Building Science

Lecture 2: Weather and Climate

Winter 2024
Brodie W. Hobson, MASc, EIT
Agenda
• Degree days and climate zones
• Solar geometry and radiation
• Weather data for building performance analysis

2
Degree days and climate
zones
Heating Degree Days (HDD)
• A single metric for quantifying the extremity of the cold (heating season) of a
climate.
• Often used to define boundaries for building code requirements in cold climates.
• For the whole year, calculated as:
8760
1
𝐻𝐷𝐷 = ෍ max( 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇, 0)
24
ℎ=1

• 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 is the balance temperature (often 18 °C).

4
Example 1 – HDD
Time of day Outdoor air temperature
(h) (°C)
Calculate the HDD18°C for the day shown
1
2
12
13
in the table
3 14
4 15
5 16
6 17
7 18
8 19
9 20
10 21
11 22
12 22
13 22
14 22
15 22
16 22
17 22
18 21
19 20
20 19
21 18
22 17
23 16
24 15
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Example 1 – HDD
Time of day Outdoor air temperature
(h) (°C)
𝐦𝐚𝐱(𝑻𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 − 𝑻, 𝟎) Calculate the HDD18°C for the day shown
1
2
12
13
6
5
in the table
3 14 4
4 15 3
5 16 2 24
6 17 1 1
7 18 0 𝐻𝐷𝐷18℃ = ෍ max( 18 − 𝑇, 0)
8 19 0 24
9 20 0 ℎ=1
10 21 0
11 22 0 1
12 22 0 = × 6+5+4+3+2+1+1+2+3
13 22 0 24
14 22 0
15 22 0
16 22 0
17 22 0 𝐻𝐷𝐷18℃ = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 ℃ ∙ 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔
18 21 0
19 20 0
20 19 0
21 18 0
22 17 1
23 16 2
24 15 3
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Heating Degree Days (HDD)

HDD = 4749°C·days

7
Cooling Degree Days (CDD)
• A single metric for quantifying the extremity of the heat (cooling season) of a
climate.
• Often used to define boundaries for building code requirements in hot climates.
• For the whole year, calculated as:

8760
1
𝐶𝐷𝐷 = ෍ max( 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 , 0)
24
ℎ=1

• 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 is the balance temperature (often 10 °C)

8
Cooling Degree Days (CDD)

HDD = 1230°C·days
CDD 4749°C·days

9
Degree days and climate zones

ASHRAE (2021)

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Degree days and climate zones
• ASHRAE Climate Zones are further grouped into three other designations:
1. Category A Dry
• Climates receiving less than 2 × 𝑇ത + 7 𝑐𝑚 of annual precipitation, where 𝑇ത is the mean annual outdoor
temperature.
2. Category B Moist
• Climates that are not marine nor dry are treated as Category B (Moist).
3. Category C Marine
• Climates satisfying the following four criteria:
i. mean temperature of the coldest month is between -3°C and 18°C
ii. mean temperature of the warmest month is less than 22°C
iii. four months or more with mean temperatures over 10°C, and
iv. month with heaviest precipitation shall receive at least three times more precipitation than the month
with least precipitation.
• As almost all Canadian locations are Category B (Moist), NECB does not follow this moisture-based
categorization. NECB climate zones are divided exclusively based on the HDD.

11
Degree days and climate zones

ASHRAE (2021)

12
NECB 2020 requirements for minimum insulation levels

NRC (2020) Victoria, BC Windsor, ON Toronto, ON Edmonton, AB Fort McMurray, AB Yellowknife, NWT
Montreal, ON
Ottawa, ON

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Solar geometry and radiation
8:50 am December 21st in Ottawa

15
8:50 am June 21st in Ottawa

16
Solar geometry
• Solar declination angle (𝛿):
284 + 𝑛
𝛿 = 23.5 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 360 ×
365
• Hour angle (ℎ):
ℎ = 15 × 𝑡 − 12

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Solar geometry
• Solar altitude angle (𝛼): Latitude (Ottawa is at 45° North)

𝛼 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 ∙ cos 𝛿 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ℎ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿

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Change in solar altitude

19
Solar geometry
• Solar azimuth angle (𝜙):
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ∙ sin 𝐿 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 ℎ
𝜙 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∙
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 ℎ

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Change in solar azimuth
0°

-90° 90°

𝜙= -120° 𝜙= 120°

±180°
21
Solar time vs. standard time zones

Image: https://www.timetemperature.com/canada/canada_time_zone.shtml

22
Solar time vs. standard time zones
• Apparent solar time (𝐴𝑆𝑇):
𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 𝐿𝑆𝑇 + 𝐸𝑇 + 4 𝐿𝑆𝑀 − 𝐿𝑂𝑁
where:
• LST – Local standard time
• 𝐸𝑇 – Equation of time
• 𝐿𝑆𝑀 – Local standard Meridian
• 𝐿𝑂𝑁 – Longitude

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Solar time vs. standard time zones
• Equation of time (E𝑇):
𝑛−81 𝑛−81 𝑛−81
𝐸𝑇 = 9.87 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋 ∙ − 7.53 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜋 ∙ − 1.5 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 ∙
364 364 364

• The difference between mean solar time and apparent solar time, which varies
throughout the year.

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Example 2 – Solar altitude and azimuth
What are the solar altitude and azimuth angles on July 21st at 9 am (solar time) in
Ottawa? Ottawa is at 45°N.

Solar declination 284 + 𝑛

angle (𝛿): 𝛿 = 23.5 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 360 × July 21st is 202nd day of year
365
284 + 202
= 23.5 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 360 ×
365
𝛿 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟓°

Hour angle (ℎ): ℎ = 15 × 𝑡 − 12

= 15 × 9 − 12
ℎ = −𝟒𝟓°

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Example 2 – Solar altitude and azimuth
What are the solar altitude and azimuth angles on July 21st at 9 am (solar time) in
Ottawa? Ottawa is at 45°N.

Solar altitude 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐿) ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛿) ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(ℎ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐿) ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛿))

angle (𝛼): = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠(45°) ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(20.5°) ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(−45°) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(45°) ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(20.5°))
𝛼 = 𝟒𝟔°

Solar azimuth 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ∙sin 𝐿 −𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 ℎ

𝜙 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∙
angle (𝜙): 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 ∙𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛 46° ∙sin 45° −𝑠𝑖𝑛 20.5° −45°
= 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∙
𝑐𝑜𝑠 46° ∙𝑐𝑜𝑠 45° −45°
𝜙 = −𝟕𝟏°

26
27
 What are the solar altitude and azimuth
angles on July 21st at 9 am solar time?

𝜶 = 𝟒𝟔°

𝝓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎° − 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = −𝟕𝟎°

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 What are the solar altitude and azimuth
angles on September 20th at solar
noon?

𝜶 = 𝟒𝟓°

𝝓 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝟎°
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Solar geometry
• Surface solar azimuth (𝛾):
𝛾 =𝜙−Ψ
• Surface azimuth (Ψ):
𝚿 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°
N

𝚿 = 𝟗𝟎° W E 𝚿 = 𝟐𝟕𝟎°

S
𝚿 = 𝟎° 30
Solar geometry

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Solar geometry
• Incidence angle (𝜃):

𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽

where:
• 𝜃 – Angle of incidence
• 𝛼 – Solar altitude angle
• 𝛾 – Surface solar azimuth
• 𝛽 – Surface tilt angle

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Solar geometry
• Surface tilt angle (𝛽):

β = 90°

β = 30°
β = 0° Solar
collector
Flat roof

Wall

33
Example 3 – Incidence angle
Calculate the incidence angle for an East-facing wall in Ottawa on December 21st at
10 am solar time.

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 December 21st at 10 am solar time

𝜶 = 𝟏𝟔°

𝝓 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎° − 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = −𝟑𝟎°

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Example 3 – Incidence angle
Solar angles (from 𝛼 = 𝟏𝟔°
chart): 𝜙 = −𝟑𝟎°

Surface solar 𝛾 =𝜙−Ψ

azimuth (𝛾): = −30° − 270° (for East-facing)
𝛾 = −𝟑𝟎𝟎°
90° for vertical surfaces

Incidence angle (𝜃): 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 16° ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 300° ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90° + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 16° ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90°
𝜃 = 𝟔𝟏°

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Solar radiation

Image: https://solarpanelpower.ca/solar-power-maps-canada/ 37
Solar radiation – Vertical Surfaces, January, Ottawa

38
Solar radiation – Vertical Surfaces, January, Ottawa

39
Solar radiation – Vertical Surfaces, June, Ottawa

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Solar intensity
• Total solar radiation incident on an inclined surface consists of:
• the direct (beam) part,
• the sky diffuse solar radiation (e.g., reflected from clouds, and scattered
radiation), and
• the ground-reflected radiation, also assumed to be diffuse.

𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 + 𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑

41
Solar intensity
• Therefore, depends on the direct normal (𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 ) and diffuse horizontal
(𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,ℎ𝑟𝑧 ) solar irradiances, incidence angle (𝜃), surface tilt angle (𝛽), and solar
altitude (𝛼).
• Direct (beam) component (𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 ):
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
• Diffuse (sky) component (𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 ):
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,ℎ𝑟𝑧 ∙ 2

• Ground-reflected component (𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 ):

1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,ℎ𝑟𝑧 ∙ 𝜌 ∙ 2
42
Solar intensity

43
 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Albedo (𝝆) 𝐴𝑙𝑏𝑒𝑑𝑜 =
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Image: https://www.pinterest.ca/pin/10907224075777238/

44
Example 4 – Solar intensity
For the previous example (East-facing wall in Ottawa on December 21st at 10 am
solar time), calculate the solar irradiance on the same surface, if the direct
normal solar radiation is 800 W/m2 and the diffuse horizontal solar radiation is 150
W/m2. The albedo is 30%.

45
Example 4 – Solar intensity
Incidence angle (𝜃): Recall from Example 3, 𝜃 = 61°
Direct component 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
(𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 ): = 800 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 61°
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝟑𝟖𝟖 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐
Diffuse component 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,ℎ𝑟𝑧 ∙
(𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 ): 2
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 90°
= 150 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 2
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 𝟕𝟓 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐
Ground component 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,ℎ𝑟𝑧 ∙ 𝜌 ∙
(𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 ): 2
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 90°
= 800 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 16° + 150 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 0.3 ∙ 2
𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 = 𝟓𝟔 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐
46
Example 4 – Solar intensity
Total solar irradiance 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 + 𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑
(𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 ): = (388 + 75 + 56) 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝟓𝟏𝟗 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐

47
Example 5 – Solar intensity
For the previous example (East-facing wall in Ottawa on December 21st at 10 am
solar time), calculate the solar irradiance on a West-facing wall, if the direct normal
solar radiation is 800 W/m2 and the diffuse horizontal solar radiation is 150 W/m2.
The albedo is 30%.

48
Example 5 – Solar intensity
Solar angles (recall 𝛼 = 𝟏𝟔°
from Example 3): 𝜙 = −𝟑𝟎°

Surface solar 𝛾 =𝜙−Ψ

azimuth (𝛾): = −30° − 90° (for West-facing)
𝛾 = −𝟏𝟐𝟎°

Incidence angle (𝜃): 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 16° ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 120° ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 90° + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 16° ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90°
𝜃 = 𝟏𝟏𝟗°

49
Example 5 – Solar intensity
If the incidence angle is outside 0° to 90° range, then there is no direct solar
irradiance on that surface. In this example, there is no direct solar irradiance on the
west-facing wall.

West East
wall wall

𝜽 = 𝟔𝟏° 𝜽 = 𝟏𝟏𝟗°

West East
wall wall
50
Example 5 – Solar intensity
Direct component (𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 ): 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 = 𝟎 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐 (since 𝜃 > 90º)
Diffuse component 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,ℎ𝑟𝑧 ∙
(𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 ): 2
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠 90°
= 150 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 2
𝟐
𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 = 𝟕𝟓 𝑾Τ𝒎 (same as before)
Ground component 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽
𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟,𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓,ℎ𝑟𝑧 ∙ 𝜌 ∙
(𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 ): 2
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 90°
= 800 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 16° + 150 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ∙ 0.3 ∙ 2
𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑 = 𝟓𝟔 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐 (same as before)
Total solar irradiance 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑟 + 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑓 + 𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑑
(𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 ): = (0 + 75 + 56) 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝑾Τ𝒎𝟐
51
Solar geometry and radiation applications in building science
• Solar irradiance calculations will be used to analyze:
• Solar heat gains through windows.
• Impact of solar heat gains on opaque envelope surfaces.

52
Weather data for building
performance analysis
Typical meteorological year (TMY)
• Developed by stitching hourly weather data for the median month over multiple
years.
• January of 1995 can be attached to a February from 2001 (assuming that
January of 1995 was the median January and February of 2001 was the
median February).
• TMY was first developed for the period between 1948 and 1980.
• Later, it was updated with data collected between 1961 and 1990 (referred as
TMY2) and finally 1976 and 2005 (referred as TMY3).
• It is maintained by NREL in the United States.

54
Canadian Weather Year for Energy Calculations (CWEC)
• CWEC is a TMY-like weather data format for Canada
• CWEC was first developed using weather data from 1961 and 1990
• The original CWEC weather files can be accessed here:
https://energyplus.net/weather
• CWEC was updated in 2016 with data from 1998 and 2015. The new CWEC
files can be found here:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1XxNjhD7SqwtkEd-
Bnz3RRNhPEi2kbbO1
• All CWEC weather files come in an .epw file extension - epw stands for
EnergyPlus weather format

55
TMY/CWEC file use in energy modelling
• TMY/CWEC files are typically used:
• for code compliance (e.g., OBC, NECB),
• for certification (e.g., LEED),
• to investigate design alternatives for new construction and retrofit, and/or
• in deciding for envelope properties (e.g., window, envelope), HVAC
equipment, renewable energy systems, façade geometry and fixed exterior
shading, thermal zoning, etc.

56
TMY/CWEC file use in energy modelling
• Energy model for OBC SB 10 compliance (i.e., compliance with building code
energy efficiency requirements) for the new Engineering Design Centre (EDC)
building used CWEC2016 (new CWEC file).

57
Actual meteorological year (AMY)
• Hourly weather data for a specific year for a specific location.
• Unlike TMY/CWEC, often needs to be purchased – typically costs between $50
to $100 per file (e.g., http://weather.whiteboxtechnologies.com/)
• Better yet, get your data from a local station – Carleton, NRC, NRCan, etc. all
have several weather stations.
• Biggest question mark in their reliability is typically related with solar
radiation.
• Weather data vendors use models (e.g., ASHRAE Clear Sky Model) to
process cloud cover data and solar geometry into solar radiation values.

58
Actual meteorological year (AMY)
• AMY data is primarily used for retrofit projects to establish a performance
baseline
• e.g., metered energy use data for year 2019 should be used with AMY
weather data for 2019.
• Once an energy model is calibrated with the AMY file, the retrofit decisions
can be made by using the TMY file and calibrated energy model.

59
Design day (DDY)
• DDY files typically contain:
• 99.6% annual cumulative frequency for heating.
• 0.4% annual cumulative frequency for cooling.
• Mechanical designers use DDY weather files in sizing HVAC equipment and
renewable energy system capacity.
• Most examples that you will solve manually through hand calculations are
intended for analysis and design under design day (DDY) conditions.

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Summary
• Degree days and climate zones
• Solar geometry and radiation
• Weather data for building performance analysis

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 Questions?
[email protected]

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References
ASHRAE (2021). ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 169-2021: Climatic Data for Building Design Standards. Atlanta, GA.

NRC (2020). National Energy Code of Canada for Buildings. Ottawa, ON. Available: https://nrc-publications.canada.ca/eng/view/ft/?id=af36747e-3eee-
4024-a1b4-73833555c7fa.

NRCan (1981). “Canada – Heating Degree-Days,” in The National Atlas of Canada, 5th ed. Ottawa, ON. Available:
https://open.canada.ca/data/en/dataset/fd8efb83-b73d-5442-ab60-7987c824f5fd.

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