1.Define the term with example: Variable, Keyword, Constant, Operator, Identifier?

- Variable: A variable is a storage location with a symbolic name (an identifier) and an associated value
that can be changed during the program’s execution. Example: `int x = 5;` where `x` is the variable.

- Keyword: Keywords are reserved words in a programming language that have a specific meaning
and cannot be used as identifiers. Example: In Python, `if`, `else`, and `for` are keywords.

- Constant: A constant is a value that cannot be altered by the program during normal execution.
Example: `const int PI = 3.14;` where `PI` is a constant.

- Operator: An operator is a symbol that represents an operation to be performed on one or more

operands. Example: In `5 + 3`, the `+` is an operator.

- Identifier: An identifier is a name given to a variable, function, class, or other user-defined item.
Example: `int myNumber;` where `myNumber` is an identifier.

2.Write a C program to calculate sum of 1 to 10 numbers?

Certainly! Here’s a simple C program to calculate the sum of numbers from 1 to 10:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

Int main() {

Int sum = 0;

// Loop to iterate from 1 to 10

For (int I = 1; I <= 10; ++i) {

Sum += I; // Add the current number to the sum

 }

// Display the result

Printf(“Sum of numbers from 1 to 10: %d\n”, sum);

Return 0;

```

When you run this program, it will output:

```

Sum of numbers from 1 to 10: 55

```

3. Write an algorithm for to check largest number from three numbers also draw its flowchart?

Algorithm to find the largest number among three numbers:

1. Start

2. Input three numbers: A, B, C

3. If A is greater than B and A is greater than C, then

1. Display A as the largest number

4. Else, if B is greater than A and B is greater than C, then

1. Display B as the largest number

5. Else,

1. Display C as the largest number

6. End

Here’s a simple text representation of a flowchart for this algorithm:

```

| Start |

+-------v--------+

| Input A, B, C |

+-------v--------+

| A > B and A > C|

+-------v--------+

| Display A |

+-------v--------+

| End |

| Start |

+-------v--------+

| Input A, B, C |

+-------v--------+

| B > A and B > C|

 |

+-------v--------+

| Display B |

+-------v--------+

| End |

| Start |

+-------v--------+

| Input A, B, C |

+-------v--------+

| C is the largest|

+-------v--------+

| Display C |

+-------v--------+

| End |

```

This flowchart outlines the logic for finding the largest number among three given numbers.
4. Explain the need of studying Programming languages

◻ To improve your ability to develop effective algorithms.

◻ To improve your use of existing programming languages.

◻ To increase your vocabulary of useful programming constructs.

◻ To allow a better choice of programming language.

◻ To make it easier to learn a new language.

◻ To make it easier to design a new language.

5. Explain function call, function definition and function prototype with examples?

Certainly! Let’s break down the concepts of function call, function definition, and function prototype:

1. **Function Definition:**

- **Definition:** A function definition is the actual implementation of the function’s behavior. It

specifies what the function does when it is called.

- **Example:**

```c

// Function Definition

Int add(int a, int b) {

Return a + b;

```

- In this example, `add` is a function that takes two integers as parameters and returns their sum.

2. **Function Prototype:**
 - **Definition:** A function prototype is a declaration that tells the compiler about the function’s
name, return type, and types of its parameters. It provides enough information to the compiler
to allow function calls to be checked for correctness.

- **Example:**

```c

// Function Prototype

Int add(int a, int b);

```

- This declares a function named `add` that takes two integers as parameters and returns an
integer. The function prototype typically appears before the `main` function.

3. **Function Call:**

- **Definition:** A function call is an instruction to execute the code within a function. It involves
using the function name along with the actual arguments (values) that are passed to the
function.

- **Example:**

```c

// Function Call

Int result = add(3, 7);

```

- This calls the `add` function with arguments `3` and `7` and assigns the result (`10`) to the
variable `result`.

Putting it all together:

```c

#include <stdio.h>
// Function Prototype

Int add(int a, int b);

Int main() {

// Function Call

Int result = add(3, 7);

// Display the result

Printf(“Result: %d\n”, result);

Return 0;

// Function Definition

Int add(int a, int b) {

Return a + b;

```

In this example, the function `add` is declared with a prototype before the `main` function. The actual
implementation of `add` is defined after the `main` function. The `main` function then calls `add` with
arguments `3` and `7`, and the result is printed.

6. What is recursion? Write a C program to find the factorial of a number using recursion.

Recursion is a programming concept where a function calls itself, either directly or indirectly, to solve a
smaller instance of the same problem. In the context of programming, recursion provides an elegant way
to solve certain types of problems by breaking them down into smaller, more manageable subproblems.

Here's an example of a C program to find the factorial of a number using recursion:

#include <stdio.h>
// Function prototype

Int factorial(int n);

Int main() {

Int num;

// Input from the user

Printf(“Enter a non-negative integer: “);

Scanf(“%d”, &num);

// Check for a non-negative integer

If (num < 0) {

Printf(“Factorial is not defined for negative numbers.\n”);

} else {

// Function call to find factorial

Int result = factorial(num);

// Display the result

Printf(“Factorial of %d = %d\n”, num, result);

Return 0;

// Function definition for factorial using recursion

Int factorial(int n) {

// Base case

7. List all conditional control statements used in C. Explain any two with syntax and example?
In C, there are several conditional control statements. The primary ones include:

1. **if statement:**

- **Syntax:**

```c

If (condition) {

// code to be executed if the condition is true

```

- **Example:**

```c

#include <stdio.h>

Int main() {

Int number = 10;

If (number > 0) {

Printf(“The number is positive.\n”);

Return 0;

```

In this example, the `if` statement checks whether the `number` is greater than 0. If true, it prints a
message indicating that the number is positive.

2. **if-else statement:**

- **Syntax:**
 ```c

If (condition) {

// code to be executed if the condition is true

} else {

// code to be executed if the condition is false

```

- **Example:**

```c

#include <stdio.h>

Int main() {

Int number = -5;

If (number > 0) {

Printf(“The number is positive.\n”);

} else {

Printf(“The number is non-positive.\n”);

Return 0;

```

In this example, the `if-else` statement checks whether the `number` is greater than 0. If true, it prints
a positive message; otherwise, it prints a non-positive message.

These are just two of the conditional control statements in C. Other statements include `else if`, `switch`,
and the ternary conditional operator (`? :`). They provide different ways to control the flow of a program
based on specified conditions.
8.Explain switch statement with syntax and example?

The `switch` statement in C is a control statement that allows a program to evaluate an expression
against multiple possible constant values and execute the corresponding block of code based on the
matched value. It’s a convenient alternative to a series of `if-else` statements when dealing with multiple
conditions.

**Syntax:**

```c

Switch (expression) {

Case constant1:

// code to be executed if expression matches constant1

Break;

Case constant2:

// code to be executed if expression matches constant2

Break;

// additional cases as needed

Default:

// code to be executed if expression doesn’t match any constant

```

- The `expression` is evaluated once.

- Each `case` specifies a constant value to compare against the expression.

- If a `case` matches the expression, the associated block of code is executed.

- The `break` statement is crucial to exit the `switch` statement after a match; otherwise, it will continue
to execute subsequent cases.

- The `default` case is optional and is executed if none of the `case` values matches the expression.

**Example:**
```c

#include <stdio.h>

Int main() {

Int day = 3;

Switch (day) {

Case 1:

Printf(“Monday\n”);

Break;

Case 2:

Printf(“Tuesday\n”);

Break;

Case 3:

Printf(“Wednesday\n”);

Break;

Case 4:

Printf(“Thursday\n”);

Break;

Case 5:

Printf(“Friday\n”);

Break;

Case 6:

Printf(“Saturday\n”);

Break;

Case 7:

Printf(“Sunday\n”);

Break;

Default:
 Printf(“Invalid day\n”);

Return 0;

```

In this example, the `switch` statement is used to determine the day of the week based on the value of
the `day` variable. The corresponding block of code for the matching case is executed, and if no match is
found, the `default` case prints “Invalid day.”

9. List all conditional control statements used in C. Explain any two with syntax and example.?

In C, the primary conditional control statements include:

1. **if statement:**

- **Syntax:**

```c

If (condition) {

// code to be executed if the condition is true

```

- **Example:**

```c

#include <stdio.h>

Int main() {

Int number = 10;

If (number > 0) {
 Printf(“The number is positive.\n”);

Return 0;

```

This example checks whether the variable `number` is greater than 0 and prints a message if the
condition is true.

2. **if-else statement:**

- **Syntax:**

```c

If (condition) {

// code to be executed if the condition is true

} else {

// code to be executed if the condition is false

```

- **Example:**

```c

#include <stdio.h>

Int main() {

Int number = -5;

If (number > 0) {

Printf(“The number is positive.\n”);

} else {

Printf(“The number is non-positive.\n”);

 }

Return 0;

```

In this example, the `if-else` statement checks whether the variable `number` is greater than 0. It
prints a positive message if true, and a non-positive message if false.

These are just two of the conditional control statements in C. Other statements include `else if`, `switch`,
and the ternary conditional operator (`? :`). They provide different ways to control the flow of a program
based on specified conditions.

10. Explain with syntax ,if, if-else and nested if-else statements in „C‟ program?

Certainly! Here’s an explanation of the `if`, `if-else`, and nested `if-else` statements in C:

1. **if statement:**

- **Syntax:**

```c

If (condition) {

// code to be executed if the condition is true

```

- **Example:**

```c

#include <stdio.h>

Int main() {

Int number = 10;

 If (number > 0) {

Printf(“The number is positive.\n”);

Return 0;

```

In this example, the `if` statement checks whether the variable `number` is greater than 0, and if true,
it prints a positive message.

2. **if-else statement:**

- **Syntax:**

```c

If (condition) {

// code to be executed if the condition is true

} else {

// code to be executed if the condition is false

```

- **Example:**

```c

#include <stdio.h>

Int main() {

Int number = -5;

If (number > 0) {

Printf(“The number is positive.\n”);

} else {
 Printf(“The number is non-positive.\n”);

Return 0;

```

In this example, the `if-else` statement checks whether the variable `number` is greater than 0. It
prints a positive message if true, and a non-positive message if false.

3. **Nested if-else statement:**

- **Syntax:**

```c

If (condition1) {

// code to be executed if condition1 is true

If (condition2) {

// code to be executed if both condition1 and condition2 are true

} else {

// code to be executed if condition1 is true but condition2 is false

} else {

// code to be executed if condition1 is false

```

- **Example:**

```c

#include <stdio.h>

Int main() {

Int number = 5;
 If (number > 0) {

Printf(“The number is positive.\n”);

If (number % 2 == 0) {

Printf(“And it is even.\n”);

} else {

Printf(“And it is odd.\n”);

} else {

Printf(“The number is non-positive.\n”);

Return 0;

```

In this example, the nested `if-else` statement first checks if `number` is positive. If true, it checks
whether it’s even or odd and prints the corresponding message. If false, it prints a non-positive message.

11. Explain Number System. State its use. Which Number System follows by Computer?

**Number System:**

A number system is a way of expressing numbers using digits or symbols in a consistent manner.
Different number systems are used for various purposes, and they vary in terms of the base or radix they
use. The most common number systems include:

1. **Decimal (Base-10):** The decimal system uses 10 digits (0-9). It is commonly used by humans
for everyday arithmetic.
 2. **Binary (Base-2):** The binary system uses only two digits (0 and 1). It is fundamental in
computing and digital electronics.

3. **Octal (Base-8):** The octal system uses eight digits (0-7). It is less common but is sometimes
used in computing.

4. **Hexadecimal (Base-16):** The hexadecimal system uses 16 digits, including 0-9 and A-F
(where A=10, B=11, …, F=15). It is often used in computing for its compact representation of
binary-coded values.

**Use of Number Systems:**

- **Decimal:** Everyday arithmetic, financial transactions, and human-readable representation of

values.

- **Binary:** Core to computer systems and digital electronics. Information in computers is stored
and processed in binary.

- **Octal:** Less common in modern computing but was historically used in some computer
systems.

- **Hexadecimal:** Widely used in programming and debugging. Compact representation of

binary data.

**Number System Followed by Computers:**

Computers primarily use the binary number system (Base-2) internally. All data, instructions, and
processing in a computer are represented using binary digits (bits), which are either 0 or 1. Higher-level
programming languages, while written by humans in decimal (and sometimes hexadecimal), ultimately
get translated into binary for the computer to execute.

The use of binary is advantageous in electronic circuits, as it aligns well with the binary nature of digital
switches (transistors) that form the foundation of computer architecture. The binary system simplifies
electronic circuit design and enables efficient digital information processing.

12. Write a C program to copy the contents of one file into another file using file handling functions.?

Certainly! Here’s a simple C program that copies the contents of one file into another using file handling
functions:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

Int main() {

FILE *sourceFile, *destinationFile;

Char sourceFileName[100], destinationFileName[100];

Char ch;

// Input source file name

Printf(“Enter the source file name: “);

Scanf(“%s”, sourceFileName);

// Open source file in read mode

sourceFile = fopen(sourceFileName, “r”);

// Check if the source file exists

If (sourceFile == NULL) {

Printf(“Source file ‘%s’ not found.\n”, sourceFileName);

 Return 1; // Exit with an error code

// Input destination file name

Printf(“Enter the destination file name: “);

Scanf(“%s”, destinationFileName);

// Open destination file in write mode

destinationFile = fopen(destinationFileName, “w”);

// Check if the destination file is created successfully

If (destinationFile == NULL) {

Printf(“Error creating destination file.\n”);

Fclose(sourceFile); // Close the source file

Return 1; // Exit with an error code

// Copy contents from source to destination

While ((ch = fgetc(sourceFile)) != EOF) {

Fputc(ch, destinationFile);

// Display success message

Printf(“File copied successfully!\n”);

// Close the files

Fclose(sourceFile);

Fclose(destinationFile);
 Return 0; // Exit successfully

```

This program takes the name of the source file and destination file as input, opens the source file in read
mode and the destination file in write mode. Then, it reads each character from the source file and
writes it to the destination file until the end of the source file is reached. Finally, it displays a success
message and closes both files.

13. What is the file and steps in processing a file? Write the basic file operations and file opening
modes.?

**File:**

In computing, a file is a collection of data stored in a specific location on a storage device, identified by a
filename. Files can contain various types of data, such as text, images, programs, and more. They serve
as a means to organize and store information persistently on a computer.

**Steps in Processing a File:**

1. **Opening a File:** Before you can perform operations on a file, you need to open it. This
involves associating a file pointer with the file and specifying the purpose (read, write, etc.).

2. **Reading or Writing Data:** After opening a file, you can read data from it or write data to it,
depending on the purpose of the file operation.

3. **Closing a File:** Once you have finished working with a file, it’s essential to close it. Closing a
file releases the resources associated with it and ensures that changes are saved.

**Basic File Operations:**

 1. **Opening a File (`fopen`):**

```c

FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode);

```

This function opens a file and returns a file pointer that is used for subsequent file operations. The
`filename` is the name of the file, and `mode` specifies the purpose of the file operation (e.g., “r” for
read, “w” for write, “a” for append).

2. **Closing a File (`fclose`):**

```c

Int fclose(FILE *stream);

```

This function closes the file associated with the specified file pointer. It returns 0 on success.

3. **Reading from a File (`fread`):**

```c

Size_t fread(void *ptr, size_t size, size_t count, FILE *stream);

```

This function reads data from a file into the specified buffer. It returns the number of items successfully
read.

4. **Writing to a File (`fwrite`):**

```c

Size_t fwrite(const void *ptr, size_t size, size_t count, FILE *stream);

```

This function writes data from the specified buffer to a file. It returns the number of items successfully
written.

5. **Moving the File Position (`fseek`):**

```c
 Int fseek(FILE *stream, long int offset, int origin);

```

This function moves the file position indicator within the file. It is used to set the position for the next
read or write operation.

6. **Reading a Character from a File (`fgetc`):**

```c

Int fgetc(FILE *stream);

```

This function reads a character from the file pointed to by the file pointer.

7. **Writing a Character to a File (`fputc`):**

```c

Int fputc(int character, FILE *stream);

```

This function writes a character to the file pointed to by the file pointer.

**File Opening Modes:**

- `”r”`: Read mode. Opens the file for reading. The file must exist.

- `”w”`: Write mode. Opens the file for writing. If the file already exists, its contents are
overwritten. If the file doesn’t exist, a new file is created.

- `”a”`: Append mode. Opens the file for writing at the end. If the file doesn’t exist, a new file is
created.

- `”r+”`: Read/Write mode. Opens the file for both reading and writing. The file must exist.
 - `”w+”`: Read/Write mode. Opens the file for both reading and writing. If the file already exists,
its contents are overwritten. If the file doesn’t exist, a new file is created.

- `”a+”`: Read/Write mode. Opens the file for both reading and writing at the end. If the file
doesn’t exist, a new file is created.

14. Define recursion.Write a C program to find the factorial of a number using recursion?

RECURSION…..process by which a function calls itself over and over again.

Such functions are called Recursive functions.

Recursion basicaly has 3 clauses or 3 conditions:

• Basis clause:Once this condition becomes true the fuction stops calling itself again and
again.
• Problem Decomposition: In this clause the problem is broken into smaller subproblems
• Recomposition:The results of smaller subproblems are embedded together and it gives
the result of bigger or our original problem.
• //program to find factorial of a
•
• #include<stdio.h>
•
• Int main()
•
• {
•
• Int n;
•
• Puts(“Enter the number”);
•
• Scanf(“%d”, &n);//Entring the numbr
•
• Fac=recurfact(n) ;
•
• Printf(“%d”,fac);
•
• Return 0;
•
• }
 •
• Recurfact(int x)
•
• {
•
• If(x==1) return 1;
•
• Else
•
• Return(x*recurfact(--x));
•

• }

15. What is structure? Explain the C syntax of structure declaration with example?

• Structure is a collection of elements of different data types.

• Declaration of structure: Syntax: { struct struct_name data_type1 member1;
data_type2 member2;

…………….

Data_typen membern;

};

• Struct is a keyword
• Strut_name is the name of the structure which is userdefined
• Datatype1,datatyp,..atatypen are the basic data types
• Member1, member2,… membern are the different data items Example: { struct
student

Int roll num; char name[20];

Float marks;

};

Declaration of structure variable:

Syntax: struct struct _name structvar_list;

Example: struct student stud1,stud2;

16. Define a string. Explain any 4 string library functions with syntax and example ?
In programming, a string is a sequence of characters, typically used to represent text. In many
programming languages, including Python, JavaScript, and Java, there are built-in string library functions
for various operations. Here are explanations for four common string functions:

1. **len() – Length of a String:**

- Syntax: `len(string)`

- Example: `s = “Hello, World!”` and `length = len(s)`

- Explanation: Returns the length of the string, which is the number of characters in the string.

2. **str() – Convert to String:**

- Syntax: `str(object)`

- Example: `num = 42` and `num_str = str(num)`

- Explanation: Converts the specified object (in this case, a number) into a string.

3. **lower() – Convert to Lowercase:**

- Syntax: `string.lower()`

- Example: `s = “Hello, World!”` and `lowercase_s = s.lower()`

- Explanation: Returns a new string with all alphabetic characters converted to lowercase.

4. **replace() – Replace Substring:**

- Syntax: `string.replace(old, new)`

- Example: `s = “Hello, World!”` and `new_s = s.replace(“Hello”, “Hi”)`

- Explanation: Returns a new string where occurrences of the specified ‘old’ substring are replaced with
the ‘new’ substring.

These functions demonstrate basic string manipulation operations, providing functionality to work with
and transform textual data in a program.

17.) State the difference between while loop and do..while loop with suitable example?
The main difference between a `while` loop and a `do…while` loop lies in when the loop condition is
evaluated:

1. **`while` loop:**

- In a `while` loop, the condition is evaluated before the execution of the loop body.

- If the condition is false initially, the loop body will not be executed at all.

```python

Count = 0

While count < 5:

Print(count)

Count += 1

```

In this example, the condition `count < 5` is checked before entering the loop. If `count` is not less than
5 initially, the loop won’t execute.

2. **`do…while` loop:**

- In a `do…while` loop, the loop body is executed at least once, and then the condition is evaluated.

- If the condition is false after the first iteration, the loop terminates.

```python

Count = 0

While True:

Print(count)

Count += 1

If count >= 5:

Break

```
 In this example, the loop body is executed at least once because the condition is checked after the first
iteration. The loop continues until `count` is no longer less than 5.

In summary, a `while` loop may not execute its body at all if the initial condition is false, while a
`do…while` loop ensures that the loop body is executed at least once before checking the condition.

18.Define Operating System and List the features of Operating System. Give the names of Popular
Operating Systems?

**Operating System (OS):**

An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware, software resources, and
provides various services for computer programs. It acts as an intermediary between users and the
computer hardware, ensuring efficient utilization of resources and providing a user-friendly interface.

**Features of Operating System:**

1. **Process Management:**

- Handles the execution of processes, managing tasks and their scheduling.

2. **Memory Management:**

- Allocates and deallocates memory space as needed, ensuring efficient use of available RAM.

3. **File System Management:**

- Manages files on storage devices, including organization, storage, retrieval, and naming.

4. **Device Management:**

- Controls and coordinates peripheral devices such as printers, disk drives, and networking
components.

5. **Security and Protection:**

 - Implements security measures to protect data and resources, including user authentication and
access controls.

6. **User Interface:**

- Provides a user interface for interaction, which can be command-line based, graphical, or a
combination of both.

7. **Networking:**

- Facilitates communication between devices on a network, enabling data exchange and resource
sharing.

8. **Error Detection and Handling:**

- Detects and handles errors that may occur during system operation, minimizing disruptions.

9. **System Calls:**

- Provides a set of system calls or APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) that allow applications to
interact with the OS.

10. **Task Scheduling:**

- Optimizes the execution of tasks by scheduling processes efficiently to maximize system throughput.

**Popular Operating Systems:**

1. **Microsoft Windows:** Examples include Windows 10, Windows 11.

2. **macOS:** Developed by Apple for Macintosh computers.

3. **Linux:** Various distributions like Ubuntu, Fedora, and Debian.

4. **Unix:** A powerful, multi-user, and multitasking operating system.

5. **Android:** Designed for mobile devices and based on the Linux kernel.

6. **iOS:** Apple’s operating system for mobile devices like iPhones and iPads.

19. Define Pointer. State the use of Pointer. Develop a program to print elements of array using pointer?
**Pointer:**

A pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another variable. It allows indirect access to
the value stored in that memory address. In simpler terms, a pointer “points to” the memory location of
a variable.

**Use of Pointers:**

1. **Dynamic Memory Allocation:** Pointers are crucial for allocating and deallocating memory
dynamically, allowing for flexible memory management.

2. **Passing Parameters:** Pointers are used to pass data between functions efficiently, especially when
dealing with large data structures.

3. **Array and String Manipulation:** Pointers can be used to navigate through arrays and strings more
efficiently than using array indices.

4. **Structures and Linked Lists:** Pointers play a key role in handling complex data structures like
structures and linked lists, allowing dynamic linking of elements.

**Example Program – Print Elements of Array using Pointer in C++:**

```cpp

#include <iostream>

Int main() {

Int array[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

Int *ptr = array; // Declare and initialize a pointer to the first element of the array

// Print elements using pointer

For (int I = 0; I < 5; i++) {

Std::cout << “Element “ << I + 1 << “: “ << *ptr << std::endl;

// Move the pointer to the next element in the array

Ptr++;

}
 Return 0;

```

This C++ program demonstrates the use of a pointer to traverse an array and print its elements. The
pointer `ptr` is initially assigned the address of the first element of the array, and then it is incremented
in the loop to access subsequent array elements. The `*ptr` syntax is used to dereference the pointer
and obtain the value stored at the memory location it points to.

20. C program to print elements of array using pointer #include <stdio.h>

Int main() {

Int arr[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

Int *ptr = arr;

Int I;

Printf(“Elements of the array are: “); for (I = 0; I < 5; i++) {

Printf(“%d “, *(ptr + i)); }

Printf(“\n”); return 0;

}. ????

Certainly! It seems you want a C program that prints the elements of an array in reverse order using
pointers. Here’s an example:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

Int main() {

Int arr[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

Int *ptr = arr + 4; // Point to the last element of the array

Int I;
 Printf(“Elements of the array in reverse order are: “);

For (I = 0; I < 5; i++) {

Printf(“%d “, *(ptr – i));

Printf(“\n”);

Return 0;

```

This program uses a pointer `ptr` initially pointing to the last element of the array (`arr + 4`). It then
prints the elements in reverse order by decrementing the pointer in the loop (`*(ptr - i)`). The loop runs
from 0 to 4, ensuring the elements are printed in reverse.

21. Write a c program to create structure for student database rollnumber, name and marks. Accept and
display information for 5 students using structure.?

Certainly! Here’s a simple C program that uses a structure to represent student information, including
roll number, name, and marks. It then accepts and displays information for 5 students:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

// Define the structure for student

Struct Student {

Int rollNumber;

Char name[50];

Float marks;

};
Int main() {

// Declare an array of structures to store information for 5 students

Struct Student students[5];

// Accept information for 5 students

Printf(“Enter information for 5 students:\n”);

For (int I = 0; I < 5; i++) {

Printf(“\nStudent %d:\n”, I + 1);

Printf(“Roll Number: “);

Scanf(“%d”, &students[i].rollNumber);

Printf(“Name: “);

Scanf(“%s”, students[i].name);

Printf(“Marks: “);

Scanf(“%f”, &students[i].marks);

// Display information for 5 students

Printf(“\nDisplaying information for 5 students:\n”);

For (int I = 0; I < 5; i++) {

Printf(“\nStudent %d:\n”, I + 1);

Printf(“Roll Number: %d\n”, students[i].rollNumber);

Printf(“Name: %s\n”, students[i].name);

Printf(“Marks: %.2f\n”, students[i].marks);

Return 0;

}
```

This program uses a `struct Student` to define the structure for student information. It then declares an
array of this structure type to store information for 5 students. The program accepts information for
each student using a loop and later displays the entered information.

22. Write a program in c language that defines the structure for the book entities, Book name, price, and
pages.?

Certainly! Below is a simple C program that defines a structure for book entities, including attributes like
book name, price, and pages. The program then demonstrates how to create and display information for
a book:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

// Define the structure for a book

Struct Book {

Char name[100];

Float price;

Int pages;

};

Int main() {

// Declare a variable of type ‘struct Book’

Struct Book myBook;

// Input information for the book

Printf(“Enter book details:\n”);

Printf(“Book Name: “);

 Scanf(“%s”, myBook.name);

Printf(“Price: “);

Scanf(“%f”, &myBook.price);

Printf(“Number of Pages: “);

Scanf(“%d”, &myBook.pages);

// Display information for the book

Printf(“\nBook Details:\n”);

Printf(“Book Name: %s\n”, myBook.name);

Printf(“Price: %.2f\n”, myBook.price);

Printf(“Number of Pages: %d\n”, myBook.pages);

Return 0;

```

In this program, the `struct Book` defines the structure for a book entity with attributes `name`
(character array), `price` (floating-point number), and `pages` (integer). The program then declares a
variable `myBook` of this structure type, accepts input for the book details, and finally displays the
entered information.

23. Explain call by value and call by reference in detail?

**Call by Value:**

In call by value, when a function is called, the actual value of the argument is passed to the function
parameter. The function works with a copy of the data, and any modifications made to the parameters
within the function have no effect on the actual values outside the function.
Here's a simple example In C:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

// Function that uses call by value

Void square(int num) {

Num = num * num;

Int main() {

Int x = 5;

Printf(“Before function call: %d\n”, x);

// Call the function with x (passing the value of x)

Square(x);

Printf(“After function call: %d\n”, x);

Return 0;

```

In this example, the value of `x` remains unchanged after the function call. This is because the `square`
function works with a copy of `x`.

**Call by Reference:**
In call by reference, instead of passing the actual values, the memory address (reference) of the variables
is passed to the function parameters. This means any modifications made to the parameters within the
function directly affect the actual values outside the function.

Example in C:

```c

#include <stdio.h>

// Function that uses call by reference

Void squareByReference(int *num) {

*num = (*num) * (*num);

Int main() {

Int x = 5;

Printf(“Before function call: %d\n”, x);

// Call the function with the address of x (passing by reference)

squareByReference(&x);

printf(“After function call: %d\n”, x);

return 0;

```

In this example, the value of `x` changes after the function call because we passed its address to
`squareByReference` using the `&x` syntax. The function works with the actual memory location of `x`.
24. **Classification of Computers:**?

1. **According to Type:**

- **Supercomputers:** Extremely powerful machines used for complex scientific calculations and
simulations, such as weather forecasting and nuclear simulations.

- **Mainframe Computers:** Large-scale computing systems capable of handling and processing vast
amounts of data, often used in large organizations for data management.

- **Minicomputers:** Mid-sized computers that fall between mainframes and microcomputers,

suitable for smaller organizations and specific tasks.

- **Microcomputers (Personal Computers):** Commonly known as PCs, these are small, general-
purpose computers for individual use.

2. **According to Size:**

- **Supercomputers:** Physically large and powerful machines.

- **Mainframe Computers:** Large machines often requiring dedicated rooms or data centers.

- **Minicomputers:** Smaller than mainframes but larger than microcomputers.

- **Microcomputers (Personal Computers):** Compact and designed for personal or office use.

3. **According to Purpose:**

- **General-Purpose Computers:** Designed for a wide range of tasks and applications, such as
personal computers.

- **Special-Purpose Computers:** Built for specific tasks or applications, such as embedded systems in
devices like ATMs or traffic lights.

- **Workstation:** Computers designed for technical or scientific applications, such as 3D modeling

and engineering simulations.

- **Server:** Computers dedicated to managing network resources and serving requests from other
computers (web servers, database servers).

These classifications help in understanding the diversity of computers based on their characteristics,
applications, and intended use. The evolution of technology continues to reshape these classifications as
new types and sizes of computers emerge.
25. Explain in brief the Top-down design approach and bottom-up design approach. Write down the
advantages of the top-down design approach

**Top-Down Design Approach:**

Top-Down Design is a design methodology that starts with a high-level view of a system and
progressively refines it into more detailed levels. It involves breaking down a system into smaller, more
manageable subsystems or modules. Each module is then further decomposed until a detailed level of
design is achieved. This approach is often used in software development and system architecture.

1. **Advantages of Top-Down Design:**

- **Modularity:** The system is broken down into modules, promoting a modular structure that
simplifies development and maintenance.

- **Abstraction:** Focus on high-level concepts and functionality before diving into details, improving
clarity and understanding.

- **Ease of Maintenance:** Changes are localized to specific modules, making it easier to update or
modify the system without affecting the entire structure.

- **Parallel Development:** Different teams can work on different modules concurrently, speeding up
the development process.

- **Early Identification of Key Components:** Critical components and interfaces are identified early in
the design process, aiding in better resource allocation.

**Bottom-Up Design Approach:**

Bottom-Up Design starts with the development of individual components or modules and gradually
integrates them into more complex subsystems and ultimately into the complete system. It emphasizes
building from the ground up, starting with the smallest units and combining them to create larger
structures.

1. **Advantages of Bottom-Up Design:**

- **Early Prototyping:** Rapid development of individual components allows for early testing and
prototyping of specific functionalities.

- **Detailed Focus:** Developers can concentrate on refining and perfecting individual modules before
integrating them into larger structures.
 - **Incremental Development:** Incremental building of the system allows for continuous testing and
validation, reducing the risk of errors in the final product.

- **Flexibility:** Individual modules can be reused in different contexts or projects, enhancing

flexibility and maintainability.

- **Incremental Testing:** Testing is performed at the module level before integration, making it easier
to identify and fix issues early in the development process.

In practice, a combination of both top-down and bottom-up design approaches, known as the modular
design, is often employed to leverage the advantages of both methodologies. This approach provides a
balanced way of designing systems by considering both the high-level structure and the detailed
components.

26.