical hypothesis in which there is no significant difference exist between the set

of variables. It is the original or default statement, with no effect.

Alternative hypothesis: Alternative hypothesis (H1): It denotes that there are

significant differences between variables.

It is of 2 types

Directional hypothesis: The alternative hypothesis contains the less than (“< “) or

greater than (“>”) sign. This indicates that we’re testing whether or not there is a

positive or negative effect.

Non-directional hypothesis: The alternative hypothesis contains the not equal (“≠”)

sign. This indicates that we’re testing whether or not there is some effect, without

specifying the direction of the effect.

Sampling: The process of selecting for study a limited number of units from a

larger set (APA dictionary) Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members

or a subset of the population to make statistical inferences from them and estimate the
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characteristics of the whole population. It is also a time-convenient and cost-effective

method

Sampling methods:

Probability sampling: In this researcher selects a few criteria and chooses members

of a population randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to participate in

the sample with this selection parameter.

Random sampling: Random sampling gathers a random selection from the entire

population, where each unit has an equal chance of selection. This is the most

common way to select a random sample.

Systematic sampling: Systematic sampling draws a random sample from the target

population by selecting units at regular intervals starting from a random point. This

method is useful in situations where records of your target population already exist,

such as records of an agency’s clients, enrollment lists of university students, or a

company’s employment records. Any of these can be used as a sampling frame.

Non-Probability sampling: In this researcher randomly chooses members for

research.

1. Convenience sampling: where samples are selected from the population only

because they are conveniently available to the researcher.

2. Purposive sampling: researchers select the samples based purely on the

researcher’s knowledge and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only

those people who they deem fit to participate in the research study.
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3. Random sampling: In which each sample has an equal probability of being

chosen. A sample chosen randomly is meant to be an unbiased representation

of the total population.

Purpose: sampling is very useful in many ways as this method is time saving, save

cost, the only way to deal with large population

References:

APA dictionary, what is experiment. https://dictionary.apa.org

Kendra Cherry,k. ( 2022), what is independent

variable .https://www.verywellmind.com/279527

Bhandari, P. ( 2022), dependent and independent variable.

https://www.scribbr.com/

Dr. McLeod, S. (2019), extraneous variables.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/.html

Edeh Samuel, (2021), characteristics of scientific experiment.

https://bscholarly.com/

Creswell, (2005), research question.

https://gdaviesedd.wordpress.com/2015/09/26/edl751-creswell-2009-chapter-7/

#:~:text=Creswell%20say%20a%20researcher%20should,addition%20to%20the

%20central%20question.
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Exploring the role of emotions on short time memory among female college

student: An Experimental study

Aim: To experimentally study the effect of emotions on short term memory among

female college students.

Introduction:

Emotions are present in almost every moment of our daily lives, adding

colour to our experience of the world. Emotions help us to communicate with

others, such as when we feel sad and need some help & emotions also play an

important part in memory processes. Cognitive processes are affected by emotions

such as memory and learning (Phelps,2004). Moreover, emotions are believed to

play a role in determining whether we can recall a stored memory at the time we try

to revisit it. We also conducted an experiment to find how emotions affect short

term memory.

Emotions:

Emotions are reactions that human beings experience in response to events

or situations. The type of emotion a person experiences is determined by the

circumstance that triggers the emotion. For instance, a person experiences joy when

they receive good news. A person experiences fear when they are threatened. (By

cherry,k.).
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(In 1972, psychologist Paul Ekman) suggested that there are six basic

emotions that are universal throughout human cultures: fear, disgust, anger,

surprise, happiness, and sadness. Emotions,” wrote (Aristotle 384–322 BCE), “are

all those feelings that so change men as to affect their judgements, and that are also

attended by pain or pleasure. Such are anger, pity, fear and the like, with their

opposites.”

Theories of emotion:

● The James - lange theory:

The James-lange theory of emotion asserts that emotions arise from

physiological arousal. Recall what you have learned about the sympathetic nervous

system and our fight or flight response when threatened. If you were to encounter

some threat in your environment, like a venomous snake in your backyard, your

sympathetic nervous system would initiate significant physiological arousal, which

would make your heart race and increase your respiration rate. According to the

James-Lange theory of emotion, you would only experience a feeling of fear after

this physiological arousal had taken place. Furthermore, different arousal patterns

would be associated with different feelings and physical reactions that occur at the

same time.

● Cannon – bard:

Cannon-bard suggests that both of these reactions occur simultaneously and

independently. In other words, the physical reaction isn’t dependent on the

emotional reaction, and vice versa. Cannon-Bard proposes that both of these

reactions originate simultaneously in the thalamus. This is a small brain structure

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responsible for receiving sensory information. It relays it to the appropriate area of

the brain for processing.

● Evolutionary theory of emotions:

Naturalist Charles Darwin proposed that emotions evolved because they

were adaptive and allowed humans and animals to survive and reproduce.

According to the evolutionary theory of emotion, our emotions exist because they

serve an adaptive role. Emotions motivate people to respond quickly to stimuli in

the environment, which helps improve the chances of success and survival.

● Lazarus theory of emotions or cognitive appraisal theory:

According to appraisal theories of emotion, thinking must occur first before

experiencing emotion. Richard Lazarus was a pioneer in this area of emotion, and

this theory is often referred to as the Lazarus theory of emotion. According to this

theory, the sequence of events first involves a stimulus, followed by thought, which

then leads to the simultaneous experience of a physiological response and the

emotion. For example, if you encounter a bear in the woods, you might

immediately begin to think that you are in great danger. This then leads to the

emotional experience of fear and the physical reactions associated with the fight-or-

flight response.

Memory:

Memory is today defined in psychology as the faculty of encoding, storing,

and retrieving information (Squire, 2009). Psychologists have found that memory

includes three important categories: sensory, short-term, and long-term. Each of

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these kinds of memory have different attributes, for example, sensory memory is

not consciously controlled, short-term memory can only hold limited information,

and long-term memory can store an indefinite amount of information. Stages of

memory are. encoding, storage and retrieval. According to (Melton, 1963)Encoding

is defined as the initial learning of information; storage refers to maintaining

information over time; retrieval is the ability to access information when you need

it. Atkinson-Shiffrin modal model of memory was first developed by ( Atkinson,R.

and Shiffrin,R. in 1968). Atkinson and Shiffrin believed that once information

enters the brain, it must be either stored or maintained and that the information

which is stored goes into three distinct memory systems: the sensory register, short-

term memory, and long-term memory. Let's look at each of these components more

carefully.

3 stages of memory: Sensory memory:

In the sensory register process, the brain obtains information from the

environment. This activity is short, lasting at most a few seconds. During sensory

register, the brain gathers information passively through visual and auditory cues,

known respectively as “iconic” and “echoic” memory.

Short term memory: According to Becker, short-term memory occurs in two

parts: traditionally termed “short-term memory” and “working memory.” Short-

term memory is when the brain stores information temporarily so that it can be

repeated, such as remembering a phone number you see on TV. Working memory

refers to the brain storing information for the purpose of manipulating it, such as

remembering a set of numbers while working on a math problem.

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Long term memory: Many thinks of long-term memory as a permanent “bank”

within the brain. Once a memory arrives there, the mind stores it completely and

indefinitely. In truth, this is not the case. Although the long-term memory process

allows information to remain in the brain for an extended period, nothing in the brain

avoids risk. Information stored in long-term memory can stay in the brain for a short

while (a day, a week) or last as long as a lifetime.

Theories of memory:

Multi store model (Atkinson & Shriffin 1968)This model suggested that information

exists in one of 3 states of memory: the sensory, short-term and long-term stores.

Information passes from one stage to the next the more we rehearse it in our minds,

but can fade away if we do not pay enough attention to it.

Level of processing ( Craik& lockhart,1972)

According to this model, memories do not reside in 3 stores; instead, the strength of a

memory trace depends upon the quality of processing, or rehearsal, of a stimulus. In

other words, the more we think about something, the more long-lasting the memory

we have of it .

Working memory model( Baddeley & Hitch,1974)developed the Working Memory

Model (WMM), which focuses specifically on the workings of short-term memory

(STM).Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model of memory (MSM) was criticized

for over-simplifying STM (as well as LTM) as a single storage system . So WMM

divided STM further in 3 steps Central Executive, articulatory-Phonological Loop,

visuo-Spatial Sketchpad.
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Flashbacks memories (Brown&kulik,1977) There are particular moments in living

history that vast numbers of people seem to hold vivid recollections of. You will

likely be able to recall such an event that you hold unusually detailed memories of

yourself. When many people learned that JFK, Elvis Presley or Princess Diana died,

or they heard of the terrorist attacks taking place in New York City in 2001, a detailed

memory seems to have formed of what they were doing at the particular moment that

they heard such news.

Review of Literature:

Emotion can have a powerful effect on humans and animals. Numerous

studies shown that people often remember emotional events clearly rather than

normal events that regularly happen in daily life.

One research study shows that people who are in a positive mood are more likely

to remember information presented to them, whereas people who are in a negative

mood (i.e., sad or angry) are less likely to remember the information that is

presented to them (Levine & Burgess, 1997).

In Another study researcher use neuro scientific perspective on learning to create

an emotional climate in the classroom that can be conducive to learning. This study

provides support for such actions by investigating the impact of emotions on

memory retention through analysis of electroencephalography (EEG)bands.

(Bower 1978) study participants to recall words from two lists, one lists learned

while they were happy and the other learned while they were sad. Emotional states

(happiness & sadness) were induced via hypnotic suggestions. Highly hypnotizable

volunteers performed the experimental tasks while maintaining their mood

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(happy& sad) for 5 to 20 minutes. Later they recalled both lists when they were in

one mood or the other. People who found to be in general sad state recalled more

while they being sad from hypnosis, and people who were found to be generally

happy recalled more while they being happy from hypnosis.

Another important finding is that participants recalled more event- related words

from list when exposed to emotional stimuli related to the words. Consistently,

emotional items have been found to be remembered better than neutral items

(Kensinger, 2009; Mather & Sutherland, 2011; Payne et al., 2008; Yonelinas &

Ritchey, 2015). Theories suggest that positive emotion may have a distinct effect

on memory, and may lead to enhanced association-memory In our main

experiment, as well as in additional supplemental experiments, we consistently

found enhanced association-memory due to positive emotion. Interestingly, we

observed enhanced association-memory in pairs composed of two positive words,

but not in pairings of one positive and one neutral word, indicating that this

enhancement may only when a sufficient amount of positive emotion is

present(Madan, C. R., Scott, S. M., & Kensinger, E. A. (2019).One study also

shown that emotional arousal enhances declarative memory in patients with

Alzheimer's disease, and give a clue to the management of people with dementia.

Rationale: I have chosen this topic for study because, in present world the most

important thing is the Youths mental physical state. Specifically, students in school

and colleges. They have another burden of studies, parents’ expectation, peer pressure

etc which leads to mental breakdown also students often make poor academic progress
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because they become overloaded by classroom demands and other pressures. So, our

study will show that will emotion effect short term memory.

Hypothesis: Participants watching happy video will have better recall as compare to

those watching sad videos.

Methodology:

Participants: There are 30 female students which are divided into 3 group each group

have 10 students. Two groups are experimental group and other one is controlled

group. Group one student shown happy video , other group student shown sad video

and to controlled group no video is shown.

Demographic: Students age is between 18 to 20.

Sex: Female

Sampling: Non-Probability sampling/ convenience base.

Research design: There are 2 experimental groups and one control group.

Independent variable is emotions i.e., emotions were manipulated by showing sad and

happy video.

Dependent variable is memory. resulted that group showing happy video recall better

than sad and controlled one.

Statistical descriptive:

We use mean and average descriptive statistics in our study.

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Procedure:

First, we discussed and then selected the topic,' Does emotions affect short

term memory’. Then we chose four videos in class and circulated them over google

forms. Through voting two videos were selected. After that we created a list of ten

words that were shown just after the video was played . After selecting the video

we decided to divide the groups into control and experimental group and

experimental group was further divided into two groups i.e. happy and sad. To the

happy group, happy video was shown & too sad group sad video was shown

Repport Formation: We let the participants to sit and feel comfortable while asking

their feelings, and asked them what they liked.

. Then instructions were given to participants of experimental groups are:

A short video will be shown to you, further instructions will be given after the video

ends.

A list of 10 words will now be presented to you for 30 (time to be adjusted) seconds

to memorize after which the list will be withdrawn from sight.

You will be expected to retain the words verbally shown in the list in any order/

sequence of your preference.

After which, you have to orally reproduce the words you have memorized from the

list.

And then instructions for controlled group were:

A list of 10 words will now be presented to you for 30 (time to be adjusted) seconds to

memorize after which the list will be withdrawn from sight.

You will be expected to retain the words verbally shown in the list in any order
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Sequence of your preference.

After which, you have to orally reproduce the words you have memorized from the

list.

Results and discussions:

Happy sad control

7 4 7

6 6 4

4 6 6

5 2 5

6 3 5

5 7 8

6 4 9

6 3 6

10 6 5

4 5 7

5.9 4.6 6.2 mean

The mean value of happy group is 5.9, sad group have 4.6 and controlled

group value is 6.2. So, our hypothesis is partially correct because participants recall

better after seeing happy video as compare to sad one but the mean value of control

group is greater than happy group because of outliers. There were two participants
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in controlled group who were excited to perform and they also like to learn new

words which lead them to recall more than those participants who were in happy

group.

But if we remove those two outliers who score 8 and 9, than our hypothesis

will be fully proved because then mean of control group comes less than happy

group.

Although we collected valuable evidence of the influence of emotional states

on short term memory, our interpretation of the data is limited due to small number

of participants included gender( 30 female participants ) . In the future we plan to

expand our participants in particular male and individual to different ages.

Conclusion: Study proves that participants showing happy video recall better than

those showing sad videos and no videos .

Summary:

The process was to choose a happy video and one sad video. Then we

divided the groups into control and experimental. Experimental group was further

divided into two groups happy and sad. A list was prepared of 10 words. After that,

we noted down the instructions that we took care of during the experiment and

instructions were also given to the participants about the experiment. After that we

conveniently selected the participants. We reformatted them do repo Formation to

comfortable them and then start our experiment, participants in happy and sad
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group were firstly shown the video happy video to happy group and sad video to

sad one after that further instructions were given to participants about the list that

we showed them a list for 25 sec and after that they have to recall the words ….

And to controlled group no video was shown directly list was presented and ask to

recall. After recalling we ask them to fill the scale 1 to 5 according to your feelings

and it is already proved that result of happy group is positive then sad and control

one.

Implications: This study proves that living in happy environment or seeing happy

thing affect our memory positively. It can help to decrease exam anxiety or help to

recall things better after being in happy state of mind.

Limitations: This study in conducted on small sample only 30 sample has been taken

and each group have only 10 participants so it not truly representative.

Sampling is convinced based not randomly scientifically selected i.e., participants

have an equal chance of getting selected, without any bias. But we choose participants

by own convinced

This study is conducted only on female college students whose age lies between 18 to

20.

Extraneous variables are not completely partialised.

And this study in not conducted in proper control or laboratory conditions

Suggestions:

Study must be conducted on bigger sample

For sampling used randomization techniques

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Conducted on all age groups, and on both men and women

Conducted the study on proper control condition.

Minimizing extraneous variables.

References:

Cherry,k. (2022). What are emotions

https://www.verywellmind.com/2795178

Levenson, R. W., Ekman, P., Heider, K., & Friesen, W. V. (1992) . Memory

Phelps, E. A. (2004). Human emotion and memory.

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=phelps+2004oq=phelps

%2C2004+#d=gs_qabs&t=1676260622557&u=%23p%3DzJpeEgsX30UJ

Squire, (2009), memory system.

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

start=10&q=squire+2009+hl=en&as_sdt=0,5#d=gs_cit&t=1676283495129&u=

%2Fscholar%3Fq%3Dinfo%3AV-7KhWLcSOEJ%3Ascholar.google.com%2F

%26output%3Dcite%26scirp%3D12%26hl%3Den

Melton, A. W. (1963). Implications of short-term memory for a general theory of

memory.
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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=melton+1963+=melton+1963

Hong, Z., Chen, Z., Wang, C., Mei, X., Prokhorov, D., & Tao, D. (2015). Multi-store

tracker (muster).

https://scholar.google.com/scholar.google.com

Craik, F. I., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory

research. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behaviour, 11(6), 671-684.

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q==1676283805900&u=

%2Fscholar%3Fq%3Dinfo%3A2VhA4wnE34wJ%3Ascholar.google.com%2F

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Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (2001). Working memory in perspective. Psychology

Press.

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=gs_cit&t=1676283886559&u=%2Fscholar%3Fq%3Dinfo

%3ATZY8VR-pk00J%3Ascholar.google.com%2F%26output%3Dcite%26scirp

%3D0%26hl%3Den

Levine, L. J., & Burgess, S. L. (1997). Beyond general arousal: Effects of specific

emotions on memory. Social Cognition, 15(3), 157-181.

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https://scholar.google.com/scholar?

hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=levine+and+burgess+1997&btnG=#d=gs_cit&t=16762840

25711&u=%2Fscholar%3Fq%3Dinfo%3Arhdznt5FRXMJ%3Ascholar.google.com

%2F%26output%3Dcite%26scirp%3D0%26hl%3Den

Bower, G. H., Monteiro, K. P., & Gilligan, S. G. (1978). Emotional mood as a context

for learning and recall. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behaviour, 17(5), 573-

585.

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hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=bower+1978&btnG=#d=gs_cit&t=1676284087039&u=

%2Fscholar%3Fq%3Dinfo%3AoThfNODWc28J%3Ascholar.google.com%2F

%26output%3Dcite%26scirp%3D0%26hl%3Den

Madan, C. R., Scott, S. M., & Kensinger, E. A. (2019). Positive emotion enhances

association-memory. Emotion, 19(4), 733.

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Kensinger

%2C+2009%3B+Mather+%26+Sutherland

%2C+2011&btnG=#d=gs_cit&t=1676284624137&u=%2Fscholar%3Fq%3Dinfo

%3AuWF-xCGQw2cJ%3Ascholar.google.com%2F%26output%3Dcite%26scirp

%3D4%26hl%3Den
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Appendix A:

We choose happy video by this data which is mention below

N min. Max. Mean std. Devi.

Happy 1 16 1.00 4.00 2.5625 .96393

Happy 2 16 2.00 5.00 3.6875 .79320

Happy 3 16 3.00 5.00 4.1250 .71880

Valid N 16

And sad one by this which is mention below

Appendix B:

1. Transport

2. Drain

3. Adjustment

4. Outbursts

5. Blizzard

6. Noises

7. Bombardment

8. Eruptions
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9. Conscious

10. Lawn
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