Engineering Instrumentations_ ME471

Chapter 5: Sensors for transducers

HW#3
Solve: 1, 3, 5, 8, 13, 15,17,26, 28,29,32, and 33

https://mechatronics.colostate.edu/resources/

1 Dr. Mohammad A. Omari

 Introduction
 Transducers: An electromechanical device which converts one form of energy to
another form ( mechanical change to electrical signal).
 For example: A set of strain gages on a tension link provides a transducer that
produces a resistance change in proportion to the load applied along the axis of the
link. The strain gages serve as the sensor in this force transducer and play a major
role in determining the characteristics of the transducer.
- When input is a physical quantity and output electrical → Sensor
- When input is electrical and output a physical quantity → Actuator

Atomic-force microscope with sensor and transducer stages

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 Transducers: sensors and actuators
 Transducer: A device that converts a signal from one
physical form to a corresponding signal having a different
physical form. Physical form: mechanical, thermal, magnetic,
electric, optical, chemical…
 Sensor: A device that receives and responds to a signal or
stimulus.
 Transducers: sensors and actuators
Sensor: an input transducer (i.e., a microphone)
Actuator: an output transducer (i.e., a loudspeaker)

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  It was discovered that a small (very small) cantilever beam placed near the surface is
deflected by atomic forces. Let’s assume for now that they are repulsive forces. If this
cantilever is translated over the surface, the cantilever will deflect, indicating the height
of the surface. The cantilever beam is a sensor, a physical element that employs some
natural phenomenon, in this case deflection under the action of a force, to sense the
variable being measured, in this case the height of the surface.

 So, we have a sensor to measure at the nanometer scale. But we have no means of getting
an output from the sensor that we can record. Suppose that the upper surface of the
cantilever is reflective, and we shine a laser onto the upper surface. The movement of the
cantilever will deflect the laser. Employing a number of light sensors, the deflection of
the laser can be sensed and that deflection corresponds to the height of the surface.
Together the laser and the light sensors (photodiodes) form the transducer component of
the measurement system.
 A transducer converts the sensed information into a detectable signal. The signal might
be mechanical, electrical, optical, or may take any other form that can be meaningfully
recorded.

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 Choosing a Sensor

https://www.omega.com/

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 Sensors used in transducers

5.2 Potentiometer
 uses to measure displacements
 The range is controlled by the active length of the coil . This potentiometer is
used for static and quasi static measurements, because the dynamic
responses are limited by the inertia of the shaft and wipers. Potentiometers are
used primarily to measure large displacements, 10mm and more for linear.
For angular 15 deg. or more. Inexpensive and simple.

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 V0 = (θ/θL) Vi
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aarf7ZpAfkY
Awesome video shows application using potentiometer sensor…..Watch it please

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 5.3 Differential Transformer
OR Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).

A magnetic core which moves through

the three spaced coils provides a path of
magnetic flux linkage between coils. The
position of the coil controls the mutual
inductance between the center of primary
coil and 2 outer coils.
When the core is centered between two
secondary coils, the voltage induced in
the secondary coils are equal but out of
phase, so the vout = vB-vA is zero.

Useful to measure linear displacement.

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  Input frequency range 50-25000Hz.
 Sensitivity varies from 0.16 to 2.5 V/mm at rated excitation.
( depends on the stroke range)!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WYX0S-dXCSM

9 Dr. Mohammad A. Omari

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 5.4 Resistance Strain Gages

It is a thin metal foil grid that can be adhesively bonded to the surface of the component or
structure needed to be measured. Strain gage is used to measure deflection, stress, pressure,
etc. The resistance of the sensing element changes with applied strain.

is usually converted into voltage signal by Wheatstone

bridge.
Experimental studies show that the sensitivity for most
metallic alloys are between 2-4.
Common use: For one strain gage in Wheatstone bridge: Vo
= 0.25 (Vs)(Sg)ε

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 Characteristics of some resistance strain-gage materials

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 Example
 A strain gage with an initial resistance Ro=120 Ω and a
gage factor Sg = 2.02 is subjected to a strain ε = 1600
micron. Determine ΔR.

Sol.

ΔR = 120(2.02)(1600)10^-6 = 0.388 Ω

14 Dr. Mohammad A. Omari

 5.5 Capacitance sensors

• Recall, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is:

𝑘𝐾𝐴
𝐶=
ℎ
C: the capacitance in pF
A: area of the sensor head
K: relative dielectric constant for the medium in the
gap(=1 for air)
k: proportionality constant k=0.225 for inches and k=
0.00885 for mm.

• The capacitive transducer may be used for displacement measurements through a

variation of either the spacing distance d or the plate area. It is commonly used for
liquid-level measurements as shown. The dielectric constant varies according to the
liquid level.
 Nonlinear!

*Can be improved
by using guard ring
to be h<D/2

• Check the advantages of capacitive sensors from the book

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Capacitive touch screens use a layer of capacitive
material to hold an electrical charge; touching the
screen changes the amount of charge at a specific point
of contact. Resistive screens, the pressure from your
finger causes conductive and resistive layers of circuitry
to touch each other, changing the circuits' resistance.
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5.6 Eddy-Current sensors

Are noncontact devices capable of high-resolution measurement of the position

and/or change of position of any conductive target. Eddy-Current sensors are also
called inductive sensors, but generally "eddy current" refers to precision
displacement instruments (or nondestructive testing probes).

Eddy-Current Sensor Advantages

• Tolerance of dirty environments

• Not sensitive to material in the gap between the probe and target
• Less expensive and much smaller than laser interferometers
• Less expensive than capacitive sensors

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 • Eddy-Current sensors are not a good choice in these conditions:
Extremely high resolution (capacitive sensors are ideal)
Large gap between sensor and target is required (optical and laser are better).
• The sensitivity depends on the target materials; high conductive materials
show high sensitivity.e.g for Al, S = 4V/mm

Applications:

Eddy-Current sensors are useful in any application requiring the measurement or

monitoring of the position of a conductive target, especially in a dirty
environment.

• Automation requiring precise location

• Machine tool monitoring
• Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
• Precision stage positioning

Dr. Mohammad A. Omari https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bwa8Gf7Vk9E

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 5.7 piezo electric sensors
In most crystals (such as metals), the unit cell is symmetrical;
in piezoelectric crystals, it isn't.
Normally, the atoms inside piezoelectric crystal may not be symmetrically
arranged, but their electrical charges are perfectly balanced: a positive charge in
one place cancels out a negative charge nearby.
However, if you squeeze or stretch a piezoelectric crystal, you deform the
structure, pushing some of the atoms closer together or further apart, upsetting
the balance of positive and negative, and causing net electrical charges to appear.
This effect carries through the whole structure so net positive and negative charges
appear on opposite, outer faces of the crystal.
The reverse-piezoelectric effect occurs in the opposite way. Put a voltage across a
piezoelectric crystal and you're subjecting the atoms inside it to "electrical
pressure." They have to move to rebalance themselves—and that's what causes
piezoelectric crystals to deform.

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  q = voC = Sq(A)P
 vo = (hSqP)/kK = (Sv)hP Where:
q: is surface charge, vo: output voltage, C: the capacitance of piezoelectric crystal, Sq:
Charge sensitivity of piezoelectric crystal, A: Area of electrode, P: the applied pressure,
h:gap, and Sv: voltage sensitivity.

Example: Determine the charge developed when a piezoelectric crystal with A=15mm^2 and
h=8mm is subjected to pressure 2MPa ,if the crystal is:
a) X-cut, length longitudinal crystal:
q = Sq(A)P = 2.2(15)*10-6(2*106 ) = 66 pC
b) Parallel-to-polirization barium titanium:
q = Sq(A)P = 130(15)*10-6(2*106 ) = 3900 pC

26 Dr. Mohammad A. Omari

 5.8 Piezo resistive sensors https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ykBn4IxStrU

 The piezoresistive effect is a change in the electrical resistivity of a semiconductor or metal

when mechanical strain is applied. In contrast to the piezoelectric effect, the piezoresistive effect causes a
change only in electrical resistance, not in electric potential.

 Made from semi-conductive materials- usually silicon and mainly uses for pressure measurement.

 The physical principle of piezoresistivity in silicon is based on energy band structure of the silicon atom.
An applied mechanical stress will change the band gap. Depending on the direction of the applied force
with respect to the crystal orientation, the average mobility of electrons in n-type silicon is reduced,
resulting in an increase of the resistivity.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N27lGgdS3oo ……..What is wrong in this video?!!!

27 Dr. Mohammad A. Omari

 5.9 Photoelectric sensors
 Monitor the changes in the intensity of lights that can be related to the quantity being
measured.
 They consist of an Emitter for emitting light (LED, Lamp, Laser..) and a Receiver for
receiving light ( photodiode, phototransistor, photovoltaic …) . When emitted light is
interrupted or reflected by the sensing object, it changes the amount of light that
arrives at the Receiver. The Receiver detects this change and converts it to an electrical
output.
 There are basically two types of detectors: Thermal and Photon, depending on the
input signal to the detector.
1- Thermal detectors: thermocouple and thermopiles.
2- Photon: general purposes sensors because they are more sensitive and respond quickly
with time: photoconductors, photoemissive and semiconductor photovoltaic.

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Comparison
 • Features of photoelectric sensors:
1- Long Sensing Distance
2-Virtually No Sensing Object Restrictions
3- Fast Response Time
4- High Resolution
5- Color Identification
6- Non-contact Sensing
7- Easy Adjustment

Application:
Thermal imaging used to detect Covid19 cases: A
special lens focuses the infrared light emitted by all of the
objects in view. The focused light is scanned by a phased array
of infrared-detector elements. The detector elements create
a very detailed temperature pattern called a thermogram.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZjQEykbvb5w

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Analogue Vs Binary sensors
 Analogue sensors usually provide much more information than binary sensors because they continuously measure
the variable; For this reason, the measure provided is more precise than the one provided by the digital sensor.
 Analogue sensors are used to measure continuous variables, like; Temperature, liquid level, pressure, Flow,
Position.
 A digital sensor only detects two possible status: 100% or 0% i.e On or Off.

For example: Analoge sensor can provide information for

measuring temperature between 0°C and 100°C. Whereas,
A digital sensor can only measure if it is working over 50°C
(displaying 1) or under 50°C (displaying 0).
End Of Chapter 5