Building Science

Lecture 4: Heat Transfer and Storage – Part II

Winter 2024
Brodie W. Hobson, MASc, EIT
Agenda
• Boundary conditions on sun- and wind-exposed surfaces
• Film coefficients
• Sol-air temperature
• Solar heat gains and windows
• Thermal mass
• 1D lumped mass
• Explicit finite-difference

2
Boundary conditions on sun- and
wind-exposed surfaces
Boundary conditions

4
 Film coefficients

x =0 x=x
x =0 x = xoo

@x = 0
@x = 0
qc ,ind = hc ,ind (T − Tair )
dT qc ,ind = hc ,ind (T − Tair )
𝑞 = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑠,𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝜀𝜎 𝑇𝑠,𝑜𝑢𝑡 4 − 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 4 𝑞q = −k dT
𝑑𝑇 𝑞 = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑠,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 + 𝜀𝜎 𝑇𝑠,𝑖𝑛 4 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 4
q== −−𝑘
k 𝑑𝑥
dx
@x = 0 dx
@x = 0
𝑞 = ℎqqc ,out
𝑒𝑥𝑡
== h−hc𝑇,out
𝑇𝑠,𝑜𝑢𝑡 ( (T − T )
𝑜𝑢𝑡 T − Tout ) 𝑞 = ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑠,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛
c ,out c ,out out

Exterior and interior film coefficients

5
Film coefficients
• Surface temperatures are always different from the air temperature.
• Convection and longwave radiation act as an invisible thin layer that resists heat
transfer between the surface and the surroundings.
• While calculating wall R-SI values in practice, we assume this layer has an
approximate so-called ‘thin film resistance’:

1 1 15 ≤ ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑡 ≤ 30 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 𝐾
+𝑅+ℎ where ൝
ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡 5 ≤ ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑡 ≤ 10 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 𝐾

• Why is the exterior film resistance less than the interior film?

6
 Example 1 – Film resistances
Calculate the R-SI value of a wood-frame wall assembly. Assume interior film
coefficient to be hint = 5 W/m2K and exterior film coefficient to be hext = 15 W/m2K.

Indoors
m
4
0.

0.02 m Drywall k = 0.2 W/m-K

0.10 m Batt insulation k = 0.05 W/m-K and Wood Stud k = 0.15 W/m-K
0.05 m Rigid insulation k = 0.04 W/m-K

Outdoors
m
05
0.

7
Example 1 – Isothermal planes
Equivalent electrical resistance diagram:
Indoors

m
4
0.
0.02 m Dryw
R value: 0.10 m Batt i
1 1
0.05 m Rigid
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ℎ = 5 𝑊/𝑚2𝐾 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝑲/𝑾
𝑖𝑛𝑡

Outdoors

m
∆𝑥𝑑𝑟𝑦 0.02 𝑚

05
𝑅𝑑𝑟𝑦 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝑲/𝑾

0.
𝑘𝑑𝑟𝑦 0.2 𝑊/𝑚∙𝐾

∆𝑥𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 0.10 𝑚
𝑅𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 𝑘 = 35 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟗 𝒎𝟐 𝑲/𝑾
𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 0.05 𝑊/𝑚∙𝐾×
40

8
Example 1 – Isothermal planes
R value (cont’d):
Indoors
∆𝑥𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑 0.10 𝑚
𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑 = = = 𝟓. 𝟑𝟑 𝒎𝟐 𝑲/𝑾

m
5
𝑘𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑 𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑 0.15 𝑊/𝑚∙𝐾×

4
40

0.
∆𝑥𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 0.05 𝑚 0.02 m Dryw
𝑅𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 = = 0.04 𝑊/𝑚∙𝐾 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝟐 𝑲/𝑾
𝑘𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 0.10 m Batt i
0.05 m Rigid
1 1
𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝟐 𝑲/𝑾
ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑡 15 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾
Outdoors

m
−1

05
1 1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑅𝑑𝑟𝑦 + + + 𝑅𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 + 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡

0.
𝑅𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑

1 1 −1
= 0.2 + 0.1 + + + 1.25 + 0.07
2.29 5.33

𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑖𝑠𝑜 = 𝟑. 𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝑲/𝑾
9
Example 1 – Parallel path
Equivalent electrical resistance diagram:
Indoors

m
4
0.
0.02 m Dryw
R value: 0.10 m Batt i
0.05 m Rigid
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0.2 𝑚2 𝐾Τ𝑊 , 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0.07 𝑚2 𝐾Τ𝑊 ,
𝑅𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 0.1 𝑚2 𝐾/𝑊 , 𝑅𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 2.29 𝑚2 𝐾/𝑊 ,
Outdoors

m
𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑 = 5.33 𝑚2 𝐾/𝑊 (from previous)

05
0.
∆𝑥𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 0.05 𝑚
𝑅𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑,𝑏 = 𝑘 = 35 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟑 𝒎𝟐 𝑲/𝑾
𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 0.04 𝑊/𝑚∙𝐾×
40

∆𝑥𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 0.05 𝑚
𝑅𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑,𝑠 = 𝑘 = 5 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝟐 𝑲/𝑾
𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑 0.04 𝑊/𝑚∙𝐾×
40 10
Example 1 – Parallel path
R value (cont’d):
Indoors
−1
1 1
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑝𝑝 = 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝑅𝑑𝑟𝑦 + + + 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡

m
𝑅𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡 +𝑅𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑,𝑏 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑 +𝑅𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑,𝑠

4
0.
1 1 −1 0.02 m Dryw
= 0.2 + 0.1 + + + 0.07 0.10 m Batt i
2.29+1.43 5.33+10
0.05 m Rigid
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡,𝑝𝑝 = 𝟑. 𝟒 𝒎𝟐 𝑲/𝑾
Outdoors

m
05
0.
11
Practical implications of film coefficients – Radiant temperature
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑇𝑖𝑛 −20 ℃−20 ℃
𝑞= = = −40 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 1 𝑚 2 𝐾 Τ𝑊

𝑇𝑠,𝑖𝑛 −𝑇𝑖𝑛
𝑞 = ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑠,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 = → 𝑇𝑠,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 + 𝑞 ∙ 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡

1
𝑇𝑠,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 + 𝑞 ∙ 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 20 ℃ − 40 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 × 5𝑊Τ𝑚2𝐾 = 𝟏𝟐 ℃

𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑇𝑖𝑛 −20 ℃−20 ℃

𝑞= = = −8 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 5 𝑚 2 𝐾 Τ𝑊

1
𝑇𝑠,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 + 𝑞 ∙ 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 20 ℃ − 8 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 × 5𝑊Τ𝑚2𝐾 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟒 ℃

12
Practical implications of film coefficients – Radiant temperature

𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑇𝑖𝑛 −20 ℃−20 ℃

𝑞= = = −80 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 0.5 𝑚2 𝐾Τ𝑊

1
𝑇𝑠,𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 + 𝑞 ∙ 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 20 ℃ − 80 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 × 5𝑊Τ𝑚2𝐾 = 𝟒 ℃

13
Practical implications of film coefficients – Radiant temperature

• Radiant temperatures affect comfort.

• Operative temperature (°C) is often treated as the temperature occupants
experience.
• It is often approximated as the average of air temperature and radiant surface
temperatures:
𝑇𝑖𝑛 +𝑇𝑠,𝑖𝑛
𝑇𝑜𝑝 = 2

• On cold surfaces, warm and moist air will condense and may cause moisture-
induced problems.

14
Practical implications of film coefficients – Radiant temperature

𝑇𝑖𝑛 +𝑇𝑠,𝑖𝑛 20 ℃+12 ℃

𝑇𝑜𝑝 = = = 𝟏𝟔 ℃
2 2

𝑇𝑖𝑛 +𝑇𝑠,𝑖𝑛 20 ℃+18.4 ℃

𝑇𝑜𝑝 = = = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟐 ℃
2 2

𝑇𝑖𝑛 +𝑇𝑠,𝑖𝑛 20 ℃+4 ℃

𝑇𝑜𝑝 = = = 𝟏𝟐 ℃
2 2

15
Sol-air temperature

• When solar radiation incidents onto building surfaces, the surface temperature
feels warmer than the outdoor temperature.
• Solar radiation absorbed by a wall and outdoor temperature can be combined
into an equivalent temperature known as sol-air temperature:

𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑙−𝑎𝑖𝑟 °𝐶 = 𝑇𝑜𝑎 + 0.052 ∙ 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 − 3.9 For roof with dark-coloured surfaces
𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑙−𝑎𝑖𝑟 °𝐶 = 𝑇𝑜𝑎 + 0.052 ∙ 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 For walls with dark-coloured surfaces
𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑙−𝑎𝑖𝑟 °𝐶 = 𝑇𝑜𝑎 + 0.026 ∙ 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 − 3.9 For roofs with light-coloured surfaces
𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑙−𝑎𝑖𝑟 °𝐶 = 𝑇𝑜𝑎 + 0.026 ∙ 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 For wall with light-coloured surfaces

16
Sol-air temperature

17
Sol-air temperature

18
Example 2 – Sol-air temperature
Compute the sol-air temperature for a light-colored West-facing wall on June 21st at
3 pm solar time if the direct normal and diffuse horizonal irradiance are 600 W/m2
and 300 W/m2, respectively. The albedo is 20%. The outdoor air temperature is 20
ºC

19
 June 21st at 3 pm solar time

𝜶 = 𝟒𝟖°

𝝋 = 𝟐𝟓𝟓° − 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝟕𝟓°

20
Example 2 – Sol-air temperature
Solar angles (from chart):
𝛼 = 𝟒𝟖°, 𝜑 = 𝟕𝟓°

Surface solar azimuth (𝛾):

𝛾 =𝜑−Ψ
= 75° − 90° (for West-facing)
𝛾 = −𝟏𝟓°

Incidence angle (𝜃):

𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 48° ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 15° ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90° + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 48° ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90°
𝜃 = 𝟓𝟎°
21
Example 2 – Sol-air temperature
Direct component 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
(𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 ): = 600 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 50°
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝟑𝟖𝟔 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐
Diffuse component 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,ℎ𝑟𝑧 ∙
(𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 ): 2
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 90°
= 300 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 2
𝟐
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝑾Τ𝒎
Ground component 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,ℎ𝑟𝑧 ∙ 𝜌 ∙
(𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 ): 2
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 90°
= 600 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 48° + 300 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 0.2 ∙
2
𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 = 𝟕𝟓 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐

22
Example 2 – Sol-air temperature
Total solar irradiance 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 + 𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑
(𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 ): = (386 + 150 + 75) 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝟔𝟏𝟏 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐
Sol-air temperature 𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑙−𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑇𝑜𝑎 + 0.026 ∙ 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 (for light-colored walls)
(𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑙−𝑎𝑖𝑟 ): = 20 ℃ + 0.026 ∙ 611
𝑇𝑠𝑜𝑙−𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝟑𝟔 ℃

23
Solar heat gains and windows
Boundary conditions

25
Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)

• Glass is transparent to short-wave radiation (sun light), but opaque to long-wave

radiation (e.g., low-energy radiation radiated from interior surfaces to the glass
surface)
• Defined as the fraction of solar gains that ultimately make it through the window.
• This includes both directly transmitted solar radiation AND solar radiation that is
absorbed by the window that eventually radiates or convects inwards.

26
27
Example 3 – Solar heat gains
(a) Compute the solar heat gains through a West-facing window on February 20th at
3 pm solar time if the direct normal and diffuse horizonal irradiance are 400 W/m2
and 200 W/m2, respectively. The albedo is 40%. The SHGC and U-SI of the window
are 0.5 and 2 W/m2K, respectively. (b) Determine the net heat exchange through
this window if the indoor and outdoor air temperatures are 20 ºC and -20 ºC,
respectively.

28
 February 20th at 3 pm solar time

𝜶 = 𝟐𝟐°

𝝋 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎° − 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝟓𝟎°

29
Example 3 – Solar heat gains
Solar angles (from chart):
𝛼 = 𝟐𝟐°, 𝜑 = 𝟓𝟎°

Surface solar azimuth (𝛾):

𝛾 =𝜑−Ψ
= 50° − 90° (for West-facing)
𝛾 = −𝟒𝟎°

Incidence angle (𝜃):

𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 22° ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 40° ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90° + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 22° ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90°
𝜃 = 𝟒𝟓°
30
Example 3 – Solar heat gains
Direct component 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
(𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 ): = 400 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45°
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝟐𝟖𝟑 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐
Diffuse component 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,ℎ𝑟𝑧 ∙
(𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 ): 2
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 90°
= 200 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 2
𝟐
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑾Τ𝒎
Ground component 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,ℎ𝑟𝑧 ∙ 𝜌 ∙
(𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 ): 2
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 90°
= 400 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 22° + 200 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 0.4 ∙
2
𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 = 𝟕𝟎 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐

31
Example 3 – Solar heat gains
Total solar irradiance 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 + 𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑
(𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 ): = (283 + 100 + 70) 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝟒𝟓𝟑 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐
(a) Solar heat gains: 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙,𝑤𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 × 𝑆𝐻𝐺𝐶
= 453 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 × 0.5
𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙,𝑤𝑖𝑛 = 𝟐𝟐𝟔. 𝟓 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐
Heat loss due to 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑,𝑤𝑖𝑛 = 𝑈𝑤𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑎 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛
conduction: = 2 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 𝐾 −20 ℃ − 20 ℃
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑,𝑤𝑖𝑛 = −80 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
(b) Net heat exchange: 𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛 = 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙,𝑤𝑖𝑛 + 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑,𝑤𝑖𝑛 = 226.5 − 80 = 𝟏𝟒𝟔. 𝟓 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐

32
Summary of steady-state analysis
• R value and U value of wall and/or window assemblies
• Film coefficients
• Sol-air temperature
• Solar heat gains and windows

33
Thermal mass
Thermal mass

• Thermal mass indicates how much energy a material can store.

• Higher values mean less temperature increase for a given amount of energy.
• Materials of high density also have high thermal mass.
• Thermal mass of a material, 𝑀 (J/K):

𝑀 = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑐𝑝
where
• 𝑚 – mass of a material (kg)
• 𝑐𝑝 – specific heat of a material (J/kg·K)
35
Example 4 – Thermal mass
(a) Calculate the thermal mass of a building with a floor area of 6500 m2 with 0.5 m
thick reinforced concrete slab (k = 1 W/m°C; cp = 0.8 kJ/kg°C; ρ = 2300 kg/m3).
Neglect the thermal mass of any other architectural and structural element than the
floor thermal mass. (b) Calculate the energy needed to raise the temperature of the
building by 1 ºC in kWh.

36
Example 4 – Thermal mass
Mass of concrete:
𝑚 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌 = 6500 𝑚2 × 0.5 𝑚 × 2300 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 = 7,475,000 𝑘𝑔

(a) Thermal mass of concrete:

𝑀 = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑐𝑝 = 7,475,000 𝑘𝑔 × 0.8 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾 = 5,980,000 𝑘𝐽Τ𝐾 ≈ 𝟔 𝑮𝑱Τ𝑲

(b) Energy needed:

1𝑊∙𝑠 109 𝐽 1ℎ 1 𝑘𝑊
6 𝐺𝐽Τ𝐾 × 1 ℃ = 6 𝐺𝐽 × × × × = 𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒌𝑾𝒉
𝐽 𝐺𝐽 3600 𝑠 1000 𝑊

37
 Concrete Wall
20°C

t=0
-20°C
38
 Concrete Wall

t = t1 20°C
0°C
t=0
-20°C
39
 Concrete Wall
20°C
t = t2
0°C t = t1
t=0
-20°C
40
 Concrete Wall
t = tend t = t 20°C
2
0°C t = t1
t=0
-20°C
41
During a day
temperatures fluctuate.
Temperatures in the
Concrete Wall
building fabric do not

t = tend t = t 20°C
reach to the daily
maxima and minima.
2
0°C t = t1
t=0
-20°C
42
Thermal mass

• Consider a 0.5 m thick concrete wall.

The exterior surface was -20 ºC and
the interior wall surface was 20 ºC for
a long time.
• Suddenly, at t = 0 h, the outdoor
surface temperature increased to -10
ºC.
• What happens to the temperature of
the centre of the wall at t = 0.25, 0.5,
1, 2, and 36 h?

43
Thermal mass

44
Thermal mass
• Let’s imagine that the outdoor surface temperature oscillates between -10 ºC
and -20 ºC diurnally (i.e., daily).

45
Passive utilization of thermal mass

It is common that on a considerably large number of days over a year:

• A building may have net passive heat gains only a few hours apart from net
passive heat losses.
• With enough exposed thermal mass, excess heat can be stored in the building
fabric without causing any large temperature swings.
• The heat stored, when there is excess heat, will passively help reduce the space
heating energy use.

46
Passive utilization of thermal mass

• For example, office buildings are subject to higher

internal heat gains during the day than in the
evening:
• Plug-in equipment use
• Lighting
• Solar gains
• In a low exposed thermal mass building, one may
need to actively heat & cool within 24 h to avoid
overheating.
• With large exposed thermal mass, substantial
energy savings can be achieved by carrying warmth
from day to night & coolth from night to day.
47
Thermal mass
• Occupancy-related loads such as lighting and plug loads peak during the day in
office buildings.

Dutta (2020)

48
Passive utilization of thermal mass
Passive solar design features in Canada:
• Large south-facing windows to
maximize passive solar heat gains.
• Large exposed thermal mass to store
the passive solar heat gains during
Image: https://www.countrylines.com/our-energy/improve-home-
day and release at night. comfort-by-choosing-materials-carefully/

Image: https://www.huntsvillescoop.com/realestate
Image: https://www.opatsarchitects.com.au 49
Passive utilization of thermal mass

Image: https://sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/buildings/thermal-mass
• Thermal mass stores the solar heat
gains and casual gains during work-
hours.
• Heat stored by the thermal mass is
slowly released at night.
• Without high thermal mass, solar and
casual gains would cause overheating
during the day even during the winter.

50
 Image: http://www.airdeck.be/content/user/Image/Betonkernactivering/Zomersituatie%20met%20bka(1).jpg
Active utilization of thermal mass
• We prefer insulating materials for the enclosure.
• We prefer conductive materials with high mass
indoors.
• Thermal coupling:
• Floor coverings carpets / hardwood floors
• Thermally activated building systems

Image: http://www.airdeck.be/content/user/Image/Betonkernactivering/Zomersituatie%20met%20bka(1).jpg
51
Image: http://www.sustainableprecast.ca/en/precast_sustainability/thermal_mass/

52
Taken from John R. Fowler Sustainable Precast Concrete LEED Thermal Mass
53
Taken from John R. Fowler Sustainable Precast Concrete LEED Thermal Mass
54
Seasonal thermal storage tank at CHEeR house

• Solar collectors heat the 35,000 L

insulated tank in the summer.
• Stored sensible heat in the hot water
tanks is then used to provide heating
in the winter.

55
Transient conduction

Analysis and design to utilize thermal mass will require solving a transient heat
transfer problem.
• Steady-state: the variables which define the behaviour of a system are
unchanging in time.
• Transient: the variables which define the behaviour of a system are changing in
time.

56
1D lumped mass

• 1D lumped mass transient heat transfer:

𝑑𝑇𝑖𝑛
∙ 𝑀 = 𝑇𝑜𝑎 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 ∙ 𝑈𝐴 + 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙 + 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐
𝑑𝑡
where
• 𝑇𝑖𝑛 – Indoor air temperature (ºC)
• 𝑀 – Thermal mass (J/K)
• 𝑇𝑜𝑎 – Outdoor air temperature (ºC)
• 𝑈𝐴 – Whole building thermal transmittance (W/K)
• 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙 – Solar heat gains (W)
• 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐 – Miscellaneous heat gains (e.g., lighting and plug loads, etc.) (W)
57
Whole building thermal transmittance (UA value)

• Whole building thermal transmittance, 𝑈𝐴 (W/K)

1
𝑈𝐴 = 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 + 𝑈𝑤𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑤𝑖𝑛 + 𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑓 + 𝑈𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
where
• 𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 – Thermal resistance of the wall (m2K/W)
• 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 – Area of the wall (m2)
• 𝑈𝑤𝑖𝑛 – Thermal transmittance of the window (W/m2K)
• 𝐴𝑤𝑖𝑛 – Area of the window (m2)
• 𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑓 – Thermal transmittance due to infiltration (W/K) Covered later
• 𝑈𝑣𝑒𝑛 – Thermal transmittance due to ventilation (W/K) in the course
58
Example 5 – UA value
The building in Example 4 has an exterior surface area of 3000 m2 (1500 m2 walls
and roof & 1500 m2 windows). The R-SI value of the roof and walls is 5 m2°C/W and
the U-SI value of the windows is 2 W/ m2°C. Calculate the whole-building thermal
transmittance. Ignore infiltration and ventilation.

59
Example 5 – UA value
UA value:
1
𝑈𝐴 = 𝑅 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 + 𝑈𝑤𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑤𝑖𝑛 + 𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑓 + 𝑈𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
1
= 5 𝑚2𝐾Τ𝑊 × 1500 𝑚2 + 2 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 𝐾 × 1500 𝑚2
𝑈𝐴 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝑾/𝑲

60
Example 6 – 1D lumped mass
After a heavy freezing rain, the building in Examples 4 and 5 experiences a power
outage for 24 h. If the temperature of the building at the beginning of the outage is
22 °C, determine the temperature after 24 h. Assume that outdoor temperature is -
20 °C for the entire 24-hour period. Neglect the effect of solar radiation and internal
heat gains.

61
Example 6 – 1D lumped mass
1D lumped mass:
𝑑𝑇𝑖𝑛
∙ 𝑀 = 𝑇𝑜𝑎 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 ∙ 𝑈𝐴 + 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙 + 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐
𝑑𝑡

First-order linear inhomogeneous differential equation:

𝑑𝑇𝑖𝑛
∙ (6 × 109 𝐽Τ𝐾) = −20 ℃ − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 ∙ 3300 𝑊 Τ𝐾
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑇 −20 ℃
→ + 1818182 = 1818182 𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑠
𝑑𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑇 −20 ℃
→ 𝑑𝑡
+ 505𝑖𝑛ℎ = 505 ℎ
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑛 −20 ℃
→𝑒 505 ℎ +𝑒 505 ℎ =𝑒 505 ℎ
𝑑𝑡 505 ℎ 505 ℎ
𝑡 𝑡
𝑑 −20 ℃
→ 𝑒 505 ℎ ∙ 𝑇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑒 505 ℎ
62
𝑑𝑡 505 ℎ
Example 6 – 1D lumped mass
First-order linear inhomogeneous differential equation (cont’d):
𝑡 𝑡
𝑑 −20 ℃
→ ‫𝑡𝑑 ׬‬ 𝑒 505 ℎ ∙ 𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 = ‫𝑒 ׬‬ 505 ℎ 𝑑𝑡
505 ℎ
𝑡 𝑡 −20 ℃
→ 𝑒 ℎ
505 ∙ 𝑇𝑖𝑛 = 505 ∙ 𝑒 ℎ
505
505 ℎ
−𝒕
→ 𝑻𝒊𝒏 𝒕 = −𝟐𝟎 + 𝒄 ∙ 𝒆𝟓𝟎𝟓 𝒉

Initial conditions:
−𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 0 ℎ = −20 + 𝑐 ∙ 𝑒 505 ℎ
𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 0 ℎ + 20
→𝑐= −𝑡 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 0 ℎ + 20 = 𝟒𝟐
𝑒 505 ℎ
63
Example 6 – 1D lumped mass
Temperature @ 24 h:
−𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 24 ℎ = −20 + 42 ∙ 𝑒 505 ℎ
−24
= −20 + 42 ∙ 𝑒 505 ℎ
𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 24 ℎ = 𝟐𝟎 ℃

64
Explicit finite-difference

• Numerical approximation through explicit finite-difference:

𝑈𝐴
−𝑡 𝑀
𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑎 + 𝑇𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 0 − 𝑇𝑜𝑎 ∙ 𝑒

where
• 𝑇𝑖𝑛 – Indoor air temperature (ºC) “Time constant”
• 𝑡 – Time (h or s)
• 𝑇𝑜𝑎 – Outdoor air temperature (ºC)
• 𝑈𝐴 – Whole building thermal transmittance (W/K)
• 𝑀 – Thermal mass (J/K)

65
Example 7 – Explicit finite-difference
For the same building in Examples 4 to 6, estimate the indoor temperature over a
three-hour power outage period subject to the hourly outdoor temperature and solar
heat gains reported below.

Time (h) Toa (°C) Qsol (W) Qmisc (W) Tin (t)

0 -20 0 0 22
1 -10 0 0 ?
2 0 150000 0 ?
3 10 0 0 ?

66
Example 7 – Explicit finite-difference
Discretize in sub-hourly increments:
𝑑𝑇𝑖𝑛
∙ 𝑀 = 𝑇𝑜𝑎 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 ∙ 𝑈𝐴 + 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙 + 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐
𝑑𝑡

𝑇𝑖𝑛,𝑡+∆𝑡 −𝑇𝑖𝑛,𝑡
→ ∙ 𝑀 = 𝑇𝑜𝑎,𝑡 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛,𝑡 ∙ 𝑈𝐴 + 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙,𝑡 + 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐,𝑡
∆𝑡
𝑼𝑨 𝑸𝒔𝒐𝒍,𝒕 +𝑸𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒄,𝒕
→ 𝑻𝒊𝒏,𝒕+∆𝒕 = 𝑻𝒊𝒏,𝒕 + 𝑻𝒐𝒂,𝒕 − 𝑻𝒊𝒏,𝒕 ∙ ∆𝒕 + ∆𝒕
𝑴 𝑴

67
Example 7 – Explicit finite-difference
Solve at t = 1 h:
𝑈𝐴 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙,0 +𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐,0
𝑇𝑖𝑛,1 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛,0 + 𝑇𝑜𝑎,0 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛,0 ∙ ∆𝑡 + ∆𝑡
𝑀 𝑀
3300 𝑊/𝐾 0 𝑊+0 𝑊
= 22℃ + −20℃ − 22℃ ∙ 3600 𝑠 × 6×109 𝐽/𝐾 + 6×109 𝐽/𝐾 × 3600 𝑠
𝑇𝑖𝑛,1 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟗𝟐 ℃

Solve at t = 2 h:
𝑈𝐴 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙,1 +𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐,1
𝑇𝑖𝑛,2 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛,1 + 𝑇𝑜𝑎,1 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛,1 ∙ ∆𝑡 𝑀
+ 𝑀
∆𝑡
3300 𝑊/𝐾 0 𝑊+0 𝑊
= 21.92℃ + −10℃ − 21.92 ℃℃ ∙ 3600 𝑠 × 6×109 𝐽/𝐾 + 6×109 𝐽/𝐾 × 3600 𝑠
𝑇𝑖𝑛,2 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟖𝟓 ℃
68
Example 7 – Explicit finite-difference
Solve at t = 3 h:
𝑈𝐴 𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙,2 +𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐,2
𝑇𝑖𝑛,3 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛,2 + 𝑇𝑜𝑎,2 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛,2 ∙ ∆𝑡 + ∆𝑡
𝑀 𝑀
3300 𝑊/𝐾 150,000 𝑊+0 𝑊
= 21.85℃ + 0℃ − 21.85℃ ∙ 3600 𝑠 × 6×109 𝐽/𝐾 + × 3600 𝑠
6×109 𝐽/𝐾
𝑇𝑖𝑛,3 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟗𝟎 ℃

69
Example 7 – Explicit finite-difference
For the same building in Examples 4 to 6, estimate the indoor temperature over a
three-hour power outage period subject to the hourly outdoor temperature and solar
heat gains reported below.

Time (h) Toa (°C) Qsol (W) Qmisc (W) Tin (t)

0 -20 0 0 22
1 -10 0 0 21.92
2 0 150000 0 21.85
3 10 0 0 21.90

70
Summary
• Boundary conditions on sun- and wind-exposed surfaces
• Film coefficients
• Sol-air temperature
• Solar heat gains and windows
• Thermal mass
• 1D lumped mass
• Explicit finite-difference

71
 Questions?
[email protected]

72
References
Dutta, S. (2020). Operational performance benchmarking for commercial buildings by using text analytics on work order logs and tenant survey data.
MASc thesis, Carleton University. Available: https://curve.carleton.ca/d50b7562-eb59-45fd-aca1-2d151a0312fb.

73