Department of Mechanical Engineering

Regulation 2021
II Year – III Semester
ME3391 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

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 ME3391 ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

OBJECTIVES:

1.Impart knowledge on the basics and application of zeroth and first law of thermodynamics
2.Impart knowledge on the second law of thermodynamics in analyzing the performance of thermal
devices.
3.Impart knowledge on availability and applications of second law of thermodynamics
4.Teach the various properties of steam through steam tables and Mollier chart.
5.Impart knowledge on the macroscopic properties of ideal and realgases.

UNIT I BASICS, ZEROTH AND FIRST LAW

Review of Basics – Thermodynamic systems, Properties and processes Thermodynamic Equilibrium –

Displacement work – P-V diagram. Thermal equilibrium – Zeroth law – Concept of temperature and
Temperature Scales. First law – application to closed and open systems – steady and unsteady flow processes.

UNIT II SECOND LAW AND ENTROPY ME3391

Heat Engine – Refrigerator – Heat pump. Statements of second law and their equivalence & corollaries.
Carnotcycle – Reversed Carnot cycle – Performance – Clausius inequality. Concept of entropy – T-s diagram –
TdsEquations – Entropy change for a pure substance.

UNIT III AVAILABILITY AND APPLICATIONS OF II LAW

Ideal gases undergoing different processes – principle of increase in entropy. Applications of II Law.
Highandlow-grade energy. Availability and Irreversibility for open and closed system processes – I and II
lawEfficiency

UNIT IV PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES

Steam – formation and its thermodynamic properties – p-v, p-T, T-v, T-s, h-s diagrams. PVT surface.
Determination of dryness fraction. Calculation of work done and heat transfer in non-flow and flow
processesusing Steam Table and Mollier Chart.

UNIT V GAS MIXTURES AND THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS

Properties of Ideal gas, real gas – comparison. Equations of state for ideal and real gases. vander Waal’s
relation – Reduced properties – Compressibility factor – Principle of Corresponding states – Generalized
Compressibility Chart. Maxwell relations – TdS Equations – heat capacities relations – Energy equation, Joule-
Thomson experiment – Clausius-Clapeyron equation.

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OUTCOMES:
1.Apply the zeroth and first law of thermodynamics by formulating temperature scales and calculating
the property changes in closed and open engineering systems.
2.Apply the second law of thermodynamics in analyzing the performance of thermal devices through
energy and entropy calculations.
3.Apply the second law of thermodynamics in evaluating the various properties of steam through steam
tables and Mollierchart
4.Applythepropertiesofpuresubstanceincomputingthemacroscopicpropertiesofidealandrealgasesusing
gaslawsand appropriatethermodynamicrelations.
5.Applythepropertiesofgasmixturesincalculatingthepropertiesofgasmixturesandapplyingvariousthermody
namicrelationstocalculate propertychanges.

TEXTBOOKS: ME3391 Engineering Thermodynamics

1. Nag.P.K., “Engineering Thermodynamics”, 6th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill (2017), New Delhi.
2. Natarajan, E., “Engineering Thermodynamics: Fundamentals and Applications”, 2nd Edition (2014),
Anuragam Publications, Chennai.

REFERENCES: ME3391 Engineering Thermodynamics

1. Cengel, Y and M. Boles, Thermodynamics – An Engineering Approach, Tata McGraw Hill,9th Edition,
2019.
2. Chattopadhyay, P, “Engineering Thermodynamics”, 2nd Edition Oxford University Press, 2016.
3. Rathakrishnan, E., “Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics”, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India
Pvt. Ltd, 2006.
4. Claus Borgnakke and Richard E. Sonntag, “Fundamentals of Thermodynamics”, 10th Edition, Wiley
Eastern, 2019.
5. Venkatesh. A, “Basic Engineering Thermodynamics”, Universities Press (India) Limited, 2007

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 UNITI

Basicsofthermodynamics:
S.I.SYSTEM
FundamentalunitsofS.Isystem
Sr.No. Physicalquantities Unit symbol
1 Length Metre m
2 Mass Kilogram Kg
3 Time Second S
4 Temperature Kelvin K
SupplementaryunitsofS.I.system

Sr.No. Physical Unit symbol

quantities
1 Planeangle Radian Rad
PrincipalS.I.units

Sr. Physicalquantities Unit symbol

No.
1 Force Newton N
2 Work Joule J,N.m
3 Power Watt W
4 Energy Joule J,N.m
5 Area Squaremetre m2
6 Volume Cubicmetre m3
7 Pressure Pascal Pa
8 Velocity/speed metrepersecond m/s
9 Acceleration metre/second2 m/s2
10 Angularvelocity radian/second rad/s
11 Angularacceleration radian/second2 rad/s2
12 Momentum kilogram Kg.m/s
metre/second
13 Torque Newtonmetre N.m
14 Density Kilogram/metre3 Kg/m3
15 Couple Newton.metre N.m
16 Moment Newton.metre N.m
S.I.Prefixes

Multiplicationfactor Prefix Symble

1012 Tera T
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
101 deca da
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro µ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p

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Thermodynamics:
Thermodynamicsisanaxiomaticsciencewhichdealswiththerelationsamongheat,workand
properties of system which are in equilibrium. It describes state and changes in state of
physical systems.

System:

Athermodynamicsystemisdefined asaquantityofmatteroraregioninspacewhichis selected for

the study.

Surroundings:

Themassorregionoutsidethesystemiscalled surroundings.

Boundary:

The real or imaginary surfaces which separates the system and surroundings is called
boundary.Therealorimaginarysurfaceswhichseparatesthesystemandsurroundingsis called
boundary.

Typesofthermodynamic system

On the basis of mass and energy transfer the thermodynamic system is divided into
threetypes.

1. Closedsystem
2. Opensystem
3. Isolated system

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Closedsystem:Asysteminwhichthetransferofenergybutnotmasscantakesplaceacross the
boundary is called closed system. The mass inside the closed system remains constant.

For example: Boiling of water in a closed vessel. Since the water is boiled in closed vessel so
the mass of water cannot escapes out of the boundary of the system but heat energy
continuously entering and leaving the boundary of the vessel. It is an example of closed
system.
Open system: A system in which the transfer of both mass and energy takes place is called
an open system. This system is also known as control volume.

Forexample:Boilingofwaterinanopenvesselisanexampleofopensystembecausethe water and

heat energy both enters and leaves the boundary of the vessel.
Isolatedsystem: Asysteminwhichthetransferofmassandenergycannottakesplaceis called an
isolated system.
Forexample:Teapresentinathermosflask.Inthistheheatandthemassoftheteacannot cross the
boundary of the thermos flask. Hence the thermos flak is an isolated system.

ControlVolume:

 It’sasystemoffixed volume.
 Thistypeofsystem isusuallyreferredto as"open system”ora"controlvolume"
 Masstransfercantakeplaceacrossacontrolvolume.
 Energytransfermayalsooccurintooroutofthesystem.
 ControlSurface-It’stheboundaryofacontrolvolumeacrosswhichthetransferof

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 bothmassandenergytakes place.
 Themassofacontrolvolume (opensystem)mayor maynotbefixed.
 When the net influx of mass across the control surface equals zero then the mass of
the system is fixed and vice-versa.
 The identity of mass in a control volume always changes unlike the case for a control
mass system (closed system).
 Mostoftheengineeringdevices,ingeneral,representanopensystemorcontrol
volume.

Example:
Heatexchanger-Fluidentersandleavesthesystemcontinuouslywiththetransferofheat across the
system boundary.
Pump - A continuous flowof fluidtakes place through the system with a transfer of mechanical
energy from the surroundings to the system.

MicroscopicViewor Study:
 The approach considers that the system is made up of a very large number ofdiscrete
particles known as molecules. These molecules have different velocities are energies.
The values of these energies are constantly changing with time. This approach to
thermodynamics, which is concerned directly with the structure of the matter, is
known as statistical thermodynamics.
 The behavior of the system is found by using statistical methods, as the number of
molecules is very large. So advanced statistical and mathematical methods are
needed to explain the changes in the system.
 The properties like velocity, momentum, impulse, kinetic energy and instruments
cannot easily measure force of impact etc. that describe the molecule.
 Large numbers of variables are needed to describe a system. So the approach is
complicated.

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MacroscopicVieworStudy:
 In this approach a certain quantity of matter is considered without taking into
account the events occurring at molecular level. In other words this approach to
thermodynamics is concerned with gross or overall behavior. This is known as
classical thermodynamics.
 Theanalysisofmacroscopicsystemrequiressimplemathematicalformula.
 The value of the properties of the system are their average values. For examples
consider a sample of gasin a closed container. The pressure of the gas is the average
value of the pressure exerted by millions of individual molecules.
 Inordertodescribeasystemonlyafewpropertiesare needed.

S.No MacroscopicApproach MicroscopicApproach

In this approach a certain quantity of The matter is considered to be

1 matter is considered without taking comprised of a large number of tiny
into account the events occurring at particles known as molecules, which
molecular level. moves randomly in chaotic fashion.
Theeffectofmolecularmotionis
considered.
Analysisisconcernedwithoverall TheKnowledgeofthestructureof
behavior of the system. matterisessentialinanalyzingthe
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behaviorofthesystem.
Thisapproachisusedinthestudyof Thisapproachisusedinthestudyof
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classicalthermodynamics. statistical thermodynamics.
Afewpropertiesarerequiredto Large numbers of variables are
4
describethe system. requiredtodescribethesystem.
The properties like pressure, The properties like velocity,
temperature, etc. needed to describe momentum, kinetic energy, etc.
the system, can be easily measured. needed to describe the system,
5 cannotbemeasuredeasily.
Thepropertiesofthesystemare their Thepropertiesaredefinedforeach
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averagevalues. moleculeindividually.

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 This approach requires simple No. of molecules are very large so it
mathematical formulas for analyzing requires advanced statistical and
the system. mathematical method to explain any
7 change in the system.

ThermodynamicEquilibrium:
A thermodynamic system is said to exist in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium when no
change in any macroscopic property is registered if the system is isolated from its
surroundings.
An isolated system always reaches in the course of time a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium and can never depart from it spontaneously.
Therefore, there can be no spontaneous change in any macroscopic property if the system
exists in an equilibrium state. A thermodynamic system will be in a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium if the system is the state of Mechanical equilibrium, Chemical equilibrium and
Thermal equilibrium.
 Mechanical equilibrium: The criteria for Mechanical equilibrium are the equality
ofpressures.
 Chemicalequilibrium:ThecriteriaforChemicalequilibriumaretheequalityofchemical
potentials.
 Thermalequilibrium:ThecriterionforThermalequilibriumistheequalityof temperatures.
State:

The thermodynamic state of a system is defined by specifying values of a set of measurable

properties sufficient to determine all other properties. For fluid systems, typical properties
are pressure, volume and temperature. More complex systems may require thespecification
of more unusual properties. As an example, the state of an electric battery requires the
specification of the amount of electric charge it contains.

Property:

 Propertiesmaybeextensiveor intensive.
 Intensive properties: The properties which are independent of the mass of
thesystem. For example: Temperature, pressure and density are the intensive
properties.

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  Extensiveproperties:Thepropertieswhichdependonthesizeorextentofthe system are
called extensive properties.
 Forexample:Totalmass,totalvolumeandtotalmomentum.
Process:

When the system undergoes change from one thermodynamic state to final state due
change in properties like temperature, pressure, volume etc, the system is said to have
undergone thermodynamic process.
Various types of thermodynamic processes are: isothermal process, adiabatic process,
isochoric process, isobaric process and reversible process.

Cycle:

Thermodynamic cycle refers to any closed system that undergoes various changes due to
temperature,pressure,andvolume,however,itsfinalandinitialstateareequal.Thiscycleis
important as it allows for the continuous process of a moving piston seen in heat engines
and the expansion/compression of the working fluid in refrigerators, for example. Without
the cyclical process, a car wouldn't be able to continuously move when fuel is added, or a
refrigerator would not be able to stay cold. Visually, any thermodynamiccycle will appear as
a closed loop on a pressure volume diagram.
Examples:Ottocycle,DieselCycle,BraytonCycleetc.
Reversibility:

Reversibility, in thermodynamics, a characteristic of certain processes (changes of a system

from an initial state to a final state spontaneously or as a result of interactions with other
systems) that can be reversed, and the system restored to its initial state, without leaving
net effects in any of the systems involved.
An example of a reversible process would be a single swing of a frictionless pendulum from
one of its extreme positions to the other. The swing of a real pendulum is irreversible
because a small amount of the mechanical energy of the pendulum would be expended in
performing work against frictional forces, and restoration of the pendulum to its exact
starting position would require the supplyof an equivalent amount of energy from a second
system, such as a compressed spring in which an irreversible change of state would occur.
Quasistaticprocess:
When a process is processing in such a way that system will be remained infinitesimallyclose
withequilibriumstate ateachtime,suchprocess will betermedasquasi staticprocess

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orquasiequilibriumprocess.
In simple words, we can say that if system is going under a thermodynamic process through
succession ofthermodynamicstates andeach state isequilibrium statethentheprocess will be
termed as quasi static process.

We will see one example for understanding the quasi static process, but let us consider one
simple example for better understanding of quasi static process. If a person is coming down
from roof to ground floor with the help of ladder steps then it could be considered as quasi
static process. But if he jumps from roof to ground floor then it will not be a quasi static
process.
Weight placed over the piston is just balancing the force which is exerted in upward
direction by gas. If we remove the weight from the piston, system will have
unbalancedforceandpistonwillmoveinupward
directionduetoforceactingoverthepistoninupward direction by the gas.
IrreversibleProcess:

Theirreversibleprocessisalsocalledthenaturalprocessbecausealltheprocessesoccurring in
nature are irreversible processes. The natural process occurs due to the finite gradient
between the two states of the system. For instance, heat flow between two bodies occurs
due to the temperature gradient between the two bodies; this is in fact the natural flow of
heat. Similarly, water flows from high level to low level,currentmoves from high potential

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tolowpotential, etc.
 In the irreversible process the initial state of the system and surroundings cannot be
restored from the final state.
 Duringtheirreversibleprocessthevariousstatesofthesystemonthepathof change from
initial state to final state are not in equilibrium with eachother.
 During the irreversible process the entropy of the system increases decisively and it
cannot be reduced back to its initial value.
 Thephenomenonofasystemundergoingirreversibleprocessiscalledas irreversibility.

Causesof Irreversibility:
Friction: Friction is invariably present in real systems. It causes irreversibility in the processas
work done does not show an equivalent rise in the kinetic or potential energy of the system.
The fraction of energy wasted due to frictional effects leads to deviation from reversible
states.
Freeexpansion:Freeexpansionreferstotheexpansionofunresisted typesuchasexpansion in a
vacuum. During this unresisted expansion the work interaction is zero, and without the
expense of any work, it is not possible to restore initial states. Thus, free expansion is
irreversible.
Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference: Heat transfer occurs only when there
exists temperature difference between bodies undergoing heat transfer. During heat
transfer, if heat addition is carried out in a finite number of steps then after every step the
new state shall be a non-equilibrium state.
Non equilibrium during the process: Irreversibilities are introduced due to lack of
thermodynamic equilibrium during the process. Non-equilibrium may be due to mechanical
inequilibrium, chemical inequilibrium, thermal inequilibrium, electrical inequilibrium, etc.
and irreversibility is called mechanical irreversibility, chemical irreversibility, thermal
irreversibility, electrical irreversibility respectively. Factors discussed above are also causing
non-equilibrium during the process and therefore make process irreversible.
Heat:
It is the energy in transition between the system and the surroundings by virtue of the
difference in temperature Heat is energy transferred from one system to another solely by
reason of a temperature difference between the systems. Heat exists only as itcrosses the

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boundaryofasystemandthedirectionofheattransferisfromhighertemperaturetolower
temperature. For thermodynamics sign convention, heat transferred to a system is positive;
Heat transferred from a system is negative.

Work:
Thermodynamicdefinitionofwork:Positiveworkisdonebyasystemwhenthesoleeffect external to the
system could be reduced to the rise of a weight.
Workdonebythe systemispositiveandworkdoneonthesystemisnegative.

Typesofworkinteraction:
 Expansionandcompressionwork(displacementwork)
 Workofareversiblechemicalcell
 Workinstretchingofaliquidsurface
 Workdone onelasticsolids
 Workofpolarizationandmagnetization

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PointandPathfunctions:
 Pointfunctiondoesnot dependonthehistory(orpath)ofthesystem.Itonly
depends on the state of the system.
 Examplesofpointfunctionsare:temperature,pressure,density,mass,volume,
enthalpy, entropy, internal energy etc.

 Pathfunctiondependsonhistoryofthesystem (orpathbywhichsystemarrivedata given

state).
 Examplesforpathfunctionsareworkandheat.
 Pathfunctionsarenotpropertiesofthesystem,whilepointfunctionsareproperties of the
system.
 Changeinpointfunctioncanbeobtainedbyfromtheinitialandfinalvaluesofthe
function, whereas path has to defined in order to evaluate pathfunctions.

ZerothLaw of Thermodynamics:
TheThermodynamicsZerothLawstatesthat if twosystemsareatthesame timein thermal

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equilibriumwithathirdsystem,theyareinequilibriumwitheachother.
If an object with a higher temperature comes in contact with an object of lower
temperature,itwilltransferheattothelowertemperatureobject.Theobjectswillapproach the
sametemperature and inthe absenceof lossto other objects,theywillmaintain asingle
constant temperature. Therefore, thermal equilibrium is attained.

If objects ‘A’ and ‘C’ are in thermal equilibrium with ‘B’, then object ‘A’ is in thermal
equilibrium with object ‘C’. Practically this means all three objects are at the same
temperature and it forms the basis for comparison of temperatures.

Ifa=b;b=cthena=c
PrinciplesofThermometry:
Thermometry is the science and practice of temperature measurement. Any measurable
changeinathermometricprobe(e.g.thedilatationofaliquidinacapillarytube,variationof
electrical resistance of a conductor, of refractive index of a transparent material, and so on)
can be used to mark temperature levels, that should later be calibrated against an
internationallyagreedunitifthemeasureistoberelatedtootherthermodynamicvariables.

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Thermometry is sometimes split in metrological studies in two subfields: contact
thermometry and noncontact thermometry. As there can never be complete thermal
uniformity at large, thermometry is always associated to a heat transfer problem with some
space-time coordinates of measurement, given rise to time-series plots and temperature
maps.

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Scalesof Temperature:
There are three temperature scales in use Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin. Fahrenheit
temperature scale is a scale based on 32 for the freezing point of water and 212 for the
boiling point of water, the interval between the two being divided into 180 parts.
The conversion formula for a temperature that is expressed on the Celsius (C) scale to its
Fahrenheit (F) representation is: F = 9/5C + 32.
Celsius temperature scale also called centigrade temperature scale, is the scale based on 0
for the freezing point of water and 100 for the boiling point of water.
Kelvin temperature scale is the base unit of thermodynamic temperature measurement in
the International System (SI) of measurement. It is defined as 1/ 273.16 of the triple point
(equilibrium among the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases) of pure water.

Joule’s experiment:

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James P. Joule carried out his famous experiment; he placed known amounts of water, oil,
and mercury in an insulated container and agitated the fluid with a rotating stirrer. The
amounts of work done on the fluid by the stirrer were accurately measured, and the
temperature changes of the fluid were carefully noted. He found for each fluid that a fixed
amount of work was required per unit mass for every degree of temperature rise caused by
the stirring, and that the original temperature of the fluid could be restored by the transfer
of heat through simple contact with a cooler object. In this experiment you can conclude
there is a relationship between heat and work or in other word heat is a form of energy.

InternalEnergy
Through, Joule experiment what happen to energy between time it is added to water as
work,andtimeitisextracted toheat?Logicsuggeststhatthisenergycontainedinthewater in
another form which called internal energy.
Internal energy refers to energy of molecules of substance which are ceaseless motion and
possess kinetics energy. The addition of heat to a substance increases this molecularactivity,
and thus causes an increase in its internal energy. Work done on the substance can have the
same effect, as was shown by Joule. Internal energy cannot be directly measured; there are
no internal-energy meters. As a result, absolute values are unknown. However,this is not a
disadvantage in thermodynamic analysis, because only changes in internal energy are
required.
FirstLaw of Thermodynamics:
During a thermodynamic cycle, a cyclic process the systems undergoes, the cyclic integral of
heat added is equal to integral of work done. The first law equation can also be written in
the form,
§(dQ– dW)=0
Equation dU = dQ – dW is a corollary to the first law of thermodynamics. It shows that there
exists a property internalenergy (U)of the system, suchthat achange inits valueis equalto the
difference in heat entering and work leaving the system.
The First law of thermodynamics states that energy is neither created nor destroyed. Thus
the total energy of the universe is a constant. However, energy can certainly be transferred
from one form to another form.
The1stlawofthermodynamicscanbemathematicallystatedasfollows:
§dQ =§dW

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 Corollary1:

There exists property of closed system; the change in value of this property during the
process is given by the difference between heat supplied and work done.

dU =dQ-dW

Here E is property of system and is called as total energy that includes internal energy,
kinetic energy, potential energy, electrical energy, magnetic energy, chemical energy, etc.
Corollary2:

Fortheisolatedsystem,heatandworkbothinteractionsareabsent(dQ=0,dW=0)and E =
constant. Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed; but, it can be converted from one
form to other.
Corollary3:
Aperpetualmotionmachineoffirstkindisalmost impossible.
PerpetualMotionMachineofFirstKind (PPM1):
A hypothetical machine which can produce useful work without any source or which can produce
more energy than consumed. It violates the first law of Thermodynamics. Perpetual Motion
Machine 1 (PMM1) is a machine that violates first law of thermodynamics. First law of
thermodynamics states that energy can be neither created or nor destroyed. A perpetual motion
machine 1 violates the law by creating energy. All processes in universe comply with first and
second law of thermodynamics. Therefore PPM1 does not and can never exist.
e.g.:Anelectricheaterthatconsumes1KWofelectricitycannotproducemorethan1KWheat.

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 Firstlawappliedtoaflowprocess
Steadyflowenergyequation:
Virtually all the practical systems involve flow of mass across the boundary separating the
system and the surroundings. Whether it be a steam turbine or a gas turbine or a
compressor or an automobile engine there exists flow of gases/gas mixtures into and out of
the system. So we must know how the first Law of thermodynamics can be applied to an
open system.
Thefluidenteringthesystemwillhaveitsowninternal,kineticandpotential energies.
Let u1 be the specific internal energy of the fluid entering C1 be the velocity of the fluidwhile
enteringZ1be thepotential energyof the fluid while enteringSimilarlylet u2,C2 and Z2 be
respective entities while leaving.

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 Industryapplications

 Automobileindustries.
 Refrigerationindustries
 Air craft applications
 Defenseindustries
 Thermalpowerplants etc.

Assignmentquestions:

1. Whatismeantbythermodynamicequilibrium?Explain withthehelpofexamples.
2. WhatismeantbySFEEand deriveitandreduce it forthe turbine.
3. Write about constant volume gas Thermometer? Why it is preferred over a
constant pressure gas Thermometer.
4. A blower handles 1kg/s of air at 200C and consuming a power of 15 kw. The inlet
and outlet velocities of air are 100 m/s and 150 m/s respectively. Find the exit air
temperature, assuming adiabatic conditions. Take Cp of air as 1.005 kJ/kgk.
5. Distinguishbetweenmacroscopicandmicroscopicpointofview?
6. DiscussQuasiStaticprocess,whatareitscharacteristics?
7. DiscussFirstlawofthermodynamics,explainJoule’sexperiment.

TutorialQuestions

1. A piston cylinder device operates 1kg of fluid at 20atm pressure with initial volumeis
0.04m3. Fluid is allowed to expand reversibly following pV1.45=C. So that the volume
becomes double. The fluid is cooled at constant pressure until the piston comes back.
Determine the work done in each process?

2. When a stationary mass of gas was compressed without friction at constant pressure,
its initial state of 0.4m3 and 0.105MPa was found to change to final state of 0.20m3
and 0.105MPa. There was a transfer of 42.5kJ of heat from the gas during theprocess.
Determine the change in internal energy of the gas?

3. 0.44kg of air at 1800C, expands adiabatically to 3times its original volume and during
the process there is a fall in temperature to 150C. The workdone duringthe processis
52.5kJ. Calculate Cp and Cv ?

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4. A new scale N of temperature is divided in such a way that the freezing point of ice is
1000N and the boiling point is 4000N. What is the temperature reading on this new
scale when the temperature is 1500C? At what temperature both the Celsius and the
new scale reading would be the same?

5. A piston-cylinder device operates 1 kg of fluid at 20 atm. Pressure. The initial volumeis

0.04 m3. The fluid is allowed to expand reversibly following a process pV1.4 =
constant so that the volume becomes double. The fluid is then cooled at a constant
pressure until the piston comes back to the original position. Keeping the piston
unaltered, heat is added reversibly to restore it to the initial pressure. Calculate the
work done in the cycle.

6.

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 UNIT-II
Enropy

LimitationsoftheFirstLaw:

 Firstlawdoesnotprovideaclearideaaboutthedirectionofabsorptionorevolutionof heat.
 The firstlawof thermodynamicsmerelyindicatesthat in anyprocessthereis atransformation
betweenthevariousformsofenergyinvolvedintheprocessbutprovidesnoinformationregarding
thefeasibilityofsuchtransformation.
 First law does not provide any information regarding the direction processes will take
whether it is a spontaneous or a non spontaneous process.

ThermalReservoir:

A thermal reservoir is a large system (very high mass x specific heat value) from which a
quantity of energy can be absorbed or added as heat without changing its temperature. The
atmosphere and sea are examples of thermal reservoirs. Any physical body whose thermal
energy capacity is large relative to the amount of energy it supplies or absorbs can be
modelledasathermalreservoir.Areservoirthatsuppliesenergyintheformofheat iscalled a
source and one that absorbs energy in the form of heat is called asink.

HeatEngine:

It is a cyclically operating device which absorbs energy as heat from a high temperature
reservoir, converts part of the energy into work and rejects the rest of the energy as heat to
a thermal reservoir at low temperature.
The working fluid is a substance, which absorbs energy as heat from a source, and rejects
energy as heat to a sink.

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SchematicrepresentationofHeatEngine

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Parametersofperformance

TheefficiencyofHeatEngine
Theefficiency‘η’oftheheatengineistheratiobetweenitsoutputofworktotheheatsupplyoftheheatengine.Let
usderiveanexpressionfortheefficiencyofaheatengine.

η=W/Q1

where,WistheworkdonebytheengineandQ1istheheatabsorbedfromthesource.Aftereachcycle,theengine
returnstoitsoriginalstatesothatitdoesnotaffectitsinternalenergy.

ΔU=0

W=Q1−Q2

Hencetheengineefficiencyis:

η=(Q1−Q2)/Q1

η = 1−Q2/Q1

So here efficiency will be 100% but in actual, this is not possible because there will be some loss of energy in the
system.Henceforeveryengine,thereisalimitforitsefficiency.Gasolineanddieselengines,jetengines,andsteam
turbinesthatgenerateelectricityareallexamplesofheatengines.
Heatpump:

A heat pump is a device that transfers heat energy from a source of heat to what is called a heat
sink. Heat pumps move thermal energy in the opposite direction of spontaneous heat transfer, by
absorbing heat from a cold space and releasing it to a warmer one. A heat pump uses a small
amount of external power to accomplish the work of transferring energy from the heat source to
the heat sink. The most common design of a heat pump involves four main components – a
condenser, an expansion valve, an evaporator and a compressor. The heat transfer medium
circulated through these components is called refrigerant.

SchematicrepresentationofHeatPumpCoefficientofPerformance
 The coefficient of performance, COP, of a refrigerator is defined as the heat removed from the
cold reservoir Qcold, (i.e. inside a refrigerator) divided by the work W done to remove the heat
(i.e. the work done by the compressor).

COP-coefficientofperformance- equation

As can be seen, the better (more efficient) the refrigerator is when more heat Qcold can be
removed from the inside of the refrigerator for a given amount of work. Since the first lawof
thermodynamics must be valid also in this case (Qcold + W = Qhot), we can rewrite the above
equation:
The COP for heating and cooling are thus different, because the heat reservoir of interest is
different. When one is interested in how well a machine cools, the COP is the ratio of the heat
removed from the cold reservoir to input work. However, for heating, the COP is the ratio of the
heat removed from the cold reservoir plus the input work to the input work: medium to a high-
temperature is called heat pump.
SecondLawofThermodynamics

The second law ofthermodynamics is a general principle whichplaces constraints uponthedirection of

heat transfer and the attainable efficiencies of heat engines. In so doing, it goes beyond the limitations
imposed by the first law of thermodynamics.

Kelvin-Planck Statement:
Itisimpossibletodeviseacyclicallyoperatingdevice,whichproducesnoothereffectthanthe
extractionofheatfromasinglethermalreservoiranddeliversanequivalentamountofwork. Heat engine with
single thermal reservoir is not possible.

Fora1-Tenginethethermalefficiencyh=W/Q=1.Noheatenginecanhaveefficiencyequaltounity.

Clausiusstatement

It is not possible for heat to flow from a colder body to a warmer body without any work having been
done to accomplish this flow. Energy will not flow spontaneously from a low temperature object to a
higher temperature object. This precludes a perfect refrigerator. The statements about refrigerators
apply to air conditioners and heat pumps, which embody the same principles.
Thisisthe"secondform"orClausiusstatementofthesecondlaw.
OR

Itisimpossibletoconstructadevicethatoperatesinacycleandproducesnoeffectotherthanthe transfer of heat

from a lower-temperature body to higher-temperature body.

EquivalenceofKelvin-PlanckandClausiusStatements

To provethat violation of the Kelvin-PlanckStatement leadsto aviolationof the ClausiusStatement,let us

assume that Kelvin-Planck statement is incorrect.
Consider a cyclically working device 1, which absorbs energy Q 1 as heat from a thermal reservoir at TH.
Equivalent amount of work W(W=Q1) is performed.

Consider another device 2 operating as a cycle, which absorbs energy QL as heat from a low
temperature thermal reservoir at TL and rejects energy QH (QH=QL+W). Such a device does not violate
Clausius statement.
Ifthetwodevicesarenowcombined,thecombined device(enclosedbythedottedboundary)transfers heat
QL from the low temperature reservoir at TL to a high temperature reservoir at TH without receiving
any aid from an external agent, which is the violation of the Clausius statement.

Likewise let us assume that the Clausius statement is incorrect. So we have a device 1, cyclicallyworking
transferring heat Q from a low temperature reservoir at TL to a high temperature thermal reservoir at
TH . Consider another device 2, which absorbs heat Q1 from a high temperature
reservoiratTHdoesworkWandrejectsenergyQasheattotthelowtemperaturereservoiratTLasshownin
figure.
If the two devices are combined (shown in figure by a dotted enclosure), then the combined device
receives energy (Q1-Q) as heat from a thermal reservoir and delivers equivalent work (W=Q 1-Q) in
violation of the Kelvin-Planck statement.
Therefore violation of Clausius statement leads to the violation of the Kelvin-Planck statement. Hence,
these two statements are equivalent.
 Principleofincreaseofentropy
Let a system change from state 1 to state 2 by a reversible process A and return to state 1 by another
reversible process B. Then 1A2B1 is a reversible cycle. Therefore, the Clausius inequality gives:

Ifthesystemisrestoredtotheinitialstatefrom1tostate2byanirreversibleprocessC,then1A2C1is an

irreversible cycle. Then the Clausius inequality gives:

Subtractingtheaboveequationfromthefirstone,

Sincetheprocess2B1isreversible,

Where the equality sign holds good for a reversible process and the inequality sign holds
good for an irreversible process.
Now letus apply theaboveresult to evaluatetheentropy changeof theuniversewhena
system interacts with its surroundings and exchanges energy as heat with the
surroundings.
LetTsurandTsysbethetemperaturesofthesurroundingsandthesystemsuchthat Tsur>Tsys.
LetdQrepresenttheenergytransferasheatfromthesurroundingstothesystem
duringthegivenirreversibleprocess. dS sys
= dQ/Tsys
dSsur=-dQ/Tsur
dSuni=dSsys+dSsur=(dQ/T)sys
(dQ/T)sur>0
DSuni>0(sinceTsur>Tsys)
Ifthesystemisisolated,thereisno changeintheentropyofthesurroundingsand DS 0,
for an isolated system
Thereforetheentropyofanisolatedsystemeitherincreasesor,inthelimit,remains constant.
The equality sign holds good when the process undergone by the system is reversible,
the inequality sign holds good if there is any irreversibility present in the process. This
statement is usually called the principle of entropy increase.

Irreversible or spontaneous processes can occur only in thatdirection for which the
entropy of the universe or that of an isolated system, increases. These processes cannot
occur in the direction of decreasing entropy.
Foranisolatedsystem,
DS>0,forirreversibleprocesses DS
= 0, for reversible processes DS
<0,the process is impossible

Thermodynamicpotentials

Thermodynamic potentials are state functions that, together with the corresponding equations ofstate,
describe the equilibrium behavior of a system as a function of so-called ”natural variables”. The natural
variables are a set of appropriate variables that allow to compute other state functions by partial
differentiation of the thermodynamic potentials.
Industryapplications

 Automobileindustries.
 Refrigerationindustries
 Air craft applications
 Defenseindustries
 Thermalpowerplants etc.
 Assignmentquestions

1. Describebrieflyaboutthesecondlawofthermodynamicswithits corollaries.
2. Statethelimitationsoffirstlawofthermodynamics?StatePMM2?
3. DiscussbrieflyaboutClausiusinequality.
4. DiscussthesignificanceofThirdlawofthermodynamics
5. A heat pumpworking ona reversed Carnot cycle takesin energyfrom areservoirmaintained at
30C and delivers it to another reservoir where temperature is 77C. The heat pump drives power
for its operation from a reversible engine operating within the higher and lower temperaturelimits
of 1077C and77C. For 100 kJ/secof energysupplied to thereservoir at 77C, estimate the energy
taken from the reservoir at 1077C.
6. DerivetheexpressionfortheefficiencyofCarnotcyclewithp-VandT-sdiagrams.
7. SolveoneT-dSequationbyusingMaxwell’srelations?
 Tutorial questions

1. 0.5 kg of air executes a Carnot power cycle having a thermal efficiency of 50%. The heat transfer to
the air during isothermal expansion is 40 kJ. At the beginning of the isothermal expansion the
pressure is 7 bar and the volume is 0.12 m3. Determine the maximum and minimum temperatures
for the cycle in Kelvin, the volume at the end of isothermal expansion in m3 and the work, heat
transfer for each of the four processes in kJ. cp=1.008 kJ/kgK and cv=0.721 kJ/kgK for air.
2. Water is heated at a constant pressure of 0.7 MPa. The boiling point is 164.970C. The initial
temperature of water is 00C. The latent heat of evaporation is 2066.3 kJ/kg. Find the increase of
entropy of water if the final temperature is steam.
3. 1kg of ice at -50C expose to the atmosphere which, is at 200C. The ice melts and comes into
thermal equilibrium with the atmosphere. Determine the entropy increase of Universe. Cp for
ice is 2.039 kJ/kgK, and the enthalpy of fusion of ice is 333.3kJ/kg.
4. A heat engine is operating between two reservoirs 1000K and 300K is used to drive a heat
pump which extracts heat from the reservoir at 300K at arate twice that at which the engine
rejects the heat to it. If the efficiency of the engine is 40% of the maximum possible and COP
of heat pump is 50% of the maximum possible, then determine the temperature of thereservoir
to which the heat pump rejects heat. Also determine the rate of heat rejection from the heat
pump, if the rate of heat supply to the heat engine is 50kW?
5. A heat engine is operating between two reservoirs 1000K and 300K is used to drive a heat
pump which extracts heat from the reservoir at 300K at A heat engine is operating between
two reservoirs 1000K and 300K is used to drive a heat pump which extracts heat from the
reservoir at 300K. The efficiency of both the engines is equal. What is the value oftemperature
T2.
 UNIT-III
Propertiesofpuresubstances:
Pure substance

A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout the system is called a pure
substance. Water, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon monoxide, for example, are all pure
substance. A pure substance can also be a mixture of various chemical elements or
compounds as long as the mixture is homogeneous. Air, a mixture of several compounds, is
often considered to be a pure substance because it has a uniform chemical composition. “A
mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance is still a pure substance as long as the
chemical composition of all phases is the same. A mixture of ice and liquid water, for
example, is a pure substance because both phases have the same chemical composition.”

PVTSurface

Pressure can be expressed as a function of temperature and specific volume:p = p(T, v). The plot ofp
= p(T, v) is a surface called p-v-T surface. Figure 3.1 shows the p-v-T surface of a substance such as
water that expands on freezing.

Figure3.1p-v-Tsurfaceandprojectionsforasubstancethatexpandsonfreezing.

(a)3-Dview(b)p-Tdiagram(c)p-vdiagram2.
The location of a point on the p-v-T surface gives the values of pressure, specific volume,and
temperature at equilibrium. The regions on the p-v-T surface labeled solid, liquid, and vapor
are single-phase regions. The state of a single phase is determined by any two of the
properties: pressure, temperature, and specific volume. The two-phase regions where two
phases exist in equilibrium separate the single-phase regions. The two-phase regions are:
liquid-vapor, solid-liquid, and solid-vapor. Temperature and pressure are dependent within
the two-phase regions. Once the temperature is specified, the pressure is determined and
vice versa. The states within the two-phase regions can be fixed by specific volume and
either temperature or pressure.
The projection of the p-v-T surface ontothe p-Tplane is known as the phase diagram
as shown in Figure 3.1 (b). The two-phase regions of the p-v-T surface reduce to lines in the
phase diagram. A point on any of these lines can represent any two-phase mixture at that
particular temperature and pressure. The triple line of the p-v-T surface projects onto apoint
on the phase diagram called the triple point. Three phases coexist on the triple line or the
triple point.

The constant temperature lines of the p-v diagram are called the isotherms. For any
specified temperature less than the critical temperature, the pressure remains constant
withinthe two- phaseregion eventhoughspecific volume changes. In thesingle-phaseliquid
and vapor regions the pressure decreases at fixed temperature as specific volume increases.
For temperature greaterthan orequal to the critical temperature,there isnopassage across
the two-phase liquid-vapor region.

Figure3.1-2 T-vdiagramforwater (to scale).

 Figure 3.1-2 is a T-v diagram for water. For pressure greater than or equal to the
critical pressure, temperature increases continously at fixed pressure as the specific volume
increases and there is no passage across the two-phase liquid-vapor region. The isobaric
curve marked 50 MPa in Figure 3.1-2 shows this behavior. For pressure less than the critical
value, there is a two-phase region where the temperature remains constant at a fixed
pressure as the two- phase region is traversed. The isobaric curve with values of 20 MPa or
less in Figure 3.1-2 shows the constant temperature during the phase change.
At 100oC, the saturated volumes of liquid and vapor water are 1.0434 cm 3/g and
1,673.6 cm3/g, respectively. The quality of steam is the mass fraction of water vapor in a
mixture of liquid and vapor water. The specific volume of 100 oC steam with a quality of 0.65
is given by
v = (1-0.65)vL+0.65vV= (0.35)(1.0434)+(0.65)(1,673.6)= 1088.2 cm3/g
PhaseBehavior:

We will consider a phase change of 1 kg of liquid water contained within a

piston-cycinder assembly as shown in Figure 3.2-1a. The water is at 20oC and 1.014
bar (or 1 atm) as indicated by point (1) on Figure 3.2-2.

Figure3.2-1Phasechangeatconstantpressureforwater3

Figure3.2-2Sketchof T-v diagramfor water

As the water is heated at constant pressure, the temperature increases

withaslightincreaseinspecificvolumeuntilthesystemreachespoint(f).Thisisthe
 saturated liquid state corresponding to 1.014 bar. The saturation temperature for
water at 1.014 bar is 100oC. The liquid states along the line segment 1-f are called
subcooled or compressed liquid states. When the system is at the saturated liquid
state (point f in Figure 3.2-2)anyadditional heat willcause the liquid to evaporateat
constant pressure as shown in Figure 3.2-1b. When a mixture of liquid and vapor
exists in equilibrium, the liquid phase is a saturated liquid and the vapor phase is a
saturated vapor.

Liquidwatercontinuestoevaporatewithadditionalheatuntilitbecomesall
saturated vapor at point (g). Any further heating will cause an increase in both
temperature and specific volume and the saturated vapor becomes superheated
vapor denoted by point (s) in Figure 3.2-2. For a two-phase liquid-vapor mixture, the
quality x is defined as the mass fraction of vapor in the mixture
mvapor
x=
mvapor+mliquid

Whena substanceexistsas part liquid andpart vapor at saturation conditions,itsquality (x) is

defined as the ratio of the mass of the vapor to the total mass of both vapor and liquid.

Enthalpy–EntropyChart
An enthalpy–entropy chart, also known as the H–S chart or Mollier diagram, plots the total
heat against entropy, describing the enthalpy of a thermodynamic system. A typical chart
covers a pressure range of 0.01–1000 bar, and temperatures up to 800 degrees Celsius. It
shows enthalpy H in terms of internal energy U, pressure p and volume V using the
relationship H=U+pV or, in terms of specific enthalpy, specific entropy and specific volume.
On the diagram, lines of constant pressure, constant temperature and volume are plotted,
so in a two-phase region, the lines of constant pressure and temperature coincide. Thus,
coordinates on the diagram represent entropy and heat.

A vertical line in the h–s chart represents an isentropic process. The process 3–4 in aRankine
cycle is isentropic when the steam turbine is said to be an ideal one. So the expansion
process in aturbine can be easilycalculatedusingthe h–s chart whentheprocess is considered
to be ideal (which is the case normally when calculating enthalpies, entropies, etc. Later the
deviations from the ideal values and they can be calculated considering the isentropic
efficiency of the steam turbine used.
Lines of constant dryness fraction (x), sometimes called the quality, are drawn in the wet
region and lines of constant temperature are drawn in the superheated region. X gives the
fraction (by mass) of gaseous substance in the wet region, the remainder being colloidal
liquid droplets. Above the heavy line, the temperature is above the boiling point, and thedry
(superheated) substance is gas only.

Characteristicsofthecriticalpoint:

 Forsaturatedphaseoftenitsenthalpyisanimportant property.
 Enthalpy-pressurechartsareusedforrefrigerationcycle analysis.
 Enthalpy-entropychartsforwaterareusedforsteamcycle analysis.
 Note: Unlike pressure, volume and temperature which have specified numbers
associated with it, in the case of internal energy, enthalpy (and entropy) onlychanges
are required. Consequently, a base (or datum) is defined -as you have seen in the
case of water.
Let V be total volume of liquid vapour mixture of quality x, Vfthe volume of saturated liquid
and Vg the volume of saturated vapour, the corresponding masses being m, mf and mg
respectively.

Now,m=mf+mg V

= Vf+ Vg

mv=mfvf+mgvg

Saturation States

Whenaliquidanditsvapourareinequilibriumatcertainpressureand temperature,only the

pressure or the temperature i is s sufficient to identify the saturationstate.
Ifpressureisgiven,thetemperatureofthemixturegetsfixed,whichisknownassaturation temperature, or if
the temperature is given, the saturation pressure getsfixed.
Saturationliquidorsaturatedvapourhasonlyonindependentvariable,i.e.onlyone property is
required to b known to fix up the state.
Typeof Steam
Wetsteam:
Wet steamisdefinedassteamwhichispartlyvapour andpartlyliquidsuspendedinit.It means
that evaporation of water is not complete.
Drysaturatedsteam:
Whenthewetsteamisfurtherheated,anditdoesnotcontainanysuspendedparticlesof water, it is
known as dry saturated steam.
Superheatedsteam:Whenthedrysteamisfurtherheatedatconstantpressure,thusraising its
temperature, it is called superheated steam.

MeasurementofSteamQuality:

The state of a pure substance gets fixed if two independent properties are given. A pure
substance is thus said to have two degrees of freedom. Of all thermodynamic properties,
itiseasiesttomeasurethepressureandtemperatureofasubstance.Therefore,whenever
pressureandtemperatureareindependentproperties,itis thepracticetomeasurethemto
determinethatstateofthesubstance.

TypesofCalorimetersusedformeasurementofSteam Quality

 BarrelCalorimeter
 SeparatingCalorimeter
 ThrottlingCalorimeter
 CombinedSeparatingandThrottling calorimeter

BarrelCalorimeter
Dryness fraction of steam can be found out very conveniently by barrel calorimeter as
showninfigure.Avesselcontainsameasuredquantityofwater.Alsowaterequivalentof
 the vessel is determined experimentally and stamped platform of weighing machine.
Sampleofsteamispassedthroughthesamplingtubeintofineexitholesfordischargeof steam in
the cold water.

The steam gets condensed and the temperature of water rises. The weighing machine gives
the steam condensed.

Basically,thiscalorimeterisusedwhenwewanttoknowtheapproximatedrynessfractionofsteam,or to have
a rough idea about the dryness fraction. This calorimeter gives better results if the dryness fraction of
steam is greater than 0.95.
Separating Calorimeter

The wet steam enters at the top from the main steam pipe through holes in the sampling
pipe facing up stream which should be as far as possible downstream from elbows and
valves to ensure representative sample of steam when in operation the wet steam entering
passes down the central passage and undergoes a sudden reversal of direction of motion
when strikes perforated cup.

The weight of steam passing through the jacket may also be readily determined by passing the
escaping steam into a bucket of water where it is condensed, the increase in the weight of the bucket
and itscontentsgivingthe value of W.In that case gauge Gisnot required,but it used itsreadingmay be
taken as a check.

This calorimeter will givebetter results when thedryness fraction of steam to bedetermined is above
0.95.

Advantages:
Quickdeterminationofdrynessfractionofverywetsteam Disadvantages:

Itleadstoinaccuracyduetoincompleteseparationof water

Drynessfractioncalculatedisalwaysgreaterthanactualdrynessfraction.
ThrottlingCalorimeter

In the throttling calorimeter, a sample of wet steam of mass m and at pressure P1 is taken
from the steam main through a perforated sampling tube. Then it is throttled by the
partially-opened valve (or orifice) to a pressure P2 measured by mercurymanometer,
and temperature t2, so that after throttling the steam is in the superheated region.

The steady flow energy equation gives the enthalpy after throttling as equal to enthalpy
before throttling. The initial and final equilibrium states 1 and 2 are joined by a dotted line
since throttling is irreversible (adiabatic but not isentropic) and the intermediate states are
non-equilibrium states not describable by thermodynamic coordinates. The initial state(wet)
is given by P1and x1 and the final state by P2 and t2.

Advantages:
Drynessfractionofverydrysteamcanbefoundout easily.

Disadvantages:
Itisnotpossibletofinddrynessfractionofverywet steam.
 CombinedSeparatingandThrottlingcalorimeter

When the steam is very wet and the pressure after throttling is not low enough to take the
steam to the superheated region, then a combined separating and throttling calorimeter is
used for the measurement of quality.

Steam from the main is first passed through a separator where some part of the moisture
separates out due to the sudden change in direction and falls by gravity, and the partiallydry
vapour is then throttled and taken to the superheated region.
In Fig. process 1-2 represents the moisture separation from the wet sample of steam at
constantpressureP1 and process2-3represents throttling to pressure P2. With P2 and t3
being measured, h3 can be found out from the superheated steam table.

h3 hh xh
2 f p1 2 fgp1
Therefore x2, the qualityof steam after partial moisture separation can be evaluated If m kg
of steam, is taken through the sampling tube in t s, m1 kg of it is separated, and m2 kg is
throttled and then condensed to water and collected, then m = m1 + m2 and at state 2, the
mass of dry vapour will be x2 m2. Therefore, the quality of the

sampleof steamatstatel,x1 isgivenby..

massofdryvapourstate1
x
1
massofliquidvapourmixtureatstate1x 2

m2

1.Calculatethedrynessfractionofsteamwhichhas1.5kgofwaterinsuspensionwith50
kgof steam.
m1m2
Given
 Massofwater(mf)=1.5kg
Massofsteam(mg)= 50kg
Required:Drynessfraction(x)Solution
m
Drynessfraction(x)=-------
mg+mf

50
= --------------=0.971 ------- Ans

501.5
Eg. Steam is generated at 8 bar from water at 32 oC. Determine the heat required to
produce 1 kg of steam (a) when the dryness fraction is 0.85 (b) when steam is drysaturated
and (c) when the steam is superheated to 305 oC. The specific heat of superheated steam
may be taken as 2.093 kJ/kg-K.
Given:

Steampressure(p) =8bar

Initialtemperatureofwater(T1)=32oCMassofsteam(m) =1kg

Required:Heatrequiredwhen(a)x=
0.85 (b)x=1(c)Tsup =305oC

Solution:(a)

SH LH

T170.4

32oC

Heatadded

Heat required =Sensibleheataddition+Latent

heat addition Sensible heat addition = m C pw (ts – T1)
ts = saturation temperature = 170.4oC at 8 bar
fromsteamtableCpw=Specificheatatconstant
pressure = 4.186 kJ/kg (Taken)
 SensibleHeataddition=1 x4.186x(170.4– 32)
=79.34 kJ/kg

Latentheataddition/kg= xhfg
Latent heat (hfg) =2046.5kJ/kgfromsteamtableat8bar
Latent heat addition for ‘m’ kg = m x hfg
=1x0.85x(2046.5)
= 1739.525 kJ/kg
Totalheat required = 579.34+1739.525

=2318.865kJ/kg ---Ans
(b)(b)

SH LH

T
170.4oC

Heatrequired=Sensibleheataddition+LatentheatadditionLatentheataddition/kg=x hfg
Latent heat (hfg) = 2046.5 kJ/kg from steam
tableat8barLatentheatadditionfor‘m’kg =mx hfg
=1x1x(2046.5)
= 2046.5 kJ/kgTotal
heat required =579.34+2046.5
=2625.84kJ/kg ---Ans
Heatrequired=Sensibleheataddition+Latentheataddition+Sensible Heat
addition Sensible heat addition to superheated steam

= m Cpv (Tsup –ts)

=1x2.093x(305–170.4)
= 281.72kJ/kg
Latentheataddition/kg=hfg
 Latent heat (hfg) =2046.5kJ/kgfromsteamtableat8bar
Total heat required = 579.34 + 2046.5 + 281.72

=2907.56kJ/kg---Ans
IdealGas:

Perfectgas,also calledidealgas,agasthatconforms,inphysicalbehaviour,toaparticular, idealized

relation between pressure, volume, and temperature called the general gas law.

Gas Laws:
Boyle’sLaw
Boyle’s Law Pressure is inversely proportional to volume: p∞ 1/v Robert Boyle noticed that
when the volume of a container holding an amount of gas is increased, pressure decreases,
and vice versa (while the temperature is held constant). Note that this is not a linear
relationship between p and V.

Charles’Law:
Charles’ Law Volume is directly proportional to temperature: V = cT, where c > 0 is constant.
Scientist Jacque Charlesnoticed that if air in aballoon isheated,the balloon expands.For an
ideal gas, this relationship between V and T should be linear (as longas pressure isconstant).
Charles’andBoyle’sLaws combined

Combinethetwolawsabove:pV/T=K,wherekisaconstant,=pV=mRT The

Individual Gas Constant - R

The Individual Gas Constant depends on the particular gas and is related to the molecular
weight of the gas. The value is independent of temperature. The induvidual gas constant, R,
for a gas can be calculated from the universal gas constant, Ru (given in several unitsbelow),
and the gas molecular weight, Mgas:

R=Ru/Mgas

Inthe SIsystemunitsareJ/kgK.

TheUniversalGasConstant -Ru

The Universal Gas Constant - Ru - appears in the ideal gas law and can be expressed as the
product between the Individual Gas Constant - R - for the particular gas - and the Molecular
Weight - Mgas - for the gas, and is the same for all ideal or perfect gases:

Ru = Mgas R, kJ/(kmol.K) : 8.3144598

TheMolecularweightofaGas Mixture
The average molecular weight of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the mole fractions of
each gas multiplied by the molecular weight of that particular gas:

Mmixture=Σxi*Mi=(x1*M1+ .......... +xn*Mn)

where

xi = mole fractions of each gas

Mi=themolarmassofeachgas

Throttling Process:

The porous plug experiment was designed to measure temperature changes when a fluid
flows steadily through a porous plug which is inserted in a thermally insulated, horizontal
pipe. The apparatus used by Joule and Thomson is shown in Figure

A gas at pressure and temperature flows continuously through a porous plug in a tube
and emerges into a space which is maintained at a constant pressure. The device isthermally
insulated and kept horizontal. Consider the dotted portion as controlvolume.

Theseresultsin

Therefore, whenever a fluid expands from a region of high pressure to a region of low
pressure through a porous plug, partially opened valve or some obstruction, without
exchanginganyenergyasheat and workwith thesurrounding(neglecting,the changesin PE and
KE), the enthalpy of the fluid remains constant, and the fluid is said to have undergonea
throttling process.
Free expansion (or unresisted expansion) process. A free expansion occurs when a fluid is
allowed to expand suddenly into a vaccum chamber through an orifice of large dimensions.
In thisprocess,no heat is supplied or rejected and noexternal work is done. Hencethetotal
heat of the fluid remains constant. This type of expansion may also be called as constant
total heat expansion. It is thus obvious, that in a free expansion process,

Q1-2 =0, W1-2=0 anddU=0.

vanderWaalsEquationof State:

The ideal gas law treats the molecules of a gas as point particles with perfectly elastic
collisions. This works well for dilute gases in many experimental circumstances. But gas
molecules are not point masses, and there are circumstances where the properties of the
molecules have an experimentally measurable effect. A modification of the ideal gas lawwas
proposed by Johannes D. van der Waals in 1873 to take into account molecular size and
molecular interaction forces. It is usually referred to as the van der Waals equation ofstate.

The constants a and b have positive values and are characteristic of the individual gas.
The van der Waals equation of state approaches the ideal gas law PV=nRT as the values of
these constants approach zero. The constant a provides a correction for the intermolecular
forces. Constant b is a correction for finite molecular size and its value is the volume of one
mole of the atoms or molecules.

Since the constant b is an indication of molecular volume, it could be used to estimate the
radius of an atom or molecule, modeled as a sphere. Fishbane et al. give the value of b for
nitrogen gas as 39.4 x 10-6 m3/mol.
 AssignmentQuestions

1. Draw the phase equilibrium diagram for a pure substance on T-s plot with relevant constant
property line?
2. 10 kg of feed water is heated in a boiler at a constant pressure of 1.5 MN/m2 from 40 C.
Calculate the enthalpy required and change of entropy when water is converted into following
qualities of steam in each case i) Wet steam at x=0.95andii) Super heated steam at 300 C
3. Define dryness fraction of steam. Describe method of finding dryness fraction of steam using
separating and throttling calorimeter
4. A rigid close tank of volume 3m3 contains 5 kg of wet steam at a pressure of 200 kPa. The tankis
heated until the steam becomes dry saturated. Determine final pressure and heat transfer to the
tank.
5. Describebrieflyaboutthrottlingandfreeexpansionprocesses.
6. Describebrieflyabout“Mollierdiagram”.
7. StateVanderWaalsequation,whatistheimportanceofit?

TutorialQuestions

1. Determine the enthalpy and entropy of steam and the pressure is 2MPa and the specific volume
is 0.09m3/kg.
2. 10 kg of feed water is heated in a boiler at a constant pressure of 1.5 MN/m2 from 40 C.
Calculate the enthalpy required and change of entropy when water is converted into following
qualities of steam in each case i) Wet steam at x=0.95andii) Super heated steam at 300 C

3. Air at 16oC and 1.2 bar occupies a volume of 0.03m 3.the air is heated at constant volume until
the pressure is 4.3 bar and then cooled at constant pressure back to the original temperature.
Calculate the net heat flow to or from the airand the net entropy change.

4. 5 kg of steam with a dryness fraction of 0.9 expands adiabatically tothe LawPV1.13constant.from

a pressure of 8 bar to 1.5 bardetermine final dryness fractionii)heat transferred iii)work
done

5. A vessel of 0.04m2 Contains amixture of saturated water andsaturatedsteam at atemperature of

250°C. The Mass liquid present is 9kg . Find pressure, the mass, the specific volume, the
enthalpy and entropy and the internal energy.
 UNIT-IV

Mixturesofperfect Gases:

A mixture, consisting of several pure substances, is referred to as a solution. Examples of

pure substances are water, ethyl alcohol, nitrogen, ammonia, sodium chloride, and iron.
Examples of mixtures are air, consisting of nitrogen, oxygen and a number of other gases,
aqueous ammonia solutions, aqueous solutions of ethyl alcohol, various metal alloys. The
pure substances making up a mixture are called components or constituents.

Mixtureofideal gases

Basicassumptionisthatthegasesinthemixturedonotinteractwitheachother.

Consideramixturewithcomponents l=1,2,3... withmasses m1, m2, m3 ...miand

with number of moles.

ThetotalmixtureoccupiesavolumeV,hasatotalpressurePandtemperatureT(whichis also the

temperature of each of the component species)

Thetotal mass
(4.1)

TotalnumberofmoleN
(4.2)

Massfractionofspeciesi
(4.3)

Molefractionofspeciesi
(4.4)

Themassandnumberofmolesofspeciesiarerelatedby
(4.5)

isthenumberofmolesofspeciesiand isthemolarmassofspeciesi

Alsotobe noted
and (4.6)

Wecanalsodefineamolarmassofthemixtureas
 (4.7)

or,

or,

Dalton's Lawofpartial pressure

Totalpressureofanidealgasmixtureisequaltothesumofthepartialpressuresofthe constituent
components, That is

(4.9)

Pisthetotalpressureofthemixture Piis

the partial pressure of species i

=pressureofthe speciesifitexistedaloneinthegiventemperatureTandvolumeV

(4.10)

istheuniversalgasconstant=8.314kJ/kmolK

Amagat's Law:

Volumeofanidealgasmixtureisequaltothesumofthepartialvolumes

(4.11)

V=total volumeofthe mixture

Vi=partialvolumeofthespeciesi

=volumeofthespeciesifitexistedaloneinthegiventemperatureTand pressure

Foranidealgas
 (4.12)

Amagat'sLaw

Or

(4.13)

ThevolumefractionofspeciesI

or,

(34.16)

Volumefraction=Molefraction

Massbasedanalysisisknownasgravimetricanalysis

Mole based analysis is known as molar analysis

MoleFraction:

The composition of a gas mixture can be described by the mole fractions of the gases
present. The mole fraction ( X ) of any component of a mixture is the ratio of the number of
moles of that component to the total number of moles of all the species present in the
mixture ( ntot ):

xA=molesofA/totalmoles

=na/ntot

=nA/(nA+nB+⋯)

Themolefractionisadimensionlessquantitybetween0and1.
IfxA=1.0,thenthesampleispureA,notamixture. If

xA=0 , then no A is present in the mixture.

Thesumofthemolefractionsofallthecomponentspresentmustequal1.

To see how mole fractions can help us understand the properties of gas mixtures, let’s
evaluate the ratio of the pressure of a gas A to the total pressure of a gas mixture that
contains A . We can use the ideal gas law to describe the pressures of both gas A and the
mixture: PA=nART/V and Ptot=ntRT/V . The ratio of the two is thus

PA/Ptot=nA/ntot=xA

PA=XAPtot

MassFraction:

themassfractionofasubstancewithinamixtureistheratioofthemassofthatsubstance to the
total mass of the mixture.

Expressed as a formula, the mass fraction is

Accordingtotheconservationofmass,wehave:
AtmosphericAir:
Atmospheric air makes up the environment in almost every type of air conditioning system.
Hence a thorough understanding of the properties of atmospheric air and the ability to
analyze various processes involving air is fundamental to air conditioning design.

Psychrometryisthestudyofthepropertiesofmixturesofairandwatervapour.

Atmospheric air is a mixture of many gases plus water vapour and a number of pollutants
The amount of water vapour and pollutants vary from place to place. The concentration of
water vapour and pollutants decrease with altitude, and above an altitude of about 10 km,
atmospheric air consists of only dry air. The pollutants have to be filtered out before
processing the air. Hence, what we process is essentially a mixture of various gases that
constitute air and water vapour. This mixture is known as moist air.

PsychrometricProperties:

Dry bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of the moist air as measured by a standard
thermometer or other temperature measuring instruments.

Saturated vapourpressure (psat) isthe saturatedpartialpressure of water vapour atthedry bulb

temperature. This is readily available in thermodynamic tables and charts.
ASHRAE suggests the following regression equation for saturated vapour pressure of water,
which is valid for 0 to 100oC.

Relativehumidity(Φ)isdefined asthe ratioof the mole fractionof water vapour in moist air to
mole fraction of water vapour in saturated air at the same temperature and pressure. Using
perfect gas equation we can show that:
Industryapplications

 Automobileindustries.
 Refrigerationindustries
 Air craft applications
 Defenseindustries
 Thermalpowerplants etc.

AssignmentQuestions

1. Definemolefraction,andmassfraction. Explainaboutvolumetricandgravimetricanalysis?
2. Explainadiabaticsaturationtemperature?
3. Explainpsychrometricchartswhilerepresentingalltheproperties?
4. Locatei)sensibleheatingii)sensiblecoolingiii)heatingandhumidificationiv)heatingand
dehumidification on psychrometric chart?
5. Comparedegreeofsaturationandadiabaticsaturation.
6. a) Define saturated air, wet bulb temperature, specific humidity and relative humidity.b) State and
explain i) Dalton’s law of partial pressure ii) Avagadro’s law iii) Amagat’s law of additive volumes.
7. The analysis by weight of a perfect gas mixture at 200C and 1.3bar is 10%O2, 70%N2,15%CO2
and 5%CO. For a reference state of 00C and 1bar, determine partial pressure of the constituent
and gas constant of mixture.
 Tutorial Questions

1. 1.8 kg of oxygen at 480 C is mixed with 6.2 kg of nitrogen at the same temperature. Both oxygen
and nitrogen are at the pressure of 102 k Pa before and after mixing. Find the increase inentropy.
2. A mixture of ideal air and water vapour at a dbt of 220C and a total pressure of 730 mm Hg abs.
has a temperature of adiabatic saturation of 150C. Calculate: i. the speci_c humidity in gms per
kg of dry air. ii. the partial pressure of water vapour the relative humidity, and iv. enthalpy of the
mixture per kg of dry air.
3. Atmospheric air at 1.0132 bar has a DBT of 30°C and WBT of 24°C. Compute, (i) The partial
pressure of water vapour (ii) Specific humidity (iii) The dew point temperature (iv) Relative
humidity (v) Degree of saturation (vi) Density of air in the mixture (vii) Density of the vapour inthe
mixture(viii) The enthalpy of the mixture.
4. A mixture of ideal gases consists of 3 kg of nitrogen and 6 kg of CO2 at a pressureof 250 kpa
and a temperature of 230C. Find (a) the mole fraction of each constituent (b) equivalent weightof
themixture (c) equivalent gasconstant of themixture (d) partial pressures and partial volumes
(e) volume and density of mixture Cp and Cv of mixture. If the mixture is heated at constant
volume to 60C and the internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of mixture. Find the changes in
internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of mixture if the heating is done at constant pressure.Take
γ for CO2and N2 be 1.286 and 1.4.
5. Consider a mixture of ideal gases comprising 2kg of nitrogen and 3kg of carbon dioxide 250kPa
pressure and 300K temperature . Make calculations for i) Mole fraction, partial pressure and
partial volume of each constituent. ii) Molecular mass, gas constant, volume and density of the
mixture iii) Specific heats and adiabatic exponent for themixtureTake γ = 1.286for CO2 and γ =
1.4fornitrogen.
 UNIT-V

GasPowerCycles

Introduction

Forthepurposeofthermodynamicanalysisoftheinternalcombustionengines,the following
approximations are made:

 Theengineisassumedtooperateonaclosedcyclewithafixedmassofairwhich does
not undergo any chemical change.
 Thecombustionprocessisreplacedbyanequivalentenergyadditionprocessfrom an
external source.
 The exhaust process is replaced by an equivalent energy rejection process to
externalsurroundingsbymeansofwhichtheworkingfluidisrestoredtotheinitial state.
 Theairisassumedtobehavelikeanidealgaswithconstantspecificheat.These cycles
are usually referred to as air standard cycle.

OttoCycle

The Air Standard Otto cycle is named after its inventor Nikolaus A. Otto . Figures 5.1 (a), (b)
and (c) illustrate the working principles of an Otto cycle. The Otto cycle consists of the
following processes.

Figure 5.1

0-1: Constant pressure suction during which a mixture of fuel vapour and air is drawn into
the cylinder as the piston executes an outward stroke.

1-2:Themixtureiscompressedisentropicallyduetotheinwardmotionofthepiston. Because of the

isentropic compression , the temperature of the gas increases.
2-3: The hot fuel vapour-air mixture is ignited by means of an electric spark. Since the
combustion is instantaneous, there is not enough time for the piston o move outward. This
process is approximated as a constant volume energy addition process .

3-4: The hot combustion products undergo isentropic expansion and thepiston executesan
outward motion.

4-1: The exhaust port opens and the combustion products are exhausted into the
atmosphere. The process is conveniently approximated as a constant-volume energy
rejection process.

1-0:Theremainingcombustionproductsareexhaustedbyaninwardmotionof thepistonat constant

pressure.

Effectively there are four strokes in the cycle. These are suction, compression, expression,
and exhaust strokes, respectively. From the P-V diagram it can be observed that the work
done during the process 0-1 is exactly balanced by the work done during 1-0. Hence for the
purpose of thermodynamic analysis we need to consider only the cycle 1-2-3-4, which is air-
standard Otto Cycle.

(5.1)

Where and denotetheenergyabsorbedandenergyrejectedintheformofheat.

Application of the first law of thermodynamics to process 2-3 and 4-1gives:

(5.2)

(5.3)

Therefore,

(5.4)

1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic processes for which

constant

Therefore,

(5.5)
and

(5.6)

But

and (5.7)

Hence

(5.8)

So,

(5.9)
or

(5.10)

or

(5.11)
or

and

(5.12)

(5.13)
Where

(5.14)
Compression ratio

Since , the efficiency of the Otto cycle increases with increasing compression ratio.However,
in an actual engine, the compression ratio can not be increased indefinitely since
highercompressionratiosgivehighervaluesofandthisleads to spontaneous and uncontrolled
combustion of the gasoline-air mixture in the cylinder. Such a condition is usually called
knocking.

Figure5.2

Performance of an engine is evaluated in terms of the efficiency (see Figure 5.2). However,
sometime it is convenient to describe the performance in terms of mean effective pressure,
an imaginary pressure obtained by equating the cycle work to the work evaluated by the
following the relation

(5.15)

Themeaneffectivepressureisdefinedasthenetworkdividedbythedisplacementvolume. That is
DIESEL CYCLE

Figure5.3 (a),(b)and (c)

TheDieselcyclewas developedbyRudolfDieselinGermany.Figures5.3(a),(b)and
(c) explaintheworkingprincipleofanAirStandardDieselcycle.Thefollowingarethe processes.

0-1: Constantpressure suctionduringwhich fresh air isdrawn into the cylinderas thepiston
executes the outward motion.

1-2: The air is compressed isentropically. Usually the compression ratio in the Diesel cycle is
much higher them that of Otto cycle. Because of the high compression ratio, the
temperature of the gas at the end of isentropic compression is so high that when fuel is
injected, it gets ignited immediately.

2-3: The fuel is injected into the hot compressed air at state 2 and the fuel undergoes a
chemical reaction. The combustion of Diesel oil in air is not as spontaneous as the
combustion of gasoline and the combustion is relatively slow. Hence the piston starts
moving outward as combustion take place. The combustion processes is conveniently
approximated as a constant pressure energy addition process.

3-4: The combustion products undergo isentropic expansion and the piston executes an
outward motion.
4-1: The combustion products are exhausted at constant volume when the discharge port
opens. This is replaced by a constant-volume energy rejection process.

1-0: The remaining combustion products are exhausted at constant pressure by the inward
motion of the piston.

IntheanalysisofaDieselcycle,twoimportantparametersare:compression
ratio and the cut-off ratio . The cut-off ratio is defined as the ratio of thevolume
at the end of constant-pressure energy addition process to the volume at the beginning of
the energy addition process.

(5.16)

(5.17)
Energy added

Energy rejected (5.18)

(5.19)

or

(5.20)

1-2is Isentropic:

4-1isConstant volume:
But

Hence

Since 1−2 and3−4areisentropicprocesses

and

Hence

(5.21)

(5.22)

Alsotobe noted

(5.23)

ThecompressionratiosnormallyintheDieselenginesvarybetween14and17.

AIRSTANDARDDUALCYCLE

Figures 5.4 (a) and (b) shows the working principles of a Dual cycle. In the dual cycle, the
energy addition is accomplished in two stages: Part of the energy is added at constant
volume and part of the energy is added at constant pressure. The remaining processes are
similar to those of the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle. The efficiency of the cycle can be
estimated in the following way
 Figure5.4.1(a)and (b)

Energy added

(5.24)

Energy rejected

(5.25)

(5.25)

or

(5.26)

Theefficiencyofthecyclecanbeexpressedintermsofthefollowingratios

(5.27)
Compressionratio,

(5.28)
Cut-off ratio,
 (5.28)
Expansionratio,

(5.29)
Constantvolumepressureratio,

(5.30)

If

If

ComparisonofOtto,Diesel&Dual Cycles

Forsamecompressionratioandheatrejection(Figures5.5(a)and(b))

Figure5.5 (a)and(b)

1-6-4-5:Ottocycle
1-7-4-5:Dieselcycle

1-2-3-45Dualcycle

Forthe same Q2,thehighertheQ1 ,thehigheristhecycle efficiency

Forthesamemaximumpressureand temperature(Figures5.6(a)and(b))

Figure5.6 (a)and(b)

1-6-4-5:Ottocycle

1-7-4-5:Dieselcycle

1-2-3-45 Dual cycle

Q1isrepresentedby:

Area under6-4 for Otto cycle

area under7-4 for Diesel cycle

and
areaunder2-3-4 forDualcycle and Q2issame for allthecycles
 TheBrayton cycle
TheBraytoncycle(orJoulecycle)representstheoperationofagasturbineengine.Thecycle consists of
four processes, as shown in Figure alongside a sketch of an engine:

a-bAdiabatic,quasi-static(orreversible)compressionintheinletandcompressor;
b-cConstantpressurefuelcombustion(idealizedasconstantpressureheat addition);
c-dAdiabatic,quasi-static(orreversible)expansionintheturbineandexhaustnozzle,with which we
takesomeworkoutoftheairanduseittodrivethecompressor,and taketheremainingwork out and
use it to accelerate fluid for jet propulsion, or to turn a generator for electrical power
generation;
d-aCooltheair atconstantpressurebacktoitsinitialcondition.

The components of a Brayton cycle device for jet propulsion are shown in Figure 3.14. We will
typically represent these components schematically, as in Figure 3.15. In practice, real Brayton
cycles take one of two forms. Figure 3.16(a) shows an ``open'' cycle, where the working fluid
enters and then exits the device. This is the way a jet propulsion cycle works. Figure 3.16(b)
shows the alternative, a closed cycle, which re circulates the working fluid. Closed cycles are
used, for example, in space power generation.
 Schematicsoftypicalmilitarygasturbineengines.

Open cycle operation Closed cycle operation

OptionsforoperatingBraytoncyclegasturbineengines

WorkandEfficiency
The objective now is to find the work done, the heat absorbed, and the thermal efficiency ofthe
cycle.Tracingthepath shownaroundthe cycle from---and backto ,thefirst law gives (writing the
equation in terms of a unit mass),

Here is zero because is a function of state, and any cycle returns the system to itsstarting
state3.2. The net work done is therefore

where,are defined as heat received bythe system (is negative). We thus need to evaluate the
heat transferred in processes - and - .

Foraconstantpressure,quasi-staticprocesstheheatexchangeperunitmassis

Wecanseethisbywritingthefirstlawin termsofenthalpy orbyrememberingthedefinition of

Theheatexchangecanbeexpressedintermsofenthalpydifferencesbetweentherelevant states.
Treating the working fluid as a perfect gas with constant specific heats, for the heat addition
from the combustor,

Theheatrejectedis,similarly,

Thenetworkperunitmassisgivenby

ThethermalefficiencyoftheBraytoncyclecannowbeexpressedintermsofthe temperatures:
 ENGINEERINGTHERMODYNAMICS B.TECHII YEARISEMR20

To proceed further, we need to examinethe relationshipsbetween the different temperatures.

Weknowthatpoints and areonaconstantpressureprocessasarepoints and ,

and ; .Theothertwolegsofthecycleareadiabaticandreversible,so

Therefore ,or,finally, . Using this relation in the

expression for thermal efficiency, Eq. (3.8) yields an expression for the thermal efficiency of a
Brayton cycle

Thetemperatureratioacrossthecompressor, . In terms of compressor

temperature ratio, and using the relation for an adiabatic reversible process we can write the
efficiency in terms of the compressor (and cycle) pressure ratio, which is the parameter
commonly used:

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,MRCET Page134
ENGINEERINGTHERMODYNAMICS B.TECHII YEARISEMR20
ENGINEERINGTHERMODYNAMICS B.TECHII YEARISEMR20
ENGINEERINGTHERMODYNAMICS B.TECHII YEARISEMR20
ENGINEERINGTHERMODYNAMICS B.TECHII YEARISEMR20
Industryapplications

 Automobileindustries.
 Refrigerationindustries
 Air craft applications
 Defenseindustries
 Thermalpowerplants etc.

AssignmentQuestions
1. Withp-VandT-sdiagramsderivetheefficiencyofottocycle.
2. Withp-V andT-sdiagramsderivetheefficiencyofDieselcycle.
3. Withp-VandT-sdiagramsderivetheefficiencyofdualcombustioncycle.
4. DifferentiatebetweenOttocycle,dieselcycleanddualcombustioncycle.
5. Withp-VandT-sdiagramsderivetheefficiencyofRankinecycle.
6. An engine working on Otto cycle has a volume of 0.45 m 3, pressure 1 bar and
temperature 30°C at the beginning of compression stroke. At the end of
compression stroke, the pressure is 11 bar. 210 kJ of heat is added at constant
volume.Determine:
a. Pressures,temperaturesandvolumesatsalientpointsinthecycle.
b. Percentageclearance.
c. Efficiency.
d. Meaneffectivepressure.
7. In a Diesel cycle, air a 0.1 MPa and 300 K is compressed adiabatically until the
pressure rises to 5 MPa. If 700 kJ/kg of energy in the form of heat is supplied at
constant pressure, determine the compression ratio, cutoff ratio, thermal
efficiency and mean effective pressure.
8. An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 20, and the heat
transferred to the working fluid per cycle is 1800 kJ/kg. At the beginning of the
compression process, the pressure is 0.1 MPa and the temperature is 15°C.
Consider ideal gas and constant specific heat model. Determine the pressure and
temperature at each point inthe cycle, The thermal efficiency, The mean effective
pressure.
 Tutorial Questions

1. An engine working on Otto cycle has a volume of 0.45 m3, pressure 1 bar and
temperature 30°C at the beginning of compression stroke. At the end of
compression stroke, the pressure is 11 bar. 210 kJ of heat is added at constant
volume.Determine:
a. Pressures,temperaturesandvolumesatsalientpointsinthecycle.
b. Percentageclearance.
c. Efficiency.
d. Meaneffectivepressure.

2. In a Diesel cycle, air a 0.1 MPa and 300 K is compressed adiabatically until the
pressure rises to 5 MPa. If 700 kJ/kg of energy in the form of heat is supplied at
constant pressure, determine the compression ratio, cutoff ratio, thermal efficiency
and mean effective pressure.
3. An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 20, and the heat
transferred to the working fluid per cycle is 1800 kJ/kg. At the beginning of the
compressionprocess,thepressureis0.1MPaandthetemperatureis15°C.
Consider ideal gas and constant specific heat model. Determine the pressure and
temperature at each point in the cycle, The thermal efficiency, The mean effective
pressure.

4. An engine with 200mm cylinder diameter and 300mm stroke working ontheoretical
diesel cycle. The initial pressure and temperature of air used are 1bar and 270C.
The cut of is 8% of the stroke. Determine air standard efficiency, mean
effectivepressureandpoweroftheengineiftheworkingcyclesperminuteare
300?Assumethecompressionratiois15andtheworkingfluidisair.

5. An engine of 250mm bore and 375mm stroke works on Otto cycle. The clearance
volume is 0.00263m3. The initial pressure and temperature are 1bar and 500C.
The maximum pressure is limited to 25bar. Find the air standard efficiency and the
mean effective pressure of the cycle? Assume ideal conditions?
 QUESTIONBANK

UNIT-I

1. Explainbrieflythefollowingtermswithdiagram(wherevernecessary)
a. ThermodynamicSystem,Surroundings&Boundary
b. ControlVolume&ControlSurface
c. Intensive&ExtensiveProperty
d. PathFunction&PointFunction
e. Thermodynamic Equilibrium
2. Describetheworkingprincipleofconstantvolumegasthermometerwithaneat
sketch.
3. Stateand explainquasi-staticprocess.
4. Listoutthecausesofirreversibilityandexplain.
5. Stateandexplainfirstlawofthermodynamicswithits corollaries.
6. Provethat ‘Energy’isapointfunctionofasystemundergoingchangeofstate.
7. A stationary mass of gas is compressed without friction from an initial state of 0.35
m 3 and 0.11MPato afinal state of 0.25m 3 at constantpressure. There is a transfer of
48.67 kJ of heat from the gas during the process. How much does the internal energy
of the gas change?
8. 0.2m3 of air at 3 bar and 1200C is contained in a system. A reversible adiabatic
expansion takes place till the pressure falls to 1.5 bar. The gas is then heated at
constant pressure till enthalpy increases by 75 kJ. Calculate the work done and the
index of expansion, if the above processes are replaced by a single reversible
polytropic process giving the same work between the same initial and finalstates.

UNIT-II

1. Writenotesonthefollowinga)Limitationsoffirstlawofthermodynamicsb)Thermal
energy reservoir c) Heat engine d) Heat pump e) COP
2. Stateandexplainsecondlawofthermodynamicswithitscorollaries.
3. ExplainCarnotcyclewithp-VandT-sdiagramsandderivetheexpressionfor
efficiency.
4. DescribebrieflyaboutMaxwell’sequations.
5. Whatisreversed Carnotheatengine?WhatarethelimitationsofCarnotcycle?
6. Attheinlettoacertainnozzletheenthalpyoffluidpassingis2800kJ/kg,andthe velocity
is 50 m/s. At the discharge end the enthalpy is 2600 kJ/kg. The nozzle is
horizontal and there is negligible heat loss from it.
a. Findthevelocityatexitofthenozzle.
b. Iftheinletareais900cm2andthespecificvolumeatinlet is0.187m3/kg, find
the mass flow rate.
c. Ifthespecificvolumeatthenozzleexitis0.498m3/kg,findtheexitareaof nozzle.
7. Asteamturbineoperatesundersteadyflowconditionsreceivingsteamatthe
following state:
a. pressure15bar,internalenergy2700kJ/kg,specificvolume0.17m3/kg
 andvelocity100m/s.theexhaustofsteamfromtheturbineisat0.1 bar with
internal energy 2175 kJ/kg, specific volume 0.15 m 3/kg and velocity 300
m/s. The intake is 3 meters above the exhaust. The turbine develops 35 kW
and heat loss over the surface of turbine is 20 kJ/kg. Determine the steam
flow rate through theturbine.
8. A reversible engine receives heat from two thermal reservoirs maintained at
constant temperature of 750 K and 500 K. The engine develops 100 kW andrejects
3600 kJ/min of heat to a heat sink at 250 K. Determine thermal efficiencyof the
engine and heat supplied by each thermalreservoir.

UNIT-III

1. Explainthephasechangeofapuresubstanceonp-V-Tsurface.
2. Describebrieflyaboutmollierchart.
3. Describetheworkingofcombinedseparatingandthrottlingcalorimeter.
4. Explainbrieflyaboutthevanderwaalsequationofstate.
5. 2 kg. of gas at a temperature of 200 C undergoes a constant pressure process until the
temperatureis1000C.Findtheheattransferred,ratioofspecificheats,specificgasconstant, work
done, and change in entropy during the process. Take CV = 0.515 kJ/kg k, CP = 0.6448 kJ/kgk.
6. A container of 2 m3 capacity contains 10 kg of CO2 at 27°C. Estimate the pressure
exerted by CO2 by using,a) Perfect gas equations and also using b) vanderwaals
equation
7. Atmosphericairat1.0132barhasaDBTof30°CandWBTof24°C.Compute,
(i) Thepartialpressureofwatervapour
(ii) Specifichumidity
(iii) Thedewpointtemperature
(iv) Relativehumidity
(v) Degreeof saturation
(vi) Densityofair inthemixture
(vii) Densityofthevapourinthemixture
8. A vessel of 0.04 m2 Contains a mixture of saturated water and saturated steam at a
temperature of 250°C. The Mass liquid present is 9kg . Find pressure, the mass, the specific
volume, the enthalpy and entropy and the internal energy.

UNIT-IV
1. Writenotesonthefollowingtermsa)MoleFractionb)Massfractionc)Gravimetric and d)
volumetric Analysis.
2. Write notes on the following terms a) Dry bulb Temperature b)Wet Bulb
Temperature,c)DewpointTemperatured)ThermodynamicWetBulbTemperature
e)SpecificHumidityf)RelativeHumidity
3. Explainthevarioustermsinvolvedpsychrometricchart.
4. 2 kg. of gas at a temperature of 20 0 C undergoes a constant pressure process until
thetemperatureis1000C.Findtheheattransferred,ratioofspecificheats,specific
 gas constant, work done, and change in entropy during the process. Take C v = 0.515
kJ/kgk Cp = 0.6448 kJ/kg k.
5. a)Writethedifferencesbetweengravimetricandvolumetricanalysis.
b) 1.8 kg of oxygen at 480 C is mixed with 6.2 kg of nitrogen at the same temperature. Both
oxygen and nitrogen are at the pressure of 102 k Pa before and after mixing. Find the
increase in entropy.
6. A mixture of ideal air and water vapour at a DBT of 22°C and a total pressure of 730 mm Hg
abs has a temperature of adiabatic saturation of 15°C. Calculate, (i) The specific humidity in
gms per kg of dry air. (ii) The partial pressure of water vapour. (iii) The relative humidity (iv)
Enthalpy of the mixture per kg of dry air.
7. An air-water vapour mixture enters an adiabatic saturator at 30°C and leaves at
20°C,whichistheadiabaticsaturationtemperature.Thepressureremainsconstant at
100 kPa. Determine the relative humidity and the humidity ratio of the inlet
mixture.
8. StateandexplainDaltons’lawofpartialpressuresandAmgot’slawofadditive
volumes.

UNIT-V

6. Withp-VandT-sdiagramsderivetheefficiencyofottocycle.
7. Withp-V andT-sdiagramsderivetheefficiencyofDieselcycle.
8. Withp-VandT-sdiagramsderivetheefficiencyofdualcombustioncycle.
9. DifferentiatebetweenOttocycle,dieselcycleanddualcombustioncycle.
10. Withp-VandT-sdiagramsderivetheefficiencyofRankinecycle.
11. An engine working on Otto cycle has a volume of 0.45 m 3, pressure 1 bar and
temperature 30°C at the beginning of compression stroke. At the end of
compression stroke, the pressure is 11 bar. 210 kJ of heat is added at constant
volume.Determine:
a. Pressures,temperaturesandvolumesatsalientpointsinthecycle.
b. Percentageclearance.
c. Efficiency.
d. Meaneffectivepressure.
12. In a Diesel cycle, air a 0.1 MPa and 300 K is compressed adiabatically until the
pressure rises to 5 MPa. If 700 kJ/kg of energy in the form of heat is supplied at
constant pressure, determine the compression ratio, cutoff ratio, thermal
efficiency and mean effective pressure.
13. An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 20, and the heat
transferred to the working fluid per cycle is 1800 kJ/kg. At the beginning of the
compression process, the pressure is 0.1 MPa and the temperature is 15°C.
Consider ideal gas and constant specific heat model. Determine the pressure and
temperature at each point inthe cycle, The thermal efficiency, The mean effective
pressure.
 PROJECTS

1. FabricationofSolarairconditioningMachine
2. AProjectonWatercoolercumWaterheaterbyusingrefrigerationSystem
3. Improvingtheperformanceofanengineblockforvariouscoolingfluids.
4. AProjectonFabricationofdoublereflectionsolarCooker
5. ExperimentalInvestigationofHeatRecoveryfromR744basedRefrigeration System
6. PowerGenerationfromRailwayTrack
7. Airpoweredcars
8. AirPowered Bike

Videolinks

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qTYGloPSGec
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJ_rsimoXV4
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JQLkiErH9x4&feature=youtu.be
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cdccGqpcNRw
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b5xR9rm6Zuc
6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0VRD_ihjEBY
7. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uRpxhlX4Ga0
8. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UC3GtQjUpII