Chapter 1

Physical World
1.Classical physics deals with ---------------(microscopic/macroscopic) domain.
Macroscopic
2.The -----------------domain includes atomic ,molecular and nuclear phenomena.
Microscopic
3.Modern physics uses -------------- theory to explain microscopic domain
Quantum theory
4..Branches of Physics that comes under classical physics
Mechanics, Electrodynamics, Optics, Thermodynamics

5.The branch of physics which deals with motion of particles,rigid and deformable
bodies,propagation of water waves or sound waves is called
--------------- Mechanics

6.The branch of physics which deals with Electric and magnetic phenomena associated
with charged and magnetic bodies is called -------------
Electrodynamics
7. Name the branch of science which deals with the phenomena involving light .
. Optics
8.Name the branch of science which deals with the study of stars.
Astronomy.
9. Name the branch of physics which deals with changes in internal
energy,temperatur,etc.,of the system through external work and transfer of heat.
Thermodynamics
10.Arrange the fundamental forces in the increasing order of their relative strength.
Gravitational Force, Weak Nuclear Force, Electromagnetic Force ,
Strong Nuclear Force.
11. The weakest force in nature.
Gravitational force
12. The strongest force in nature.
Nuclear force (Strong nuclear force)
13. Which fundamental force is present between all objects in universe?
Gravitational force.
14. Which fundamental force binds protons and neutrons in a nucleus?
Nuclear force (Strong nuclear force)
15.Who developed the theory of relativity.
Albert Einstein.
16.Who discovered electron?
J J Thomson.
17.Who discovered proton?
Ernest Rutherford.
18.Who diccovered neutron?
James Chadwick.

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 Chapter 2
Units and Measurement

1.Name the fundamental(base) quantities and units according to SI system.

2.Define angle

3.Define solid angle

4.The method used to measure the distance of a star or a planet from the earth.
Parallax metod.
5.The method used to measure the size or diameter of a planet or a satellie.
Parallax metod.
6.How will you measure the distance of a star or a planet from the earth,using parallax
metohod?

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7.How will you determine the diameter of a planet(or diameter of moon) using parallax
method?

8.Light year is the unit of ………………..

Distance(or length)
9.Define light year.
The distance that light travels in one year(with speed 3 x 108m/s ) is called light year.

10.One light year=----------------- m

9.46 x1015m
11.Which among these is the largest unit of length
(light year,astronomical unit,par second,angstrom)
par second
12.One angstrom = ………….m
10-10m
13.Define unified atomic mass unit
1 unified atomic mass unit = (1/12) of the mass of an atom of carbon-12
isotope ( 126 𝐶) including the mass of electrons
1u =1.66 x10-27 kg
14.Write the dimensional formulae of following derived quantities.
Area -L2
Volume -L3
Density -ML−3
Velocity- LT −1
Acceleration - LT −2
Momentum - MLT −1
Force - MLT −2
Work or energy - ML2 T −2
Power- ML2 T −3
Torque - ML2 T −2
Pressure- ML−1 T −2
Stress- ML−1 T −2
Modulus of elasticity- ML−1 T −2

15.Write two physical quantities having no unit and dimension

Relative density,strain
16.Write two physical quantities that have unit but no dimension
Plane angle, solid angle,angular displacement
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17.

18.

19.Name and state the principle used to check the correctness of an equation.
Principle of homogeneity of dimensions.
For an equation to be correct the dimensions of each terms on both sides of the
equation must be the same
Or
The magnitudes of physical quantities may be added or subtracted only if they
have the same dimensions
20. Using the method of dimension check whether the equation is dimensionally
correct or not

Since the dimensions of all terms are not same the equation is not correct
21. Using the method of dimension check whether the equation is dimensionally
correct or not

Since the dimensions of all terms on both sides are same the equation is dimensionally
correct correct

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22. Using the method of dimension check whether the equation is dimensionally
correct or not

23.Check the dimensional correctness of the equation E=m𝐜 𝟐

24.In the given equation v = x + at , find the dimensions of x.

(where v= velocity , a=acceleration , t=time)

25. In the given equatio x= a + bt + c𝐭 𝟐 , find the dimensions of a,b and c.

(where x is in meters and t in seconds)

𝒂
26.The Van der waals equation of 'n' moles of a real gas is (P+ 𝟐)(V−b)=nRT. Where P
𝑽
is the pressure, V is the volume, T is absolute temperature, R is molar gas constant and
a, b, c are Van der waal constants. Find the dimensional formula for a and b.
𝐚
(P+ 𝟐)(V−b)=nRT.
𝐕
By principle of homegeneity, the quantities with same dimensions can be added or
subtracted.
a
[P] =[ 2 ]
V
[a] =[PV 2 ]
=ML−1 T −2 x L6
[a] = ML5 T −2

[b] = [V]
[b] =L3
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27.Derive the equation for kinetic energy E of a body of mass m moving
with velocity v

28.Suppose that the period of oscillations of a simple pendulum depends on its mass of
the bob(m),length(l) and acceleration due to gravity(g).Derive the expression for its
time period using the method of dimensions.

𝑙
T=k√
𝑔
29.Write any two limitations of dimensional analysis.

30.Distinguish between accuracy and precision

31.A measurement can have more accuracy with less precision or less accuracy with
more precision .State whether true or false.
True
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32.Differentiate systematic errors and random errors.

33.Write three sources of systematic errors.

1)Instrumentall errors
2)Imperfection in experimental technique or procedure.
3)Personal errors
34.What do you mean by least count of a measuring instrument?
The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called least
count.
35.Which among the following gives more accurate measurement of length?
(metre scale, vernier calipers, screw guage)
Ans: screw guage
36.What do you mean by absolute error in a measurement?
The magnitude of the difference between the true value of the quantity and the
individual measurement value is called the absolute error of the measurement
𝚫𝐚 = |𝐚 − 𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 |
37.What do you mean by relative error of a measurement?
The relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error 𝛥𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 to the mean value
𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 of the quantity measured
𝚫𝐚
δa = 𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧
𝐚𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧

38.What do you mean by percentage error of a measurement?

Relative error expressed in percent is called Percentage Error.
𝜟𝒂
Percentage Error= 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏

39.We measure the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum. In successive

measurements, the readings turn out to be 2.63 s, 2.56 s, 2.42 s, 2.71s and 2.80 s.
Calculate the absolute errors, relative error and percentage error.
𝑎 +𝑎 +⋯+𝑎𝑛
True value 𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 1 2
𝑛
2.63+2.56+2.42+2.71+2.80
𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
5
13.12
=
5
= 2.624 s
𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 2.62 s
(As the periods are measured to a resolution of 0.01 s, all times are to the second
decimal; it is proper to put this mean period also to the second decimal.)
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The absolute errors in the measurements are
𝛥𝑎1 = |2.63 s – 2.62 s| = 0.01 s
𝛥𝑎2 = |2.56 s – 2.62 s | = 0.06 s
𝛥𝑎3 = |2.42 s – 2.62 s | = 0.20 s
𝛥𝑎4 = |2.71 s – 2.62 s | = 0.09 s
𝛥𝑎5 = |2.80 s – 2.62 s | = 0.18 s

𝛥𝑎1 +𝛥𝑎2 +⋯+𝛥𝑎𝑛

Mean absolute error , 𝛥𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛
(0.01+ 0.06+0.20+0.09+0.18)s
𝛥𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
5
0.54 𝑠
=
5
𝛥𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 0.11 s

𝛥𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
Relative Error, δa =
𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
0.11 𝑠
=
2.6
δa = 0.04
Percentage Error= 0.04 𝑥 100% = 4%
40.

41.

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42.

𝒎𝒗𝟐
43.The centripetal force of a body is given by F= . Write an expression for
𝒓
percentage error in centripetal force.
ΔF Δm Δv Δr
x 100% = x 100% + 2 x x 100% + x 100%
F m v r

44.

45.The length ,breadth and thickness of a block is measured using vernier calipers. The
percentage errors in the measurement are 2%,1% and 3% respectively.Estimate the
percentage error in its volume.
V=𝑙bt
The percentage error in volume
𝛥𝑉 𝛥𝑙 𝛥𝑏 𝛥𝑡
𝑥 100% = 𝑥 100% + 𝑥 100% + 𝑥 100%
𝑉 𝑙 𝑏 𝑡

=2% +1% +3%= 6%

46.If percentage error in measurement of velocity and mass are 2% and 4%
respectively, estimate the percentage error inkinetic energy.
1
Kinetic energy K = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
𝛥𝐾 𝛥𝑚 𝛥𝑣
𝑥 100% = 𝑥 100% + 2 𝑥 𝑥 100%
𝐾 𝑚 𝑣
=4% +(2 x 2 %) =8%
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47.

48.

49.Find the number of significant figures in following numbers

0.02380 - 4
23.08 -4
23.80-4
2380-3
43.00-4
4300-2
4.700 × 102 -4
4.700 × 10−3 -4
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50.If mass of an object is measured to be, 4.237 g (four significant figures) and its
volume is measured to be 2.51cm3(3 significant figures), then find its density in
appropriate significant figures.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 4.237 𝑔
Density = = = 1.688047
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 2.51𝑐𝑚3
As per rule the final result should be rounded to 3 significant figures .
So the answer is 1.69 g/ 𝑐𝑚3

51.Find the sum of the numbers 436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g to appropriate significant
figures.
436.32 g + (2 decimal places)
227.2 g + (1 decimal place)
0.301 g (3 decimal places)
_______________
663.821 g
As per rule ,the final result should be rounded to 1 decimal place.
So the answer 663.8 g

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 Chapter 3
Motion in a Straight Line

1.Write the differences betwee path length(distance ) and displacement

2.Four pairs of initial and final positions of a body along x-axis are given. Which pair
gives a positive displacement?
a)-10m, +15m b)-5m,-12m c)2m,-5m d)2m,1m
-10m, +15m (+15 - -10 =35m)
3.A body completes one full rotation in a circular path of radius R.
Write the values of its
(a) Distance travelled
(b) Displacement
(a)2πR
(b) Zero

4.A body moving along a circular path of radius 10 m as shown below. If it travels from
A to B ,find the distance and displacement of the body.

2πR
Distance = = πR =3.14 x 10 =31.4 m
2
Dispalcement =Diameter = 2R = 2 x10 =20m

5. Define average velocity

Average velocity is defined as the total displacement divided by the total
time interval during which the motion takes place.
Displacement
Average velocity=
Total time interval

6. Define average speed

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7.Write the difference between Average Speed and Velocity

8.A car travels from A to B at 60km/hr and returns to A at 90km/hr . What is the
average velocity and average speed?
∆𝑥
Average velocity = =0 (since ∆𝑥 = 𝑜)
∆𝑡

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Average speed =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
2𝑑 2𝑣1 𝑣2
= 𝑑 𝑑 =
+ 𝑣1+ 𝑣2
𝑣1 𝑣2

2x 60 x 90
= =72 km/hr
60+90
5
= 72 x = 20m/s
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9.Define instantaneous velocity?

The velocity at an instant is called instantaneous velocity.
Δx
v = lim
Δt→0 Δt
𝐝𝐱
v=
𝐝𝐭

10.When does the average velocity become equal to instantaneous velocity?

When the time interval Δt → 0 ,the average velocity becomes equal to instantaneous
velocity.
Δx dx
v = lim =
Δt→0 Δt dt

11.The speedometer of a vehicle shows …………………..

Instantaneous speed.
12.Define uniform motion
If an object moving along the straight line covers equal distances in equal intervals of
time, it is said to be in uniform motion along a straight line .
13.. Draw the position -time graph of an object moving with

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14.. The position -time graph of an object in uniform motion is-------------
Ans: A straight line inclined to the time axis

15. The slope of position-time graph gives -------------

Ans: Velocity

16. The velocity -time graph of an object in uniform motion is-------------

A straight line parallel to the time axis

17. The area under velocity -time graph gives --------------

Displacement

18. The slope of velocity-time graph gives ---------------

Acceleration

19. Define average accelaration

The average acceleration over a time interval is defined as the ratio of change in
velocity to the time interval.
𝐯𝟐 −𝐯𝟏 𝚫𝐯
𝐚⃗ = =
𝐭 𝟐 −𝐭 𝟏 𝚫𝐭

20.Draw the position- time graph of an object moving with

21. Draw the velocity- time graph of an object moving with

(a) uniform positive acceleration (b) uniform negative acceleration

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22.Draw the velocity- time graph of a stone thown vertiaccly upwrds and comes back.

23.Draw the speed- time graph of a stone thown vertiaccly upwrds and comes back.

24. Draw the velocity-time graph of a freely falling body.( A stone vertically falling
downwards)

25. Is it possible for a body to have zero velocity with a nonzero acceleration. Give an
example.
Yes. When a body is thrown upwards ,at the highest point of projection, its velocity
is zero , but it has an acceleration.

26.The velocity -time graph of a ball thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity is
shown in figure.

a)What is themagnitude of initial velocity of ball?

b)Calculate the distance travelled by the ball during 20seconds from the grah.
c) Calculate the acceleration of the ball from the graph
a)Initial velocity=100m/s
b)Distance travelled = area of graph
1 1
= b1h1 + b2h2
2 2
1 1
= x10 x 100 + x 10 x100
2 2
=1000m
c) Acceleration = slope
v −v 0−100
= 2 1= =-10 m/s2
t2 −t1 10−0

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27. (a)Draw the velocity-time graph of a body with uniform aceeleration .
(b) Using the graph obtain (i) Velocity - time relation
(ii) Displacement -tme relation
(iii) Displacement velocity relation

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28 .An object is under freefall. Draw its (a) Acceleration -time graph
(b) Velocity- time graph
(c) Displacement-time graph

29.Velocity – time graph of a body is given below

a) Which portion of the graph represents uniform retardation?

(i) OA (ii)AB (iii) BC (iv) OC
b) Find the displacement in time 2s to 7s.
c) A stone is dropped from a height h. Arrive at an expression for the time
taken to reach the ground.
a)BC
b)

Displacement = area of rectangle

. = 6 x 5 = 30m

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c) s = ut +½ at2
-h= 0 - ½ gt2
2h
t2 =
g

2h
t =√
g

30.

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31.Two parallel rail tracks run north-south. Train A moves north with a speed of 54
km/h, and train B moves south with a speed of 90 km/h . What is the
(a) velocity of B with respect to A ?,
(b) velocity of ground with respect to B ?
(c) velocity of a monkey running on the roof of train A against its motion (with a
velocity of 18 km/h with respect to the train A) as observed by a man standing on the
ground ? Choose the positive direction of x-axis to be from south to north.

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 Chapter 4
Motion in a Plane

1. Differentiate scalar and vector quantities

A scalar quantity has only magnitude and no direction.
Eg. distance , speed, mass , temperature, time ,work ,power, energy,
pressure, frequency, angular frequency etc.

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction and obeys the triangle law
of addition or the parallelogram law of addition.
Eg. displacement, velocity, acceleration , momentum, force,
angular velocity, torque, angular momentum etc.

2.When two vectors are said to be equal?

Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and only if, they have the
same magnitude and the same direction.

3.What do you mean by null vectors or zero vector?

A Null vector or Zero vector is a vector having zero magnitude and is represented by O
or Ō . The result of adding two equal and opposite vectors will be a Zero vector
Eg: When a body returns to its initial position its displacement will be a zero vector.

4.What are unit vectors?

A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and points in a particular direction.
It has no dimension and unit. It is used to specify a direction only.
̅
̂= 𝐀
𝐀 |𝐀|
5.The position vector of a particle P located in an x-y plane is shown in figure.

a)Redraw the figure by showing the rectangular components.

b)Write the position vector in terms of rectangular components.
a)

b) 𝑟̅ = 𝑟 cos 𝜃𝑖̂ + 𝑟 sin 𝜃𝑗̂

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6.State triangle law of vector addition.
If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle
, their resultant is given by the third side of the triangle.

7.State parallelogram law of vector addition

If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the
adjacent sides of a parallelogram ,then their resultant is given by the diagonal of the
parallelogram.

8.Two vectors A and B are given below.

Redraw the figure and show the vector sum using

parallelogram method.

9.Write the equation to find the magnitude of resultant of two vectors A and B
R = √A2 + B 2 + 2ABcosθ
10.Derive the expression for magnitude of resultant of two vectors by analytical
method.

SNP , cos θ = PN / PS sin θ = SN /PS

cos θ = PN / B sin θ = SN / B
PN = B cos θ SN = B sin θ
From the geometry of the figure,
OS 2 = ON 2 + SN 2
ON = OP + PN
= A + B cos θ
SN = B sin θ
OS = (A + B cos θ ) 2 + (B sin θ ) 2
2

R 2 = A 2 +2AB cos θ + B 2 cos 2θ +B 2sin2 θ

R 2 = A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ
𝐑 = √𝐀𝟐 + 𝐁 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐀𝐁𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉

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11.What is the trajectory(path) followed by a projectile?
Parabola

12. Draw the trajectory of a projectile

13.A stone is thrown up with a velocity u , which makes an angle 𝛉 with

the horizontal.
a)What are the magnitudes of horizontal and vertical components of velocity?
b)How do these components vary with time?
a) Horizontal component - u cos θ and
vertical component - u sin θ

b) Horizontal component- u cos θ remains constant with time.

vertical component first deceases, becomes zero at the highest
point of projection and then increases in reverse direction.

14.What are the values of these components at the highest point of projection?
At the highest point,
Horizontal component= u cos θ
Vertical component = zero

15. A projectile has an acceleration of ……… in vertical direction and……… acceleration

in horizontal direction
9.8m 𝑠 −2 , zero

16. Show that the path of the projectile is a parabola .

Displacement of the projectile after a time t
x= ucosθ t
x
t=
ucosθ
1
y= u sinθ t − g t 2
2
x 1 x 2
y= u sinθ ( ) − 2 g (ucosθ)
ucosθ
g
y= tanθ x − x2
2 u2 cos2 θ

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17. Derive the equation for Time of flight, Horizontal range and Maximum height of a
projectile.

Time of Flight of a projectile (T)

Consider the motion in vertical direction,
s = ut +½ at2
s=0, u = u sin θ , a =-g , t = T
0 = u sin θ T - ½ gT2
½ gT2 =u sin θ T
2 u sin θ
T=
g

Horizontal range of a projectile (R)

Horizontal range = Horizontal component of velocity x Time of flight
2 u sin θ
R = u cos θ x
g
u2 x 2 sinθ cos θ
R=
g
u2 sin 2θ
R=
g

Maximum height of a projectile (H)

Consider the motion in vertical direction to the highest point
v2 – u2 = 2as
u = u sin θ, v = 0 , a = -g , s = H
0 - u sin θ = -2 g H
2 2

u2 sin2 θ
H=
2g

18.What is the angle of projection for maximum horizontal range

𝟒𝟓𝟎

19. What is the maximum value of horizontal range

Range is maximum when θ=450
u2 sin 90
R=
g
u2
Rmax =
g

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20. Find the angle of projection for which the range will be same as that in case
of θ=𝟑𝟎𝟎 for a given velocity of projection.
For a given velocity of projection range will be same
for angles 𝜽 and ( 90-𝜽 )
Here θ=300
90-𝜽 =90-30 =600
The range will be same for 300 and 600 ,for a given velocity of projection.

21.A cricket ball is thrown at a speed of 28 m s –1 in a direction 30° above the

horizontal. Calculate (a) the maximum height, (b) the time taken by the ball to return
to the same level, and (c) the distance from the thrower to the point where the ball
returns to the same level.

(a) H = u2 sin 2θ
2g
H = 282 sin2 30
2 x 9.8
H = 10 m
(b) T = 2 u sin θ
g
T = 2x 28 sin30
9.8
T = 2.9 s
(c) R = u2 sin 2θ
g
R = 282 sin60
9.8
R = 69 m

22.What do you mean by uniform circular motion?

When an object follows a circular path at a constant speed, the motion of the object is
called uniform circular motion.
Note:-
▪ The speed is constant in uniform circular motion.
▪ The velocity is not constant in uniform circular motion.
▪ The acceleration is not constant in uniform circular motion.
23.Give an example for a motion in which speed is constant, but velocity varying.
Uniform circular motion
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24.Give an example for a motion in which speed is constant, still accelerating.
Uniform circular motion
25.What is period in uniform circular motion
The time taken by an object to make one revolution is known as its time period T.
Unit-second
26.What is Frequency in uniform circular motion
The number of revolutions made in one second is called its frequency.
1
υ=
𝑇
unit - hertz (Hz)

27.Define Angular velocity

Angular velocity is the time rate of change of angular displacement
Δθ dθ 2π
ω= or ω = or ω = or ω = 2π υ
Δ𝑡 d𝑡 𝑇

Unit is rad/s
28.Derive the relation connecting angular velocity and linear velocity

arc
angle =
radius
Δr
Δθ=
r
Δr=r Δθ
Δr
Linear velocity v =
Δ𝑡
rΔθ
v=
Δ𝑡
Δθ
But ω =
Δ𝑡
v=rω
29.Define angular acceleration
The rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration.
dω
α =
dt
dθ
ω=
d𝑡
d dθ
α= ( )
dt 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2𝜃
α=
𝑑𝑡 2
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30.Define Centripetal acceleration
A body in uniform circular motion experiences an acceleration , which is directed
towards the centre along its radius .This is s called centripetal acceleration .
31.Derive the expression for centripetal acceleration.

Δv Δr
=
v r
vΔr
Δv=
r
Δv vΔr
=
Δt r Δt
v
a= xr
r

𝐯𝟐
a=
𝐫
If R is the radius of circular path, then centripetal acceleration .
v2
ac =
R

ac = ω 2R
ac = v ω
32.An insect trapped in a circular groove of radius 12 cm moves along the groove
steadily and completes 7 revolutions in 100 s.
(a) What is the angular speed, and the linear speed of the motion?
(b) Is the acceleration vector a constant vector ? What is its magnitude ?
100
Period, T= s
7
(a) The angular speed ω is given by
2π 2π 2π x7
ω= = 100 = =0.44 rad/s
𝑇 100
7
The linear speed v is :
v =ω R = 0.44 × 0.12 = 5.3 x 10 -2 m s -1

(b) The direction of velocity v is along the tangent to the circle at every point.
The acceleration is directed towards the centre of the circle. Since this
direction changes continuously, acceleration here is not a constant vector.
a = ω 2 R = (0.44 ) 2 x0.12 = 2.3x10 -2 m s -2

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 Chapter 5
Laws of Motion
1.State Galileo’s Law Inertia
If the net external force is zero, a body at rest continues to remain at rest and a body in
motion continues to move with a uniform velocity.

2.What do you mean by inertia of a body?

If the net external force is zero, a body at rest continues to remain at rest and a body in
motion continues to move with a uniform velocity.
This property of the body is called inertia.

Inertia means ‘resistance to change’.

▪ Suppose a person is standing in a stationary bus and the driver starts the bus
suddenly. He gets thrown backward with a jerk. This is due to his inertia of rest.
▪ If a person is standing in a moving bus and if the bus suddenly stops he is thrown
forward. This is due to his inertia of motion.
3.State Newton’s first law of motion (Law of inertia)
Every body continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line
unless compelled by some external force to change that state.

4.Newton’s first law of motion describes ……………….

Inertia

5.Define momentum
Momentum, P of a body is defined to be the product of its mass m and velocity v, and is
denoted by p.
p=mv

6.State Newton’s Second Law f Motion. Write its mathematical expression.

∆p
F∝
∆t
∆p dp
F= or F=
∆t dt

7.Why a seasoned cricketer draws his hands backwards during a catch?

By Newton's second law of motion ,
∆p
F=
∆t
When he draws his hands backwards, the time interval (∆t) to stop the
ball increases .Then force decreases and it does not hurt his hands.

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8. Derive of Equation of force from Newton's second law of motion
By Newton's second law of motion ,

9.Define newton

10. A bullet of mass 0.04 kg moving with a speed of 90 m/s enters a heavy wooden
block and is stopped after a distance of 60 cm. What is the average resistive force
exerted by the block on the bullet?

11.Show that Newton’s second Law is consistent with the first law. ( or starting from
Newton’s second Law arrive at Newton’s first law)

Zero acceleration implies the state of rest or uniform linear motion . i.e, when there is
no external force , the body will remain in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line. This is Newtons first law of motion.
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12.Define Impulse
Impulse is the the product of force and time duration, which is the change in
momentum of the body.
Impulse = Force × time duration
I=Fxt
Unit = kg m s −1
13. Define Impulsive force.
A large force acting for a short time to produce a finite change in momentum is called
an impulsive force.
Eg: A cricket ball hitting a bat

14. Using Newtons second law of motion arrive at Impulse momentum Principle
Impulse is equal to the change in momentum of the body.
By Newton's second law of motion,
dp
F=
dt
F x dt = dp
I = dp
Impulse = change in momentum

15.A batsman hits back a ball straight in the direction of the bowler without changing
its initial speed of 12 m 𝐬 −𝟏 . If the mass of the ball is 0.15 kg, determine the impulse
imparted to the ball.
Impulse = change of momentum
Change in momentum = final momentum – initial momentum
Change in momentum = 0.15 × 12–(0.15×-12)
Impulse = 3.6 N s
16.Eventhough action and reaction are equal and opposite they do not cancel each
other .Why?
Action and reaction forces act on different bodies, not on the same body. So they do not
cancel each other , eventhough they are equal and opposite.

17. A man of mass 70 kg stands on a weighing scale in a lift which is moving,

(a) upwards with a uniform speed of 10 m 𝐬 −𝟏
(b) downwards with a uniform acceleration of 5 m 𝐬 −𝟐
(c) upwards with a uniform acceleration of 5 m 𝐬 −𝟐
What would be the readings on the scale in each case?
(d) What would be the reading if the lift mechanism failed and it falls down freely
under gravity? Take g=10 m 𝐬 −𝟐
(a)When lift moves with uniform speed , a=0
R= mg = 70 x 10=700 N
Reading= 700/ 10= 70 kg
(b)Acceleration a = 5m s-2 downwards
R= m(g-a) =70 ( 10-5)= 70x5= 350N
Reading = 350/ 10 = 35 kg
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 (c) Acceleration a = 5m s-2 upwards
R= m(g+a) = 70(10+5) = 70x 15= 1050N
Reading = 1050/ 10 = 105 kg
(d) when lift falls freely a=g
R= m(g-g) = 0
Reading = 0
18.State the Law of Conservation of Momentum
The total momentum of an isolated system of interacting particles is conserved.
Or
When there is no external force acting on a system of particles ,their total momentum
remains constant.
19.Prove law of conservation of momentum Using Newton’s second law of motion
dp
By Newton's second law of motion , F=
dt
When F = 0
dp
=0
dt
dp = 0 ,
p=constant
Thus when there is no external force acting on a system of particles, their total
momentum remains constant.

20.Explain the recoil of gun using law of conservation of linear momentum

By the law of conservation of momentum,as the system is isolated, the momentum
remains constant

If pb and pg are the momenta of the bullet and gun after firing
pb + pg = 0
pb = - pg
The negative sign shows that gun recoils to conserve momentum.

21.Obtain the expression for Recoil velocity and muzzle velocity

Momentum of bullet after firing , pb = mv
Recoil momentum of the gun after firing , pg = MV
pb = - pg
mv = −MV
−mv
Recoil velocity of gun , V=
M
−MV
Muzzle velocity of bullet , v=
m
M= mass of gun, V= recoil velocity of bullet
m= mass of bullet, v=muzzle velocity of bullet
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22.A shell of mass 0.020kg is fired by a gun of mass 100kg. If the muzzle speed of the
shell is 80 m/s, what is the recoil speed of the gun?
𝑚𝑣 0.020 𝑥 80
V= = =0.016m/s
𝑀 100

23. Explain the collision of two bodies using law of conservation of momentum

Total Final momentum = Total initial momentum

i.e. , the total final momentum of the isolated system equals its total initial momentum.

24.Write the condition for equilibrium when two forces F1 and F2 act on a particle

25.Write the condition for equilibrium when three forces F1 , F2 and F3 act on a particle.

26. The maximun value of limiting friction is called ……………….

Limiting friction or Limiting static friction.

27.State the law of static friction

The law of static friction may thus be written as , fs ≤ μs N
0r
( fs )max = μs N
where μs the coefficient of static friction,

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28.State the Law of Kinetic Friction
fk = μk N
where μk the coefficient of kinetic friction,
29.Write the characteristics of static friction

▪ The maximum value of static friction is ( fs )max

▪ The limiting value of static friction ( fs )max , is independent of the area of contact.
▪ The limiting value of static friction ( fs )max , varies with the normal force(N)
( fs )max αN
( 𝐟𝐬 )𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝛍𝐬 𝐍

30.Write the characteristics of kinetic friction

▪ Kinetic friction is independent of the area of contact.

▪ Kinetic friction is independent of the velocity of sliding.
▪ Kinetic friction , fk varies with the normal force(N)
fk αN
fk = μk N
31.Show that 𝛍𝐬 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉 (the coefficient of static friction is equal to the tangent of
angle of friction) when a body just begins to slide on an inclined surface

The forces acting on a block of mass m When it just begins to slide are
(i) the weight, mg
(ii) the normal force, N
(iii) the maximum static frictional force ( fs )max
In equilibrium, the resultant of these forces must be zero.
m g sin θ = ( fs )max

But ( fs )max = μs N
mg sin θ= μs N------------(1)

mg cos θ = N-------------(2)

(1) mg sin θ μs N
Eqn(2) -------- =
m g cos θ N
μs = tan θ

32.Disadvantages of friction
In a machine with different moving parts, friction opposes relative motion and thereby
dissipates power in the form of heat, etc. Friction produces wear and tear.
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33.Advantages of friction
Kinetic friction is made use of by brakes in machines and automobiles.
We are able to walk because of static friction.
The friction between the tyres and the road provides the necessary external force to
accelerate the car.

34.Methods to reduce friction

(1)Lubricants are a way of reducing kinetic friction in a machine.
(2)Another way is to use ball bearings between two moving parts of a machine.
(3) A thin cushion of air maintained between solid surfaces in relative motion is
another effective way of reducing friction.
35.A car moving on a curved level road. What are the various forces acting on the car?
Three forces act on the car.
(i) The weight of the car, mg
(ii) Normal reaction, N
(iii) Frictional force, fs

36.Derive the expression for maximum safe speed on a curved level road

N= mg
The static friction provides the centripetal acceleration
mv2
fs =
R
But , fs ≤ μs N
mv2
≤ μs mg (N=mg)
R
2
v ≤ μs Rg
𝐯𝐦𝐚𝐱 = √𝛍𝐬 𝐑𝐠

37. a) What do you mean by banking of curved roads?

b) Obtain the expression for maximum permissible speed of a vehicle
on a banked road.
c)Write the expression for optimum speed (without considering
frictional force)

a)Raising the outer edge of a curved road above the inner edge is
called banking of curved roads.

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b)

N cos θ = mg +fs sin θ

N cos θ - fs sin θ =mg --------------(1)
The centripetal force is provided by the horizontal components of N andfs .
mv2
N sin θ + fs cos θ = -------------(2)
R

Eqn(1) N cos θ − fs sin θ mg

----- = mv2
Eqn(2) N sin θ + fs cos θ
R
Dividing throughout by N cos θ
f
1 − s tan θ Rg
N
f =
tan θ+ s v2
N
But , fs = μs N for maximum speed
1 −μs tan θ Rg
=
tan θ + μs v2
2 Rg(μs +tan θ )
v =
1 −μs tan θ
Rg(μs +tan θ )
vmax = √
1 −μs tan θ
c)If friction is absent, μs = 0
Then Optimum speed, voptimum = √Rg tan θ

38.A circular racetrack of ra dius 300 m is banked at an angle of 15°. If the coefficient of
friction between the wheels of a race-car and the road is 0.2, what is the
(a) optimum speed of the race car to avoid wear and tear on its tyres, and
(b) maximum permissible speed to avoid slipping ?

(a) (b)

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 Chapter 6
Work ,Energy and Power

⃗ and 𝐁
1.Define scalar product or Dot Product two vectors 𝐀 ⃗⃗ .
⃗A ⋅ B
⃗ = AB cosθ

2.Some properties of dot product.

𝑖̂ ⋅ 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ ⋅ 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂ = 1
𝑖̂ ⋅ 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂ ⋅ 𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂ ⋅ 𝑖̂ = 0
⃗ ⋅A
A ⃗ = A2

⃗ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐁
3.If two vectors 𝐀 ⃗⃗ are perpendicular, then their dot product will be…………..
zero ( ⃗A ⋅ B
⃗ = A B cos 90 = 0)

4.Define work.
The work done by the force is defined to be the product of component of the force in the
direction of the displacement and the magnitude of this displacement.
W=F ⃗ ⋅ ⃗d
5.Write the situations in which work done by a body is zero
(i) when the displacement is zero .
(ii )when the force is zero.
(iii) the force and displacement are mutually perpendicular
W=Fd cos 90 = 0.

6.Give an example for zero Work.

When you push hard against a rigid brick wall, the force you exert on the wall does no
work.
A weightlifter holding a 150 kg mass steadily on his shoulder for 30 s does no work on
the load during this time.

7.Give an example for Positive Work

Workdone by Gravitational force on a freely falling body is positive

8.Give an example of Negative work

The the work done by friction is negative (cos 180 o = –1).

9.Find out the sign of the workdone in following cases.

a)Workdone by a man in lifting a bucket out of a well.
Positive
b)Workdone by friction on a body sliding down an inclined plane
Negative
c)Workdone by an applied force on a body moving on a rough horizontal surface
Positive

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d)Workdone by the resistive force on air on a vibrating pendulum
Negative
e)Workdone gravitational force during the motion of an object on a horizontal surface.
Zero

10. What is the work done by centripetal force on a body moving in circular path
Zero. Here θ = 90 o , W =Fd cos 90 = 0.
11. 1 horse power,1HP= -----------Watt.

746W

12. 1 kilowatt-hour, 1kWh = ------------------ J

3.6 × 106 J
13. Kilowatt-hour is the unit of -------------
Energy
14.Find the workdone by a force 𝐅 = (𝟑𝐢̂+ 𝟒𝐣̂ - 𝟓𝐤 ̂ ) N , if the displacement Produced is
̂ ) m.
𝐝 = (𝟓𝐢̂+ 𝟒𝐣̂ + 3𝐤
W =F ⃗
⃗ .d
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐹𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐹𝑧 𝑑𝑧
= (3 x 5 )+ (4x4 ) + (-5 x3)
W= 16 J
15. The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called-----------
Kinetic energy
16. The energy stored by virtue of the position or configuration of a body(state of
strain) is called-------------
Potential Energy.
17. Calculate the work done in lifting a body of mass 10kg to a height of 10m above the
ground
W= F x d = mg x h =10 x 9.8 x10 =980J
18. Two bodies of masses 𝐦𝟏 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐦𝟐 have same momenta. What is the ratio of their
kinetic energies?
1 p2
KE, K = mv 2 =
2 2m
p2 p2
K1 = K2 =
2 m1 2 m2
K1 / K 2 = m2 /m2
K1 : K 2 = m2 : m2
19. A light body and heavy body have same momenta, Which one has greater kinetic
energy?
p2
KE =
2m
1
KE∝
m
Lighter body will have more Kinetic energy.
20.Power is the scalar product of force and --------------
Velocity ( P= F .v)

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21.Write the characteristics of conservative forces.
▪ A conservative force can be derived from a scalar quantity.
− 𝑑V
F= where V is a scalar
dx
▪ The work done by a conservative force depends only upon initial and final
positions of the body
▪ The work done by a conservative force in a cyclic process is zero
22.Give two examples for conservative forces
Eg: Gravitational force, Spring force.

23.Give two examples for non conservative forces.

Frictional force , air resistance are non conservative forces.

24. State and prove the law of conservation of mechanical energy for a freely falling
body.
The total mechanical energy of a system is conserved if the forces, doing work on it, are
conservative.
Consider a body of mass m falling freely from a height h
At Point A
PE = mgh
KE = 0 (since v=0)
TE= mgh + 0
TE= mgh-----------(1)
At Point B
PE = mg (h-x)
KE = ½ mv 2
v 2 = u2 + 2as
u=0, a=g , s= x
2
v = 2gx
KE = ½ m x 2gx =mgx
TE = mg (h-x) + mgx
TE = mgh--------------(2)
At Point C
PE = 0 (Since h=0
KE = ½ mv 2
v 2 = u2 + 2as
u=0, a=g , s= h
2
v = 2gh
KE = ½ m x 2gh=mgh
TE = 0 + mgh

TE = mgh--------------(3)
From eqns (1), (2) and (3), it is clear that the total mechanical energy is conserved
during the free fall.

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25.Show that the gravitational potential energy of the object at height h, is completely
converted to kinetic energy on reaching the ground.
PE at a height h, V = mgh
When the object is released from a height it gains KE
K = ½ mv 2
v 2 = u2 + 2as
u=0, a=g , s=h
2
v = 2gh
K = ½ m x 2gh
K= mgh

26.The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called ……………..

Kinetic energy
27.The eneegy possessed by a body by virtue of the position or configuration of a body
is called …………………..
Potential energy.

28.A body at a height h above the surface of earth possesses ………………… due to its
position.
Potential energy.

29.A Stretched or compressed spring possesses ………………… due to its state of strain.
potential energy

30.State and prove work-energy theorem

The work-energy theorem can be stated as :The change in kinetic energy of a particle
is equal to the work done on it by the net force.
Proof
For uniformly accelerated motion
v 2 − u 2 = 2 as
1
Multiplying both sides by 𝑚, we have
2
1 1
mv − mu2 = mas = Fs
2
2 2
Kf -Ki = W
Change in KE = Work
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31.In a ballistics demonstration a police officer fires a bullet of mass 50.0 g with speed
200 m s-1 on soft plywood of thickness 2.00 cm. The bullet emerges with only 10% of its
initial kinetic energy. What is the emergent speed of the bullet ?

32.State Hooke’s law for a spring

Hooke’s law states that ,for an ideal spring, the spring force F is proportional
displacement x of the block from the equilibrium position.
F = − kx
The constant k is called the spring constant. Its unit is N𝑚−1

33.Derive the expression for potential energy of a spring

Then the spring force F = − kx

The work done by the spring force is
x
W = ∫0 F dx
x
W = − ∫0 kx dx
1
W = − kx 2
2
This work is stored as potential energy of spring
1
PE = kx 2
2
34.Draw the graphical variation of kinetic Energy and potential of a spring

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35.Write Einstein’s mass energy relation.
E = m 𝐜𝟐

36.Find the amount of energy is associated with 1 kilogram of matter

E = m c2
E = 1×(3 × 108 )2 J
E= 9 × 1016 J.
37.Write the expression for instantaneous power in dot product form
dW
P=
dt
The work done, dW = F. dr.
dr
P =F.
dt
P= F . v
Instantaneous power is the dot product of force and velocity.

38.An elevator can carry a maximum load of 1800 kg (elevator + passengers) is moving
up with a constant speed of 2 m s–1. The frictional force opposing the motion is 4000 N.
Determine the minimum power delivered by the motor to the elevator in watts as well
as in horse power.
The downward force on the elevator is F = m g + Frictional Force
= (1800 × 10) + 4000
= 22000 N
Power, P = F. v
= 22000 × 2
= 44000 W
In horse power, power = 44000/746
=59 hp

39.Differentiate Elastic and inelastic collisions.Give examples for each.

The collisions in which both linear momentum and kinetic energy are conserved are
called elastic collisions.
Eg: Collision between sub atomic particles
The collisions in which linear momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not
conserved are called inelastic collisions. . Part of the initial kinetic energy is
transformed into other forms of energy such as heat,sound etc..
Eg: Collision between macroscopic objects

40.For elastic collisions in one dimension show that the relative velocity before collision
is numerically equal to relative velocity after collision.

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By the conservation of momentum
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 --------------(1)
m1 u1 − m1 v1 = m2 v2 − m2 u2
m1 (u1 − v1 ) = m2 (v2 − u2 )----------------(2)

By the conservation of kinetic energy

1 1 1 1
m1 u12 + m2 u22 = m1 v12 + m2 v22 -----------(3)
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
m u − m1 v1 = m2 v2 − m2 u22
2 2 2
2 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
m (u1 − v1 ) = m2 (v2 − u22 )
2 2 2
2 1 2
m1 (u12 − v12 ) = m2 (v22 − u22 ) -------------(4)
(4) m1 (u21 −v21 ) m2 (v22 −u22 )
Eqn ------------ =
(2) m1 (u1 −v1 ) m2 (v2 −u2 )
(u1 +v1 ) (u1 −v1 ) (v2 +u2 )(v2 −u2 )
=
(u1 −v1 ) (v2 −u2 )
u1 + v1 = v2 + u2 -------------(5)
u1 − u2 = −(v1 − v2 )--------(6)
i.e., relative velocity before collision is numerically equal to relative velocity after
collision.

41.For elastic collisions of a moving mass 𝐦𝟏 with the stationary mass 𝐦𝟐 write the
expression for momentum conservation and kinetic energy conservation

Equation for conservation of momentum in x direction

m1 u1 = m1 v1 cosθ1 + m2 v2 cosθ2

Equation for conservation of momentum in y direction

0 = m1 v1 sinθ1 − m2 v2 sin θ2

Equation for conservation of kinetic energy,(KE is a scalar quantity)

1 1 1
m1 u12 = m1 v12 + m2 v22
2 2 2

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 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐩𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝟕
𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐏𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐑𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐌𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

1.Define centre of mass

The centre of is a hypothetical point where the entire mass of an object may be
assumed to be concentrated to visualise its motion.

2.Write the expression for position vector of centre of mass of an n particle system
⃗R = m1r⃗1+m2⃗r2+⋯……..+mn⃗rn
M

where M =m1 + m2 +…….+mn

3.Write the expression for velocity of centre of mass of an n particle system
⃗V = m1v⃗1+m2v⃗2+⋯……..+mnv⃗n --------------(2)
M

where M =m1 + m2 +…….+mn

4.Write the expression for acceleration of centre of mass of an n particle system
⃗⃗⃗A = m1 a⃗1+m2 a⃗2+⋯……..+mna⃗n ………………(3)
M

where M =m1 + m2 +…….+mn

5.When the total external force on the system is zero the velocity of the centre of mass
remains constant or the CM of the system is in……………………
uniform motion.
6.Define vector product or cross product of two vectors 𝐀 ⃗ and 𝐁
⃗⃗
Vector product of two vectors ⃗A and B ⃗ is defined as
⃗A x B
⃗ = AB 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 n̂
where A and B are magnitudes of ⃗A and B⃗
𝜽 is the angle between A ⃗ and B
⃗
𝑛̂ is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing ⃗A and B⃗
7.Some properties of vector product
▪ ⃗A x ⃗A = ⃗0
▪ 𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 0 , 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = 0 , 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0
▪ 𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ , 𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂, 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂
▪ 𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂ = −𝑘̂ , 𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑖̂, 𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ = −𝑗̂
𝟖. . 𝐖𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲.
⃗⃗v = ω
⃗⃗ × r
𝟗. 𝐃𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
Angular acceleration α ⃗ is defined as the time rate of change of angular velocity.
⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝜔
𝛼= unit rad/𝑠 2 or rad 𝑠 −2
𝑑𝑡
10.The rotational analogue of force is ----------------
Torque or Moment of force
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11.Write the equation for torque or moment of force
𝜏 = 𝑟 x ⃗⃗F
12.The handle of the door is always fixed at the edge of the door which is located at a
maximum possible distance away from hinges. Give reason.
𝜏=𝑟xF ⃗⃗ =rF sin𝜃
When r is maximum ,torque will be maximum.
The handle is fixed at the edge to increase r and hence to make torque maximum.
13.Find the torque of a force 𝟕𝐢̂ + 𝟑𝐉̂ − 𝟓𝐤 ̂ about the origin. The force acts on a particle
whose position vector is 𝐢̂ − 𝐉̂ + 𝐤 ̂.
𝜏=𝑟xF ⃗⃗
𝜏 = (î − Ĵ + k̂) x(7î + 3Ĵ − 5k̂)

+ - +
î 𝐽̂ 𝑘̂
𝜏 =|1 −1 1 |
7 3 −5
τ⃗ = î [(−1 x − 5) −(3 x 1) ] - Ĵ [(1x-5)- (7x1)] + k̂ [(1x3) -(7x-1)]
τ⃗ = î [5 - 3] - Ĵ [-5 – 7] + k̂ [3 – -7]
τ⃗ = 2î +12 Ĵ + 10k̂
14.Angular momentum is the rotational analogue of ---------------
linear momentum.
15. Write the relation connecting angular momentum and linear momentum.
𝑙 =r×p ⃗
16.The moment of linear momentum is called ---------------
Angular momentum
17.Write the relation connecting torque and angular momentum
𝑑𝑙
𝜏=
𝑑𝑡
18. Deduce the relation connecting torque and angular momentum
(or) Show that the time rate of change of the angular momentum of a particle is
equal to the torque acting on it.
𝑙 =𝑟×𝑝
𝑑𝑙 d
Differentiating = (r×p
⃗ )
𝑑𝑡 dt

𝑑𝑙 dr⃗ ⃗
dp
= ×p
⃗ + rx
𝑑𝑡 dt dt
dr⃗ ⃗
dp
⃗ = mv
p ⃗ , =v
⃗ , ⃗⃗
=F
dt dt
𝑑𝑙
=v
⃗ × mv ⃗⃗
⃗ + rxF
𝑑𝑡
⃗ = 0 , (r x ⃗⃗F =τ⃗ )
⃗ ×v
v
𝑑𝑙
=0 + 𝜏
𝑑𝑡

𝒅𝒍
⃗ =
𝝉
𝒅𝒕
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19.The time rate of change of the angular momentum of a particle is equal to the ---------
------ acting on it. Torque

20.State and prove the law of conservation of angular momentum

If the total external torque on a system of particles is zero, then the total angular
momentum of the system is conserved i.e, remains constant.
⃗
dL
τ⃗ext =
dt

If external torque, τ⃗ext = 0 ,

⃗
dL
=0
dt
⃗L = constant
21.Write an example of a motion in which angular momentum remains constant
Motion of planets around sun.

22.What do you mean by equilibrium of a rigid body?

A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, if it is in both translational
equilibrium and rotational equilibrium.

23.What is translational equilibrium?

When the total external force on the rigid body is zero, then the total linear momentum
of the body does not change with time and the body will be in translational
equilibrium .

24.What is rotational equilibrium?

When the total external torque on the rigid body is zero, the total angular momentum
of the body does not change with time and the body will be in rotational equilibrium .

25.What is partial equilibrium?

A body may be in partial equilibrium, i.e., it may be in translational equilibrium and not
in rotational equilibrium, or it may be in rotational equilibrium and not in translational
equilibrium.

26.Define a couple.
A pair of equal and opposite forces with different lines of action is known as a couple. A
couple produces rotation without translation.
27.State the principle of moments.

The lever is a system in mechanical equilibrium.

For rotational equilibrium the sum of moments must be zero,
d1 F1 − d2 F2 = 0
𝐝𝟏 𝐅𝟏 = 𝐝𝟐 𝐅𝟐
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28.What is centre of gravity of a body?
The Centre of gravity of a body is the point where the total gravitational torque on the
body is zero.

29. Moment of Inertia is the rotational analogue of ------------

Mass.

30.The rotational analogue of mass is called---------------------

Moment of Inertia

31. Mass is a measure of ------------------ and moment of inertia is a measure of ------------

-------------
Inertia , Rotational inertia

32. Writ the expression for moment of inertia of a particle of mass m rotating about an
axis
I =mr 2

33. Write the equation for rotational kinetic energy.

1
Rotational kE = Iω2
2

34. What do you mean by radius of gyration ?

The radius of gyration can be defined as the distance of a mass point from the axis of
roatation whose mass is equal to the whole mass of the body and whose moment of
inertia is equal to moment of inertia of the whole body about the axis.
I =Mk 2
I
k=√
M

35.The moment of inertia of a disc of mass ‘M’ and radius R about an axis passing
𝐌𝐑𝟐
through its centre and perpendicular to its plane is .
𝟐
What is the radius of gyration of this case.
I
k=√
M

MR2
R2 𝑅
k=√ 2
=√ =
M 2 √2

36.What is a flywheel?
A disc with a large moment of inertia is called a flywheel. It is used in machines, that
produce rotational motion.

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37.State perpendicular axes theorem.
The moment of inertia of a plane lamina about z axis is equal to the sum of its
moments of inertia about x-axis and y-axis, if the lamina lies in xy plane.

𝐈𝐳 = 𝐈 𝐱 + 𝐈 𝐲

38. State Parallel Axes Theorem

The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to the sum of the moment of
inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing through its centre of mass and the
product of its mass and the square of the distance between the two parallel axes.

𝐈𝐳′ = 𝐈𝐳 + 𝐌𝐚𝟐

39. The moment of inertia of a ring about an axis passing through its centre and
perpendicular to its plane is 𝐌𝐑𝟐 .Determine its moment of inertia about a diameter.

By perpedicular axes theorem Iz = Ix + Iy

But Ix = Iy
Iz = 2Ix
I
Ix = z
2
But Iz = MR2
𝐌𝐑𝟐
𝐈𝐱 =
𝟐

40.The moment of inertia of a disc about an axis passing through its centre and
𝐌𝐑𝟐
perpendicular to its plane is .Determine its moment of inertia about a diameter.
𝟐

By perpedicular axes theorem Iz = Ix + Iy

But Ix = Iy
Iz = 2Ix
I
Ix = z
2
MR2
But Iz =
2
𝐌𝐑𝟐
𝐈𝐱 = 𝟒

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 𝐌𝐑𝟐
41. The moment of inertia of a ring about an axis passing through its diameter is
𝟐
Determine its moment of inertia about a tangent.
By parallel axes theorem Iz′ = Iz + Ma2
Itangent = Idiameter + MR2
MR2
Idiameter =
2
MR2
Itangent = + MR2
2
𝟑
𝐈𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭 = 𝐌𝐑𝟐
𝟐

𝐌𝐑𝟐
42. The moment of inertia of a disc about an axis passing through its diameter is
𝟒
Determine its moment of inertia about a tangent.
By parallel axes theorem , Iz′ = Iz + Ma2
Itangent = Idiameter + MR2
MR2
Idiameter =
4
MR2
Itangent = + MR2
4
𝟓
𝐈𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐭 = 𝐌𝐑𝟐
𝟒

43.The moment of inertia of a rod of mass M, length l about an axis passing through its
𝐌𝐥𝟐
centre and perpendicular to it is . Find its moment of inertia about an axis
𝟏𝟐
perpendicular to it through one end.
Iz′ = Iz + Ma2
𝑙
Iend = Imid point + M( )2
2
𝑀𝑙 2
But Imid point =
12
𝑀𝑙 2 𝑀𝑙 2
Iend = +
12 4
𝑴𝒍𝟐
𝐈𝐞𝐧𝐝 =
𝟑

44.Write the rotational analogue of the following equations in translational motion

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45.A cord of negligible mass is wound round the rim of a flywheel mounted on a
horizontal axle as shown in figure.
Calculate the angular acceleration of the wheel if steady pull of 25N
is applied on the cord. Moment of inertia of flywheel about its
𝑴𝑹𝟐
axis=
𝟐
MR2 20 x 0.22
I= = =0.4 kgm2
2 2
Torque , τ = force xperpendicular distance
τ = 25 x0.2 = 5Nm
τ=I∝
τ 5
∝= = =12.5rad/s2
I 0.4

46.A girl rotates on a swivel chairas shown below.

a)what happens to her angular speed when she stretches
her arms
b) what happens to her angular speed when she folds her
arms
c)Name and state the conservation law applied for your
justification

a)When she stretches her arms, the moment of inertia increases and hence the angular
speed decreases.
b)When she folds her arms, the moment of inertia decreases and hence the angular
speed increases.
c) Law of conservation of angular momentum.
If the total external torque on a system of particles is zero, then the total angular
momentum of the system is conserved i.e, remains constant.
( If τ⃗ext = 0 , L ⃗ = 𝐼𝜔
⃗ = constant .When I increases 𝜔 ⃗ decreases and vice versa)

47.Write the expression for kinetic energy of rolling body

Total KE = Translational KE + Rotational KE
1 1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐼𝜔2
2 2

48.Show that for a body rolling down an inclined plane the total kinetic energy is
𝟏 𝐤𝟐
𝑲 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 ( 𝟏 + 𝟐 )
𝟐 𝑹
Total KE = Translational KE + Rotational KE
1 1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐼𝜔2
2 2
I = m𝑘 2
𝑣
and v= Rω, ω =
𝑅
1 2 1 m𝑘 2 𝑣 2
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 +
2 2 𝑅2
𝟏 𝐤𝟐
𝐊 = 𝐦𝐯 𝟐 ( 𝟏 + ) Here v is the velocity of centre of mass.
𝟐 𝐑𝟐

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49.Three bodies, a ring, a solid cylinder and a solid sphere roll down the same inclined
plane without slipping. They start from rest. The radii of the bodies are identical. Which
of the bodies reaches the ground with maximum velocity?

The potential energy lost by the body in rolling down the inclined plane = kinetic
energy gained.
1 k2
mgh = 𝑚𝑣 2 ( 1 + )
2 𝑅2
2𝑔ℎ
𝑣2 = k2
( 1+ 2 )
𝑅

2𝑔ℎ
v =√ k2
( 1+ 2 )
𝑅

Velocity is independent of the mass of the rolling body

For ring
I = 𝑚𝑅2 = 𝑚𝑘 2
𝑘 2 = 𝑅2

2𝑔ℎ 2𝑔ℎ 2𝑔ℎ

v =√ R2
=√ = √ = √𝑔ℎ
( 1+ 2 ) 1+1 2
𝑅

For solid cylinder

𝑚𝑅 2
I= = 𝑚𝑘 2
2
2 𝑅2
𝑘 =
2

2𝑔ℎ 2𝑔ℎ 2𝑔ℎ 4

v =√ R2 /2
=√ 1 =√ 3 =√ 𝑔ℎ =√1.3gh
( 1+ 2 ) 1+ 3
𝑅 2 2

For a solid sphere

2
I = 𝑚𝑅2 = 𝑚𝑘 2
5
2
𝑘 2 = 𝑅2
5

2𝑔ℎ 2𝑔ℎ 2𝑔ℎ 10

v =√ 2 2 =√ 2 =√ 7 =√ 𝑔ℎ =√1.4𝑔ℎ
𝑅 1+ 7
( 1+ 5 2 ) 5 5
𝑅

The sphere has the greatest and the ring has the least velocity of the centre of mass at
the bottom of the inclined plane.
Sphere reaches the ground with maximum velocity.
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 Chapter 8
Gravitation

1.State Kepler’s first law of planetary motion(Law of orbits )

All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun situated at one of the foci of the ellipse.

2.State Kepler’s second law of planetary motion(Law of areas)

The line that joins any planet to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time.
⃗⃗
ΔA
i.e, areal velocity is constant
Δt

3.Kepler’s second law (law of areas) is a consequence of conservation of

……………………….
angular momentum.

4.Prove Kepler’s second law of planetary mtion.

The area swept out by the planet of mass m in
time interval Δt is
ΔA⃗ = 1 (r × v⃗ Δt)
2
⃗ = mv
p ⃗ ,
⃗
p
⃗ =
v
m
⃗⃗
ΔA 1 ⃗
p
= (r × )
Δt 2 m
⃗ =r×p
L ⃗
⃗⃗
ΔA ⃗L
=
Δt 2m
Here angular momentum,⃗⃗⃗L is a constant.
⃗⃗
ΔA
= constant
Δt
This is the law of areas.

5.State Kepler’s third law of planetary motion(Law of periods)

The square of the time period of revolution of a planet is proportional to the cube of the
semi- major axis of the ellipse traced out by the planet.
T 2 ∝ a3
6.Prove Kepler’s third law of planetary mtion.
(R+h)3
Period of a satellite, T= 2π√
GM
3
2 (R+h)
T 2 = 4π
GM
4π2
T2= (R + h)3
GM
T 2 ∝ (R + h)3
T 2 ∝ a3
Which is Kepler’s Law of Periods.
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7.State Universal Law of Gravitation
Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force which is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them .
𝐦𝟏 𝐦𝟐
𝐅=𝐆 𝟐
𝐫
8. The value of Gravitational Constant.
G = 6.67×10−11 N m2 /kg 2

9.Define acceleration due to gravity of the Earth

The acceleration gained by a body due to the gravitational force of earth is called
acceleration due to gravity.

10. Obtain the expression for acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth
(or) Obtain the relation connecting g and G.
Consider a body of mass m on the surface of earth of mass M and radius R.
The gravitational force between body and earth is given by
GMm
F = 2 -----------(1)
R
By Newton’s second law
F=mg
where g is acceleration due to gravity
F
g=
m
GM
From Eq (1) g=
R2

11.The average value of g on the surface of earth is -------.

9.8ms −2 .

12. Acceleration due to gravity is independent of------------( mass of the body/mass of

earth).
mass of the body

13.A man can lift a mass of 15kg on earth.What will be the maximum mass that can be
lifted by him by applying the same force on moon.
6x15 =90kg
1
(Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon is times that on earth. So he can
6
lift 6 times massive objects on the surface of moon)

14.A mass of 30kg is taken from earth to moon. What will be its mass and weight on the
surface of moon
Mass on the moon=30kg (mass remains the same)
30 𝑥9.8
Weight on the moon = =49N
6

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15.Obtain the expression for Acceleration due to gravity at a height h above the surface
of the earth.
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth
GM
g = 2 ------------(1)
R
Acceleration due to gravity at a height above the surface
of earth
GM
gh = 2
----------(2)
(R+h)
For , h << R
GM
gh = h
R2 (1+ )2
R
GM h
gh = 2
(1 + )−2
R R
Substituting from eq(1)
h
g h = g(1 + )−2
R
Using binomial expression and neglecting higher order terms.
2h
g h ≅ g (1 − )
R

16.Derive the expression for acceleration due to gravity at a depth d below the surface
of the earth
We assume that the entire earth is of uniform density. Then mass
of earth
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth
GM
g= 2 -------------(1)
R
4
But M= πR3 ρ
3
G 4
g= ( πR3 ρ)
R2 3
4
g = πRρG ---------------(2)
3
Acceleration due to gravity at a depth d below the
surface of earth
4
g d = π(R − d)ρG ---------(3)
3
4
eq(3) gd π(R−d)ρG
3
------ = 4
eq(2) g πRρG
3
gd (R−d)
=
g R
d
g d = g(1 − )
R
17.The acceleration due gravity ---------------(decreases/increases) , as we go above
earth’s surface and ---------------(decreases/increases) ,as we go down below earth’s
surface.
Decreases ,Decreases.
18.The acceleration due gravity is ---------------------at the centre of earth.
Zero
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19.At what height the value of acceleration due to gravity will be half of
that on surface of earth. (Given the radius of earth R =6400km)
h
. g h = g(1 + )−2
R
g
gh =
2
g h
= g(1 + )−2
2 R
1 h −2
= (1 + )
2 R
h 2
2 = (1 + )
R
h
√2 =1 + R
h
= √2-1
R
h = (√2-1) R = (1.414 -1) 6400 = 2650 km
20.Calculate the value of acceleration due to gravity at a height equal to
half of the radius of earth.
GM
gh = 2
(R+h)
R
h=
2
GM GM
gh = R 2
= 3 2
(R+ ) ( R)
2 2
GM 4 GM 4
=9 = = 𝑔
R2 9 R2 9
4
21.Obtain the expression for gravitational potential energy at a point.
Gravitational potential energy at point is defined as the work done in displacing the
particle from infinity to that point without acceleration.

Gravitational force on a mass m at a distance x

GMm
F= 2
x
The work done to give a displacement dx to the mass
dW=Fdx
GMm
dW= 2 dx
x
Total work done to move the mass from ∞ to r
r GMm
W =∫∞ dx
x2
r 1
W = GMm ∫∞ dx
x2
−GMm
W=
r
This work is is stored as gravitational PE in the body.
−𝐆𝐌𝐦
U=
𝐫
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22.Define gravitational potential at a point on earth. Obtain the expression for
gravitational potential
The gravitational potential at a point is defined as the potential energy of a particle of
unit mass at that point.
The gravitational Potential energy of a body of mass m at a distance r
−GMm
U=
r
For unit mass m=1
−𝐆𝐌
So gravitational potential, V=
𝐫

23.What is escape speed(escape velocity)?

The minimum speed required for an object to reach infinity i.e. to escape from the
earth’s gravitational pull is called escape speed.

24.Derive the expression for escape speed.

Let the body thrown from the surface of earth to infinity.
Total initial energy of the body = Total final energy,
1 GMm 1
mvi2 - = mvf2
2 R 2
RHS is always always a positive quantity with minimum value zero.Taking the minimum value
1 GMm
mvi2 - =0
2 r
1 GMm
mvi2 =
2 R
2 2GM
vi =
R
2GM
ve = √
R
or
ve = √2gR
25.𝐄𝐬𝐜ape velocity is independent of ……………(mass of the body/mass of the earth)
Mass of the body.

26.Write thevalue of e𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐞 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 (𝐨𝐫 𝐞𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐞 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲) on the surface of earth .
11.2km/s

27.Moon has no atmosphere. Why?

The escape speed of moon is about 2.3 km/s. which is less than the average speed of
gas molecules of moon. Thus gas molecules escape from surface of moon and it has no
atmosphere.

28.What are sarth Satellites?

Earth satellites are objects which revolve around the earth.

29.……………. is the natural satellite of earth .

Moon
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30.What are the uses of artificial satellites?
Artificial satellites are used for telecommunication, geophysics and meteorology etc.

31.Derive the expression for orbital speed of a satellite

The speed with which a satellites revolves around earth is called orbital speed.
Consider a satellite of mass m in a circular orbit of a distance (R + h) from the centre of
the earth.
Fcentripetal = Fgravitational
mv2 GMm
=
R+h (R+h)2
2 GM
v =
(R+h)
GM
𝑣𝑜 = √
(R+h)
If the satellite is very close to earth (R+h) ≈R
𝐆𝐌
𝒗𝒐 = √
𝐑
or
𝒗𝒐 = √𝒈𝑹

32.Write the relation connecting escape velocity and orbital velocity

GM
Orbital Velocity ,v0 = √
R
2GM
Escape Velocity ,ve = √
R
𝐯𝐞 = √𝟐 𝐯𝐨
Escape Velocity = √2 x Orbital Velocity

33.Derive the expression for period of a satellite

Period of a satellite is the time required for a satellite to complete one revolution
around the earth in a fixed orbit.
circumference of the orbit
Period T=
𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

2𝜋 (𝑅+ℎ)
T= GM
√(R+h)

(𝑹+𝒉)𝟑
T=𝟐𝝅√
𝐆𝐌
If the satellite is very close to earth (R+h) ≈R
𝑹𝟑
T=𝟐𝝅√
𝐆𝐌

34.What are geostationary satellites?

Satellites in a circular are called Geostationery Satellites .

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35.Write four features of geostationary satellites.
▪ Geostationary satellites orbits around the earth in the equatorial plane with
period,T = 24 hours
▪ They appear to be stationary from any point on earth.
▪ Geostationary satellites are at a height of e 35800 km from the surface t of earth.
▪ Geostationary satellites are widely used for telecommunications.
▪ Eg. The INSAT group of satellites sent up by India are Geostationary satellites.

36.Obtain the equation to find the height of a geostationary satellite

(𝑅+ℎ)3
T=2𝜋√
GM
(R+h)3
T 2 = 4π2
GM
T 2 GM
3
(R + h) =
4π2
1
T2 GM 3
R + h =( )
4π2
𝟏
𝐓 𝟐 𝐆𝐌 𝟑
𝐡= ( 𝟐 ) −𝑹
𝟒𝛑
Using this eqn height of a Geostationary satellite is obtained as35800km.

37.Write four features of polar satellites.

▪ PolarsSatellites revolve around earth along poles in a north-south direction.
▪ These are low altitude (h= 500 to 800 km) satellites.
▪ Since its time period is around 100 minutes it crosses any altitude many times a
day.
▪ These satellites can view polar and equatorial regions at close distances with
good resolution.
▪ Polar satellites are useful for remote sensing, meterology as well as for
environmental studies of the earth.

38.Why do we feel weightlessness inside a satellite?

In the satellite everything inside it is in a state of free fall. A freely falling body has no
weight.

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 Chapter 9
Mechanical Properties of Solids
1.Define Elasticity
The property of a body, by virtue of which it tends to regain its original size and shape
when the applied force is removed, is known as elasticity and such substances are
called elastic .
Eg: Steel, Rubber
2.Which is more elastic, steel or rubber?
Steel
3.Define plasticity
Substances have no tendency to regain their previous shape on the removal of
deforming force are called plastic and this property is called plasticity.
Eg:Putty and mud

4.Define Stress
The restoring force per unit area is known as stress.
𝐹
Stress =
𝐴
The SI unit of stress is N 𝑚−2 or pascal (Pa)

5.Define Strain
Strain is defined as the fractional change in dimension.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Strain =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

Strain has no unit and dimension.

6.Wrte three types of stress and strain.
1. Longitudinal Stress and Longitudinal Strain
2. Shearing Stress and Shearing Strain
3. Hydraulic Stress and Hydraulic Strain (Volume Strain)

7.Define longitudinal stress

Longitudinal stress is defined as the restoring force per unit area when force is applied
normal to the cross-sectional area of a cylinder.
𝑭
Longitudinal stress=
𝑨

8. Define Longitudinal strain

Longitudinal strain is defined as the ratio of change in length(ΔL) to original length(L)
of the body .
Change in length
Longitudinal strain =
Original length

𝚫𝐋
Longitudinal strain =
𝑳

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9.Define shearing stress.
Shearing stress is defined as the restoring force per unit area when a tangential force
is applied on the cylinder.
𝐅
Shearing stress=
𝐀

10.Define Shearing strain.

Shearing strain is defined as the ratio of relative displacement of the faces Δx to the
length of the cylinder L
𝚫𝐱
Shearing strain = =tanθ = θ
𝑳

11.Define hydraulic stress or volume stress

The restoring force per unit area of solid sphere, placed in the fluid is called hydraulic
stress.
F
Hydraulic stress= = -P (pressure)
A

12.Define volume strain (hydraulic strain)

Volume strain(hydraulic strain) is defined as the ratio of change in volume (ΔV) to the
original volume (V).
Change in volume
Volume strain=
Original volume
𝚫𝐕
Volume strain=
𝐕

13.State Hooke’s Law

For small deformations the stress is directly proportional to strain. This is known as
Hooke’s law.
Stress ∝ Strain
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬
=𝒌
𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
The constant k is called Modulus of Elasticity.
The SI unit of modulus of elasticity is N 𝑚−2 or pascal (Pa)

14.Define modulus of elasticity. Write its unit.

Stress
Modulus of elasticity =
strain
Unit =N 𝑚−2 or pascal (Pa)

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15.The stress-strain curve for a metal is given in figure. Mark
1)Elastic limt (or) yield point 2) Fracture point 3) Proportional limit
4)Elastic region 5) Plastic region 6)permanent set
7) yield strength (𝑺𝒚 ) 8) ultimate tensile strength (𝑺𝒖 )

16.Define young’s eodulus(Y)

The ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain is defined as Young’s modulus of
the material .
longitudinal stress
Y=
longitudinal strain
𝐹
𝐴
Y= ΔL
𝐿

𝑭𝑳
Y=
𝐀 𝚫𝐋
17.Youngs modulus of steel is …………………….(greater/less) than that of rubber
Greater than
18.Define shear modulus or rigidity modulus(G)
The ratio of shearing stress to the corresponding shearing strain is called the shear
modulus or Rigidity modulus of the material .
Shearing stress
G=
Shearing strain
𝐹 𝐹
𝐴 𝐴
G= Δx =
𝜃
𝐿
𝑭
G=
𝐀𝜽
19.Define bulk modulus(B)
The ratio of hydraulic stress to the corresponding hydraulic strain is called bulk
modulus.
Hydraulic stress
B=
Hydraulic strain
𝐹
𝐴 −𝑃
B= ΔV = ΔV
𝑉 𝑉

−𝑷𝑽
B=
𝚫𝐕

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20.Define compressibility(k)
The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called compressibility.
1
k=
𝐵
−𝟏 𝚫𝐕
k=
𝐏 𝐕
▪ The compressibility is the least for solids and the most for gases.
▪ The bulk modulus is the least for gases and the most for solids.
21.Why steel is preferred in heavy-duty machines and in structural designs?
Young’s modulus of steel is greater than that of copper, brass and aluminium. So steel
is more elastic than copper, brass and aluminium. So steel is preferred in heavy-duty
machines and in structural designs
22.The stress-strain graphs for materials A and B are shown in Figure.

(a) Which of the materials has the greater Young’s modulus?

(b) Which of the two is the stronger material?
(c) Which of the two materials is more ductile?
stress
(a) Young’s modulus Y= = slpoe of the graph.
strain
Slope of graph for material A is greater than that of B.
So materials A has the greater Young’s modulus.
(b) Strength of a material is determined by the amount of stress required to
cause fracture.
The fracture point is greater for material A.
So material A is stronger than B
(c) The fracture point is far apart for material A than B.
So material A is more ductile than B.
22..The stress-strain graph for three materials A B and C are shown below
Which is more elastic A ,B or C. Justify your answer.

Material A is more elastic

stress
Modulus of elasticity = = slpoe of the graph
strain
Slope of graph for material A is greater than that of B and C
So material A is more elstic.
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23.A structural steel rod has a radius of 10 mm and a length of 1.0 m. A 100 kN force
stretches it along its length. Calculate (a) stress, (b) elongation, and (c) strain on the
rod. Young’s modulus, of structural steel is 2.0 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 N 𝒎−𝟐
𝐹 𝐹
(a) stress= = 2
𝐴 𝜋𝑟
100 𝑥 103 100 𝑥 103
= =
3.14 𝑥 (10 𝑥 10−3 ) 2 3.14 𝑥 10−4

=3.18 x108 N𝑚−2

𝐹𝐿
(b) Y=
A ΔL
𝐹
( )𝐿
𝐴 3.18 x108 𝑥 1
ΔL = =
Y 2× 1011

= 1.59 x10−3 m
= 1.59 mm
ΔL
(c) Strain =
𝐿
1.59 x10−3
=
1

= 1.59 x10−3 m

24.A square lead slab of side 50 cm and thickness 10 cm is subject to a shearing force
(on its narrow face) of 9.0 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 N. The lower edge is riveted to the floor. How much
will the upper edge be displaced? Given shear modulus,
G =𝟓. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍𝐦−𝟐
.

𝐹 9.0 × 104 9.0 × 104

Stress= = =
A 0.5 x0.1 0.05
6 −2
= 1.80 × 10 N 𝑚
stress
G = Δx
𝐿
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝐿
Δx =
G
1.80 × 106 𝑥 0.5
= = 1.6 × 10−4 m = 0.16 mm
5.6 × 109

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25.The average depth of Indian Ocean is about 3000 m. Calculate the fractional
compression, ΔV/V, of water at the bottom of the ocean, given that the bulk modulus of
water is 2.2 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 N 𝒎−𝟐 . (Take g = 10 m 𝒔−𝟐 )
−𝑃
G = ΔV
𝑉
ΔV P
=
𝑉 𝐺
P = hρg = 3000 x1000 𝑥10 = 3𝑥107 N 𝑚−2
ΔV 3𝑥107
= = 1.36 × 10−2
𝑉 2.2 × 109

26.Define Poisson’s ratio

The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio.
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Poisson’s Ratio 𝜎 =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
∆𝑑
𝑑
𝜎= ∆𝐿
𝐿
∆𝑑 𝐿
𝜎= 𝑥
∆𝐿 𝑑
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛.
27.Cranes used for lifting and moving heavy loads have a thick metal rope . Why?
This is due to the fact that metals have greater youngs modulus.

28.The metal ropes used in cranes are always made of a number of thin wires braided
together.Why?
In cranes thicker rope of radius about 3 cm is recommended. A single wire of this
radius would practically be a rigid rod. So the ropes are always made of a number of
thin wires braided together, like in pigtails, for ease in manufacture, flexibility and
strength.
29.The maximum height of a mountain on earth is ~10 km. Why?
The height of mountain is limited by the elastic properties of rocks.
30.Write the expression for bending δ produced in the beam shown below. How can we
reduce bending?

𝐖 𝒍𝟑
δ= (W=mg)
𝟒𝒃𝒅𝟑 𝒀
The bending reduces by
▪ Using a material with a large Young’s modulus Y
▪ Increasing the breadth b of the beam
▪ Increasing depth d of the beam.
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31.What is buckling?
The sidewise bending of a deep bar is called buckling.

32.Why beams with cross-sectional shape of I is used for construction of bridges?

▪ This sections prevents buckling of beams

▪ This section provides a large load bearing surface and enough depth to prevent
bending.
▪ This shape reduces the weight of the beam without sacrificing the strength This
shape reduces the cost.

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 Chapter 10
Mechanical Properties Of Fluids

1.Write two basic difference between Liquids and Gases

▪ A liquid is incompressible whereas gas is compressible
▪ A liquid has a free surface of its own ,but gas has no free surface.
2.Define pressure.
The normal force(F) exerted by a fluid on an area A is called pressure.
F
Pressure, P =
A
Pressure is a scalar quantity.

3.What do you mean by atmospheric pressure?

The pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea level.
1 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa.

4.Define density?
Density ρ for a fluid of mass m occupying volume V is given by
m
ρ=
V
5.Define relative density
The relative density of a substance is the ratio of its density to the density of water at
40 C.
Density of substance
Relative density= 0
Density of water at 4 C

It is a dimensionless positive scalar quantity.

6.Write the expression for absolute pressure P, at depth below the surface of a liquid
open to the atmosphere.
Absolute Pressure, P = Pa + ρ gh

7.Write the expreassion for gauge pressure

Gauge pressure, P - Pa = ρ gh

8.What is the pressure on a swimmer 10 m below the surface of a lake?

h = 10 m
ρ = 1000 kg m−3 Take g = 10 m s −2
P = Pa + ρ gh
= 1.01 × 105 + 1000 × 10 × 10
= 1.01 × 105 + 1 × 105
= 2.01 × 105 Pa
≈ 2 atm

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9.At a depth of 1000 m in an ocean
(a) what is the absolute pressure?
(b) What is the gauge pressure?
(The density of sea water is 1.03 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 kg 𝐦−𝟑 , g = 10m 𝐬 −𝟐 )
h = 1000 m , ρ = 1.03 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 kg 𝐦−𝟑
(a) Absolute pressure, P = Pa + ρgh
= 1.01 × 105 + 1.03 × 103 × 10 × 1000
= 1.01 × 105 + 103 × 105
= 104.01 × 105 Pa
≈ 104 atm
(b) Gauge pressure , P −Pa = ρgh
= 1.03 × 103 × 10 × 1000
= 103 × 105 Pa
≈ 103 atm

10.The device used to measure Atmospheric Pressure.

Mercury barometer is used to measure Atmospheric Pressure.
11.The device used to measure Guage pressure or pressure differences
An open-tube manometer is a used for measuring Guage pressure or pressure
differences.
12.State Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure.
Whenever external pressure is applied on any part of a fluid contained in a vessel, it is
transmitted undiminished and equally in all directions.

13.Briefly explain the working of hydraulic lift.

The pressure on smaller piston

F
P = 1 --------------(1)
A1
This pressure is transmitted equally to the larger piston of area A2 .
Upward force on A2 , F2 = P A 2

F1
Substituting from eq(1), F2 = A2
A1
𝐀𝟐
𝐅𝟐 = 𝐅𝟏
𝐀𝟏

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14. A hydraulic automobile lift is designed to lift cars with a maximum mass of 3000kg.
The area of cross section of the piston carrying 425 c𝒎𝟐 . What maximum pressure
would the smaller piston have to bear?
Pressure on two two pistons will be same.
F1 F2
P= =
A1 A2
F2 mg
P= =
A2 A2
2000 𝑥 9.8
= =6.92 x105 N𝑚−2 or Pa
425 x10−4

15.Two syringes of diffrent cross sections (without needles) filled with water are
connected with a tightly fitted rubber tube filled with water. Diameters of the smaller
piston and larger piston are 1.0 cm and 3.0 cm respectively. Find the force exerted on
the larger piston when a force of 10 N is applied to the smaller piston.
A
F2 = F1 2
A1
π x (1.5 x 10−2 )2
F2 = 10 x
π x (0.5 x 10−2 )2
= 10 x9 =90 N

16.What do you mean by streamline flow (Steady Flow)?

The flow of the fluid is said to be steady if at any given point, the velocity of each
passing fluid particle remains constant in time.
17.What is turbulent flow?
Beyond a limiting speed called critical speed, the flow of fluid loses steadiness and is
called turbulent flow.

18.Obtain the expression for equation of continuity for streamline flow of a fluid.

The mass of liquid flowing out = The mass of liquid flowing in

ρP AP vP Δt = ρQ AQ vQ Δt = ρR AR vR Δt
If the fluid is incompressible ρP = ρQ = ρR
A P vP = A Q vQ = A R vR
Av = constant

19.The equation of continuity and it is a statement of conservation of ……………. in flow

of incompressible fluids.
mass

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20. State and prove Bernoulli’s Principle
Bernoulli’s principle states that as we move along a streamline, the sum of the pressure
, the kinetic energy per unit volume and the potential energy per unit volume remains
a constant.
𝟏
𝐏 + 𝛒𝐯 𝟐 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡= constant
𝟐
Proof

The total work done on the fluid is

W1 + W2 = P1 ΔV - P2 ΔV
𝐖𝟏 + 𝐖𝟐 = (𝐏𝟏 - 𝐏𝟐 )ΔV-----------------(1)

The change in its kinetic energy is

𝟏
ΔK =. 𝐦(𝐯𝟐𝟐 − 𝐯𝟏𝟐 ) ---------------(2)
𝟐

The change in gravitational potential energy is

ΔU= mg(𝐡𝟐 -𝐡𝟏 )------------------(3)

By work – energy theorem

W1 + W2 = ΔK + ΔU
𝟏
(𝐏𝟏 - 𝐏𝟐 )ΔV = 𝐦(𝐯𝟐𝟐 − 𝐯𝟏𝟐 )+ 𝐦𝐠(𝐡𝟐 -𝐡𝟏 )-------------(4)
𝟐

𝑚
Divide each term by ΔV to obtain ( = ρ)
ΔV
1
P1 - P2 = ρ(v22 − v12 )+ ρg(h2 -h1 )
2
1 1
P1 – P2 = ρv22 − ρv12 + ρgh2− ρgh1
2 2
1 1
P1 + ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρv22 + ρgh2
2 2
𝟏
𝐏 + 𝛒𝐯 𝟐 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡= constant
𝟐

21.State Torricelli’s law of speed of efflux of fluid

Torricelli’s law states that the speed of efflux of fluid through a small hole at a depth h
of an open tank is equal to the speed of a freely falling body i.e, √2gh

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22.Prove Torricelli’s law of speed of efflux of fluid.

According to Bernoulli principle

1 1
P1 + ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρv22 + ρgh2
2 2
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 v2 = 0.
1
Pa + ρv12 + ρgy1 = P+ ρgy2
2
1
ρv12 = ρg(y2 − y1 ) + P − Pa
2
y2 − y1 = h
1
ρv12 = ρgh + P − Pa
2
2(P−Pa )
v12 = 2gh +
ρ
2(P−Pa )
v1 = √ 2gh +
ρ
If the tank is open to the atmosphere, then P = Pa
v1 = √ 2gh

23.Derive the expression to find speed of flow of a fluid using venturi-meter.

According to Bernoulli principle

1 1
P1 + ρv12 + ρgh1 =P2 + ρv22 + ρgh2
2 2
For points 1 and 2, h1 = h2
A
By equation of continuity , Av1 = av2 , v2 = a v1
1 1 A 2
P1 + ρv12 =P2 + ρ ( v1 )
2 2 a
1 A 2 1
P1 − P2 = ρ ( v1 ) - ρv12
2 a 2

1 A 2
P1 − P2 = ρv12 [ ( ) – 1]
2 a
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 But P1 − P2 = ρm gh
h= height difference in manometer tube
ρm = density of liquid in manometer
1 A 2
ρm gh= ρv12 [( ) − 1]
2 a
2ρm gh
ρ
v12 = A 2
[( ) −1]
a
1
−
2ρm gh A 2 2
v1 = √ [( a ) − 1]
ρ
24.Venturimeter principle is used in,
▪ The carburetor of automobile
▪ Filter pumps or aspirators
▪ Bunsen burner
▪ Atomisers
▪ Sprayers used for perfumes or to spray insecticides
25.Explain blood flow and heart attack using Bernoulli’s principle
The artery may get constricted due to the accumulation of plaque on its inner walls.
The speed of the flow of the blood in this region is raised which lowers the pressure
inside and the artery may collapse due to the external pressure. The heart exerts
further pressure to open this artery and forces the blood through. As the blood rushes
through the opening, the internal pressure once again drops due to same reasons
leading to a repeat collapse. This may result in heart attack.

26.Explain Magnus Effect.

The relative velocity of air above the ball is larger and below it is smaller. This
difference in the velocities of air results in the pressure difference between the lower
and upper faces and there is a net upward force on the ball. This dynamic lift due to
spining is called Magnus effect.

27.What is an aerofoil and how a dynamic lift is produced on aircraft wing

Aerofoil is a solid piece shaped to provide an upward dynamic lift when it moves
horizontally through air. When the aerofoil moves against the wind, the flow speed of
air on top is higher than that below it. There is an upward force resulting in a dynamic
lift of the wings and this balances the weight of the plane.

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28.Define viscosity
The internal frictional force that acts when there is relative motion between layers of
the liquid is
29.Obtain the expression for Coefficient of viscosity( 𝛈)

The coefficient of viscosity( η)for a fluid is defined as the ratio of shearing stress to the
strain rate.
F
Shearing stress A
η= = 𝑣
Strain rate
𝑙
𝐅𝒍
𝛈=
𝐯𝐀
30.The viscosity of liquids …………………. with temperature while the viscosity of gases
……………….. in the case of gases.
Decreases, increases

31.State Stokes’ Law

Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a sphere of radius a moving with
velocity v through a fluid of coefficient of viscosity η is,
F = 6πηav
32.What terminal velocity?
For an object falls through a viscous medium, when viscous force plus buoyant force
becomes equal to the weight of the body, the net force and acceleration become zero.
Then the object descends with a constant velocity called terminal velocity.
33.Obtain expression for terminal velocity.

Consider a raindrop in air. The forces acting on the drop are

4
1. Weight acting downwards , FG = πa3 ρg (mg)
3
4
2. Buoyant force acting upwards, FB = πa3 σg
3
3. Viscous force, FV = 6πηav

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In equilibrium,
4 4
6πηav + πa3 σg = πa3 gρ
3 3
4
6πηav = πa3 (ρ −σ)g
3
Terminal velocity ,
𝟐𝐚𝟐 (𝛒 −𝛔)𝐠
𝐯𝐭 =
𝟗𝛈

34.The terminal velocity of a copper ball of radius 2.0 mm falling through a tank of oil
at 𝟐𝟎𝟎 C is 6.5 cm 𝐬 −𝟏 . Compute the viscosity of the oil at 𝟐𝟎𝟎 C. Density of oil is 1.5 ×
𝟏𝟎𝟑 kg 𝐦−𝟑 , density of copper is 8.9 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 kg 𝐦−𝟑 .
vt = 6.5 × 10−2 ms −1 ρ = 8.9 × 103 kg m−3
a = 2 × 10−3 m σ =1.5 ×103 kg m−3
g = 9.8m s −2 ,
2a2 (ρ −σ)g
vt =
9η
2a2 (ρ −σ)g
η=
9vt
2 x (2 × 10−3 )2 (8.9 × 103 −1.5 ×103 )x9.8
η=
9 x 6.5 × 10−2

η =9.9 × 10−1 kg m−1 s −1

35.Write the Reynolds Number.

𝛒𝐯𝐝
𝐑𝐞 =
𝛈
R e <1000 – The flow is streamline or laminar.
R e > 2000 − The flow is turbulent .
R e between 1000 and 2000-The flow becomes unsteady .

36.Define surface tension

Surface tension is a force per unit length (or surface energy per unit area) acting in the
plane of the interface between the plane of the liquid and any other substance.
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
Surface Tension, S=
𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡

▪ The SI Unit is Nm−1

▪ Dimensional formula is MT −2 .

37.The surface tension of a liquid …………………….. with temperature.

decreases

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38.Show that surface tension is equal to surface energy per unit area.

Inorder to keep the bar in its original position some work has to be done against this
inward full.
W = F x d----------(1)
If the surface energy of the film is S per unit area, the extra area is 2d𝑙 (film has two
sides),
The extra surface energy = S x 2d𝑙 ------------(2)
The extra surface energy = work done
S x2d𝑙 =Fd
F
S = = surface tension
2𝑙

39.Some effects of surface Tension

▪ Oil and water do not mix.
▪ Water wets you and me but not ducks.
▪ Mercury does not wet glass but water sticks to it.
▪ Oil rises up a cotton wick, inspite of gravity.
▪ Sap and water rise up to the top of the leaves of the tree.
▪ Hairs of a paint brush do not cling together when dry and even when dipped in
water but form a fine tip when taken out of it.
40.Define angle of contact
The angle between tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and solid surface
inside the liquid is termed as angle of contact(θ)

▪ Angle of contact is obtuse for Water on a waxy or oily surface, Mercury on any
surface.
▪ Angle of contact is acute for Water on glass or on plastic, Kerosene oil on
virtually anything .

41.Why are small drops and bubbles spherical?

Due to surface tension ,liquid surface has the tendency to reduce surface area. For a
given volume sphere has minimum surface area. So small drops and bubbles are
spherical.

42.Why are large drops and bubbles not spherical, but flattened?
For large drops the effect of gravity predominates that of surface tension and they get
flattened.

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43.Derive the expression for excess pressure inside a spherical drop

Work done in expansion= Force x Displacement

= Excess pressure x Area x Displacement
W = (Pi - Po ) x 4πr 2 x Δr ------------------(1)

This workdone is equal to the increase in surface energy

Extra Surface energy = Surface tension x Increase in surface area
Extra surface energy = S x 8πrΔr ------------------(2)
The workdone = extra surface energy
(Pi - Po ) x 4πr 2 xΔr = 8πrΔr S --------------(3)
𝟐𝐒
(𝐏𝐢 - 𝐏𝐨 ) =
𝐫
44.Write the expression for excess pressure inside a liquid bubble
A bubble has two free surfaces.
2S
(Pi - Po ) = 2x
r
𝟒𝐒
(𝐏𝐢 - 𝐏𝐨 ) =
𝐫

45.What is capillary rise? What is the phenomenon responsible for it?

Water rises up in a capillary tube dipped in a liquid in spite of gravity. This is called
capillary rise.

Surfacetesion is responsible for capillary rise.

46.Obtain an expression for capillary rise

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The excess pressure on the concave meniscus
2S
(Pi - Po ) =
r
a a
cosθ = , r=
r cosθ
2S
(Pi - Po ) = a
cosθ
2Scosθ
(Pi - Po ) = ----------------(1)
a
Consider two points A and B in the same horizontal level i.e, the points are at the same
pressure.
Pressure at A = Pi
Pressure at B = Po + h ρ g
Pi =Po + h ρ g
Pi - Po = h ρ g----------------(2)
From eq(1) and (2)
2Scosθ
h ρ g=
a
𝟐𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
h=
𝛒 𝐠𝐚

47.What is capillary depression?

When liquid level lower in the capillary tube dipped in a liquid ,it is called capillary fall
or capillary depression.

48.Why mercury shows capillary depression?

For mercury, angle of contact θ will be obtuse . Then cos θ is negative and hence value
of h will be negative. So mercury shows capillary depression.

49.Find the capillary rise when a capillary tube of radius 0.05 cm is dipped vertically in
water. Surface tension for water is 0.073N𝒎−𝟏 .Density of water is 1000 kg𝒎−𝟑 .
2Scosθ
h=
ρ ga
For water-glass angle of contact θ = 0, cos 0 =1
2S
h=
ρ ga
2𝑥 0.073
h=
1000 𝑥 9.8 𝑥 0.05 𝑥10−3

h = 2.98 × 10−2 m = 2.98 cm.

50.How soaps and detergents helps to remove dirts from clothes

The molecules of detergents produce a water-oil interface which reduces the surface
tension (water-oil) and dirt can be removed by running water.

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 Chapter 11
Thermal Properties of Matter

1.Write the relation connecting temperature on Fahrenheit scale and Celsius scales .
tF −32 t
= C
180 100

2.Write the relation connecting temperature on Kelvin and Celsius scales .

T = t C + 273.15

3.Temperature of a normal human body is 98.60F. What is the corresponding

temperature in Celsius scale?
98.6−32 t
= C
180 100

(98.6−32)x100
tC= = 370C
180

4.State Boyle’s law

At constant temperature , the pressure of a quantity of gas is inversely proportional to
volume.
1
P∝
V
PV = constant.
5.State Charles’ law
At constant pressure , the volume of a quantity of gas is directly proportional to
temperature .
V∝T
𝐕
= constant
𝐓

6.Write Ideal gas equation

𝐏𝐕= 𝛍𝐑𝐓
where, μ is the number of moles in the sample of gas.
R is called universal gas constant: R = 8.31 J mol−1 K −1

7.What do you mean by absolute zero temperature or zero kelvin (OK)

The minimum temperature for an ideal gas is called Absolute temperature or zero
kelvin(OK). This temperature is found to be – 273.15 °C
8.What is thermal expansion
The increase in the dimensions of a body due to the increase in its temperature is called
thermal expansion.

9.Write the expression for coefficient of linear expansion

Δl
𝛼𝑙 =
𝑙 ΔT
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10.Write the expression for coefficient of area expansion
ΔA
αa =
A ΔT
11.Write the expression for coefficient of volume expansion
ΔV
αv =
VΔT
12. Obtain the relation between 𝛂𝐥 and 𝛂𝐚
ΔA
αa =
A ΔT
ΔA = (𝑙 + 𝛥𝑙)2 - 𝑙 2
ΔA =2 l Δl (Neglecting term (Δl)2 )
A= 𝑙 2
2 𝑙 𝛥𝑙
𝛼𝑎 =
𝑙 2 𝛥𝑇
𝛥𝑙
𝛼𝑎 = 2
𝑙 𝛥𝑇
𝛥𝑙
𝑙 𝛥𝑇
=𝛼𝑙
𝜶𝒂 = 𝟐 𝜶𝒍
13.Relation between 𝛂𝐥 and 𝛂𝐯
ΔV
αv =
VΔT
ΔV = (𝑙 + Δl)3 - 𝑙 3
ΔV = 3 𝑙 2 Δl (Neglecting terms (Δl)2 and (Δl)3)
3
V=𝑙
3 𝑙 2 𝛥𝑙
𝛼𝑣 =
𝑙 3 𝛥𝑇
𝛥𝑙
𝛼𝑣 = 3
𝑙 𝛥𝑇
𝛥𝑙
𝑙 𝛥𝑇
= 𝛼𝑙
𝜶𝒗 = 𝟑 𝜶𝒍

14.What is the ratio of 𝛂𝐥 , 𝛂𝐚 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛂𝐯

αl : αa : αv = 1: 2: 3

15.Based on the graph given below explain the anomalous expansion of water.

Water exhibits an anomalous behavour; it contracts on heating from 0 °C to 4 °C. When

it is heated after 4 °C ,it expands like other liquids.
This means that water has minimum volume and hence maximum density at 4 °C .
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16.Why the bodies of water, such as lakes and ponds, freeze at the top first?
This is due to anomalous expansion of water. water has minimum volume and hence
maximum density at 4 °C .
As a lake cools toward 4 °C, water near the surface becomes denser, and sinks. Then
the warmer, less dense water near the bottom rises. When this layer cools to 0 °C, it
freezes, and being less dense, remain at the surfaces.

17.Define heat capacity

Heat capacity (S) of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of the substance by one unit.
ΔQ
S=
ΔT
Unit is JK −1

18.Define specific heat capacity

Specific heat capacity (s) of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of the substance by one unit.
1 ΔQ
s=
m ΔT
Unit is Jkg −1 K −1

19.Define molar specific heat capacity

Molar Specific heat capacity (C) of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of one mole of the substance by one unit.
1 ΔQ
C=
μ ΔT

Unit is Jmol−1 K −1
Why gases have two specific heat capacities ?
As gas is compressible, heat transfer can be achieved by keeping either pressure or
volume constant. So gases have two types of molar specific heat capacities,Cp and Cv

20.Define molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure 𝐂𝐩

Molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure of a substance is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one mole of the substance by one unit keeping its
pressure constant.
1 ΔQ
Cp = ( )
μ ΔT p
Define molar specific heat capacity at constant volume 𝐂𝐯
Molar specific heat capacity at constant volume of a substance is the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of one mole of the substance by one unit keeping its
volume constant.
1 ΔQ
Cv = ( )
μ ΔT v
21.Write the specific heat capacity of water.
4186 is Jkg −1 K −1

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22.Water is used as a coolant in automobile radiators as well as a heater in hot water
bags.Why?
Specific heat capacity of water is very high equal to 4186 is Jkg −1 K −1 .

23.Measurement of heat is called………………

Calorimetry

24.A device in which heat measurement can be made is called a …………………..

Calorimeter.

25.Write the names of following phase trasitions.

Change of state
Solid to Liquid Melting
Liquid to Solid Fusion
Liquid to Gas Vaporisation
Gas to Liquid Condensation
Solid to Gas Sublimation

26.The temperature at which the solid and the liquid states of the substance coexist in
thermal equilibrium with each other is called its -------------
melting point.

27.Melting point ------------ with increase in pressure .

decreases

28.The temperature at which the liquid and the vapour states of the substance coexist
in thermal equilibrium is called its---------------
boiling point.

29. The boiling point increases with increase in pressure and decreases with decreases
in pressure.

30 .Cooking is difficult on hills. Give reason.

The boiling point decreases with decreases in pressure. At high altitudes, atmospheric
pressure is lower, boiling point of water decreases as compared to that at sea level. So
cooking is difficult.

31.Cooking is faster using a pressure cooker. Give reason

The boiling point increases with increase in pressure.
Boiling point is increased inside a pressure cooker by increasing the pressure. Hence
cooking is faster.

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32.Define Sublimation. Give an example of a substance that sublime.
The change from solid state to vapour state without passing through the liquid state is
called sublimation.
Eg: Dry ice (solid CO2 ) , Iodine ,Camphor

33.Define Latent Heat

The amount of heat per unit mass transferred during change of state of the substance is
called latent heat of the substance for the process.
Q
L=
m
SI unit of Latent Heat is J k𝑔−1
34.Define Latent Heat of Fusion (𝐋𝐟 )
The latent heat for a solid -liquid state change is called the latent heat of fusion (Lf ) or
simply heat of fusion.
Lf of water = 3.33 × 105 J k𝑔−1 .

35.Define Latent Heat of Vaporisation (𝐋𝐯 )

The latent heat for a liquid-gas state change is called the latent heat of vaporisation
(Lv ) or heat of vaporisation.
Lv of water= 22.6 × 105 J k𝑔−1

36. Calculate the amount of heat energy required to convert10kg of water at 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 C to
steam at 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 C.
Q
Lv =
m
Q =Lv m
Q =22.6 × 105 x 10
Q =22.6 × 106 𝐽
37.Why burns from steam are usually more serious than those from boiling water?
For water, the latent heat of vaporisation is Lv = 22.6 × 105 J k𝑔−1 .
So, steam at 100 °C carries 22.6 × 105 J k𝑔−1 more heat than water at 100 °C. This is
why burns from steam are usually more serious than those from boiling water.

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38.The graph given below represents the temperature versus heat for water at 1 atm
pressure. Answer the following questions.

(i)Fill up the table

Graph Process Phase(state)
BC ------------ Ans:Melting ------------- Ans: solid + liquid
DE ------------ Ans: Vaporisation -------------Ans: liquid + gas

Graph Phase
AB ---------- Ans: Solid (ice)
CD ---------- Ans: Liquid(water)
EF ---------- Ans: Gas(steam)

(ii)The heat energy corresponding to BC is called ------------

Latent heat of fusion

(iii)The heat energy corresponding to DE is called ------------

Latent heat of Vaporisation

(iv)The slope of AB and CD are different.Why?

Different slopes indicates that specific heat capacity of ice and water are different.
▪ When slope of graph is less, it indicates a high specific heat capacity .
▪ Slope of CD is less than that of AB ,i.e., specific heat capacity of water is greater
than that of ice.

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39.Write different modes of heat transfer.
conduction, convection and radiation

40.What is conduction?
Conduction is the mechanism of transfer of heat between two adjacent parts of a body
because of their temperature difference.

41.Write the expression for rate of flow of heat if one end of a metallic rod is heated

T −T
H=KA c D
L
The constant of proportionality K is called the thermal conductivity of the material.

42.Some cooking pots have copper coating on the bottom. Give reason.
Thermal conductivity of copper is high and it promotes the distribution of heat over
the bottom of a pot for uniform cooking.

43.Why a brass tumbler feels much colder than a wooden tray on a chilly day?
Thermal conductivity of brass(metal) is greater than that of wood.

44.Houses made of concrete roofs get very hot during summer days.Why?
Thermal conductivity of concrete is moderately high.
45.What is convection?
Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual motion of matter. It is possible only in
fluids.

46.Give examples for natural convection

Sea breeze, Land breeze, Trade wind
47.Explain sea breeze.
Sea breeze is due to natural convection.
During the day, the ground heats up more quickly than large water bodies. This is due
to greater specific heat capacity of water. The air in contact with the warm ground is
heated . It expands, becomes less dense and rises . Then cold air above sea moves to fill
this space and is called as sea breeze .
48.Explain land breeze
Land breeze is due to natural convection.
At night, the ground loses its heat more quickly, and the water surface is warmer than
the land. The air in contact with water is heated. It expands, becomes less dense and
rises . Then cold air above the ground moves to fill this space and is called as land
breeze .
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49.Give examples for forced convection.
Forced-air heating systems in home
The human circulatory system
The cooling system of an automobile engine.
50.What is radiation?
The mechanism for heat transfer which does not require a medium is called radiation.
51.Heat is transferred to the earth from the sun through empty space as …………………
Radiation.

52.We wear white or light coloured clothes in summer.Why?

White colour absorb the least heat from the sun.
53.During winter, we use dark coloured clothes .Why?
Dark colours absorb heat from the sun and keep our body warm.
54.The bottoms of the utensils for cooking food are blackened .Why?
Black colour absorbs maximum heat from the fire and give it to the vegetables to be
cooked.
55.Explain the principle of thermo bottles.
It consists of a double-walled glass vessel with the inner and outer walls coated with
silver. Radiation from the inner wall is reflected back into the contents of the bottle.
The outer wall similarly reflects back any incoming radiation.

56.What is a black body?

An object that absorbs all radiations falling on it at all wavelength is called a blackbody.
A blackbody, also emits radiations of all possible wavelength.

57.What are blackbody radiation?

The radiations emitted by blackbody are called blackbody radiations.
58.State Wien’s displacement law.
The wavelength λm for which energy emitted by a blackbody is the maximum , is
inversely roportional to the temperarure.This is known as Wien’s Displacement Law.
1
λm α
T
𝛌𝐦 𝐓 = constant
The constant is called Wien’s constant and its value is 2.9 x 10−3 mK.

59.State Stefan-Boltzmann law

The energy emitted by a radiator (black body) per unit time is given by
H = AeσT 4
where A - the area of the body
T - temperature of bod
E - the emissivity
σ is called Stefan-Boltzmann constant
σ = 5.67 x10−8 Wm−2 K −4
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60.Explain Greenhouse Effect
The earth’s surface radiates the energy absorbed from the sun.The wavelength of these
radiation lies in the Infrared region. A large portion of these radiation is absorbed by
greenhouse gases, namely, carbon dioxide
(CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), nitrous oxide (N2 O ), chloroflurocarbon(CFx Clx )and
tropospheric ozone (O3 ). This heats up the atmosphere and it gives more energy to
earth. This cycle continues until no radiation is available for absorption. The net result
is the heating up of earth’s surface and atmosphere. This is known as Greenhouse
Effect.
61.State Newton’s law of cooling
Newton’s Law of Cooling says that the rate of loss of heat(rate of cooling) of a body is
proportional the difference of temperature of the body and the surroundings.
𝐝𝐐
− = 𝐤(𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 )
𝐝𝐓
Where T1 is the temperature of the surrounding medium
T2 is the temperature of the body
k is a positive constant depending upon the area and nature of the
surface of the body

62.Draw the curve showing cooling of hot water with time

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 Chapter 12
Thermodynamics
1.What do you mean by thermal equilibrium?
A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium with itself if the temperature of the
system remains constant.

2.State Zeroth law of thermodynamics

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that ‘two systems in thermal equilibrium with a
third system separately are in thermal equilibrium with each other’.
i. e, If TA = TC and TB = TC then TA = TB

3..State first law of Thermodynamics

The heat supplied to the system is partly used to increase the internal energy of the
system and the rest is used to do work on the environment .
ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW
4.First law of thermodynamics is in accordance with law of conservation
of----------------------.
Energy

5.Derive the relation connecting 𝐂𝐩 and 𝐂𝐯 or Derve Mayer’s relation

Molar specific heat capacity at constant volume,
ΔQ
Cv = ( )
ΔT v
ΔQ = ΔU
ΔU
Cv = ( ) (U depends only on T .So subscript V can be omitted)
ΔT v
ΔU
Cv = ---------(1)
ΔT

Molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure

ΔQ
Cp = ( )
ΔT p
ΔQ = ΔU + P ΔV
ΔU ΔV
Cp = ( ) + (P ) U depends only on T .So subscript P can be omitted)
ΔT ΔT p p
ΔU ΔV
Cp = + (P ) ------------(2)
ΔT ΔT p
PV = RT
ΔV
P (ΔT) = R
p
ΔU
Cp = + R
ΔT
Substituting from eq(1) Cp = Cv +R
𝐂𝐩 − 𝐂𝐯 = 𝐑
This is called Mayer’s relation.

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𝟔. 𝐂𝐩 𝐢𝐬 𝐚𝐥𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐧 𝐂𝐯 . Why
When gas is heated at constant volume, the entire heat is used to increase the internal
energy of the gas. But when the gas is heated at constant pressure, the heat is used to
increase the internal energy and also to do external work during expansion. Hence Cp
is greater than Cv .
7.What are thermodynamic state variables?
Every equilibrium state of a thermodynamic system is completely described by specific
values of some macroscopic variables. These are called thermodynamic state variables.
Eg: pressure, volume, temperature, mass , composition,Entropy, Enthalpy

8.What do you mean by equation of state?

The connection between the state variables is called the equation of state.

9.Write the e quation of statefor an ideal gas

PV=μRT
10.What are extensive variables?
The thermodynamic variables which indicate the ‘size’ of the system are called
extensive variables.
Eg:Internal energy, Volume , Mass
11.What are intensive variables?
The thermodynamic variables which do not indicate the ‘size’ of the system are called
intensive variables.
Eg: Pressure, Temperature , Density
12.What is a quasi-static process?
The name quasi-static means nearly static.
A quasi-static process is an infinitely slow process such that the system remains in
thermal and mechanical equilibrium with the surroundings throughout.
Eg: Processes that are sufficiently slow and do not involve accelerated motion of the
piston, large temperature gradient, etc.

13.Different thermodynamic processes

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14.Write the equation of state for an isothermal process.
PV = constant

15.Write the equation of state for an adiabatic process.

PV γ = constant

16.Derive the expression for work done by an ideal gas during an isothermal process.
v
W =∫v 2 P dV
1
PV= μRT
μR T
P=
V
v μR T
W =∫v 2 dV
1 V
v 1
W =μ R T ∫v 2 dV
1 V
v
W = μR T [ln V]v21
W = μR T [ln V2 − ln V1 ]
V
W = μRT ln [ 2 ]
V1

17.Derive the expression for workdone by an Ideal gas during an adiabatic process
v
W =∫v 2 P dV
1
PV γ = k
k
P=Vγ
P=k V −γ
v
W = k ∫v 2 V −γ dV
1

v2
V−γ+1
W = k[ ]
−γ+1 v
1

k
W= [v21−γ − v11−γ ]
1−γ
1 k k
W= [ γ−1
− ]
1−γ v2 v1 γ−1
PV γ = k
P1 V1 γ = P2 V2 γ =k
1 P2 V2 γ P1 V1 γ
W= [ − ]
1−γ v2 γ−1 v1 γ−1

1
W= [ P2 V2 − P1 V1 ]
1−γ
μR
(or) W= [ T2 − T1 ]
1−γ
18.Workdone in an isochoric process is ------------
Zero
19.Work done by the gas in an Isobaric process
Δ W=P ΔV
W = P (V2 − V1 )
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20.What is a cyclic process?
In a cyclic process, the system returns to its initial state.
Since internal energy is a state variable, ΔU = 0 for a cyclic process

21.Heat engines convert heat energy into -------------------

mechanical energy.

22.Draw a schematic diagram of a heat engine

23.What are the main parts of a heat engines ?

(1) Working substance–the system.
(2) An external reservoir at some high temperature T1 called source
(3) An external reservoir at some lower temperature T2 called sink.

24. Obtain the equation for efficiency of heat engine

The efficiency (η) of a heat engine is defined by
W
η=
Q1
W =Q1 − Q 2
𝐐 −𝐐
𝛈= 𝟏 𝟐
𝐐𝟏
In terms of temperature of source and sink efficiency can also be written as
𝐓 −𝐓
𝛈= 𝟏 𝟐
𝐓𝟏

25.Is it possible for an engine to have 100% efficiency.

No, it is not possible for an engine to have 100% efficiency
Q −Q
η= 1 2
Q1
For η = 1 or 100% , Q2 should be zero , which is not possible.

26.What is the efficiency of a heat engine working between 233K and 373K.
Or
What is the efficiency of a heat engine working between ice point 𝟎𝟎 𝐂 and
steam point 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐂 .
T −T
η= 1 2
T1
T1 = 100 + 273 = 3730C
T2 = 0 + 273 = 2730C
373− 273
η=
373
η =0.268=26.8%

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27.What is an external combustion engine?Give example.
In an external combustion engine, the system is heated by an external furnace.
Eg: steam engine

28.What is an internal combustion engine? Give example.

In an internal combustion engine, the system is heated internally by an exothermic
chemical reaction.
Eg: Petrol engine ,Diesel engine.

29.Draw a schematic diagram of a refrigerator

30.Write the expression for coefficient of performance of a refrigerator.

𝐐
α= 𝟐
𝐖
𝐐𝟐
α=
𝐐𝟏 − 𝐐𝟐
or
𝐓𝟐
α=
𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟐

31.Write the expression for coefficient of performance of a heat pump.

𝐐
α= 𝟏
𝐖
𝐐𝟏
α=
𝐐𝟏 − 𝐐𝟐
or
𝐓𝟏
α=
𝐓𝟏 − 𝐓𝟐
32.A refrigerator is to maintain eatables kept inside at 90C. If the room temperature is
360C,calculate the coefficient of performance.
T2
α=
T1 − T2
T1 = 36 + 273 = 3090C
T2 = 9 + 273 = 2820C
282
α= =10.44
309−282

33.State Kelvin-Planck statement of second law of thermodynamics

No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and
the complete conversion of the heat into work.

34.State Clausius statement of second law of thermodynamics

No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a
hotter object.
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35.What is a reversible processes?
A thermodynamic process is reversible if the process can be turned back such that both
the system and the surroundings return to their original states, with no other change
anywhere else in the universe.
Eg: A quasi-static isothermal expansion of an ideal gas in a cylinder fitted with a
frictionless movable piston is a reversible process.

36.What is an irreversible processes?

A thermodynamic process is irreversible if the process cannot be turned back such that
both the system and the surroundings return to their original states, with no other
change anywhere else in the universe.
The spontaneous processes of nature are irreversible.
▪ Eg:The free expansion of a gas
▪ The combustion reaction of a mixture of petrol and air ignited by a spark .
▪ Cooking gas leaking from a gas cylinder in the kitchen diffuses to the entire room.
The diffusion process will not spontaneously reverse and bring the gas back to
the cylinder.
37.What is the working substance of the Carnot engine.
Ideal gas.

38.Draw P-V diagram for a Carnot cycle .Also write different thermodynamic processes
involved in a Carnot cycle.

The four processes involved in carnot

cycle are
1.Isothermal Expansion
2. Adiabatic Expansion
3. Isothermal Compression
4. Adiabatic Compression

39.Write the expression for efficiency of Carnot engine

Q −Q Q
η= 1 2 or η=1− 2
Q1 Q1

T1 − T2 T2
η= or η=1−
T1 T1

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40.Obtain the expression for workdone in a Carnot cycle
(a)Step 1 →2 Isothermal expansion of the gas from (P1 , V1 , T1 ) to (P2 , V2 , T1 ).
V
W1→2 = Q1 = μ RT1 ln ⌊ 2 ⌋ ------------(1)
V1
(b) Step 2 → 3 Adiabatic expansion of the gas from (P2 ,V2 ,T1 ) to (P3 , V3 , T2 ).
μR
W2→3 = [ T1 − T2 ] ------------------(2)
γ−1
(c)Step 3→4 Isothermal compression of the gas from(P3 ,V3 ,T2 ) to (P4 ,V4 ,T2 ).
V
W3→4 = Q 2 = − μ RT2 ln ⌊ 3 ⌋ -----------(3)
V4
(d) Step 4 → 1 Adiabatic compression of the gas from (P4 ,V4 ,T2 ) to (P1 ,V1 , T1 )
μR
W4→1 =− [T1 − T2 ] -----------------(4)
γ−1

Total work done by the gas in one complete cycle is

W= W1→2 + W2→3 + W3→4 + W4→1

V μR V μR
W= μ RT1 ln ⌊ 2 ⌋ + [ T1 − T2 ] − μ RT2 ln ⌊ 3 ⌋ − [ T1 − T2 ]
V1 γ−1 V4 γ−1

V V
W= μ RT1 ln ⌊ 2 ⌋ − μ RT2 ln ⌊ 3 ⌋ -------------(5)
V1 V4

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 Chapter 13
Kinetic Theory
1.Real gases approach ideal gas behaviour at ………………………………………..
Low pressures and high temperatures.

2.State Dalton’s law of partial pressures

The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is the sum of partial pressures. This is
Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
3.Write any four postulates of kinetic theory of an Ideal Gas
• A given amount of gas is a collection of a large number of molecules that are in
random motion.
• At ordinary pressure and temperature, the average distance between molecules
is very large compared to the size of a molecule (2 Å).
• The interaction between the molecules is negligible.
• The molecules make elastic collisions with each other and also with the walls of
the container .
• As the collisions are elastic , total kinetic energy and total momentum are
conserved .
• The average kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas.
4.Derive the expression for pressure of an ideal gas

The change in momentum of the molecule = −mvx −mvx

= −2 mvx
Momentum imparted to wall in the collision = 2mvx
Distance travelled by the molecule in time Δt = vx Δt
Volume covered by the molecule = Avx Δt
No of molecules in this volume = n Avx Δt
(n is number density of molecules)
Only half of these molecules move in +x direction
1
So no of molecules = nA vx Δt
2

The number of molecules with velocity vx hitting the wall in time Δt

1
= nA vx Δt
2
The total momentum transferred to the wall
1
Q = (2mvx ) ( nA vx Δt )
2

Q = nmAvx 2 Δt
Q
The force on the wall, F =
Δt

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 F = nmAvx 2
F
Pressure, P =
A
P = nmvx 2
All molecules in a gas do not have the same velocity; so average velocity is to be taken
P= nmv ̅̅̅x2
̅̅̅ 1 2
vx2 = ̅̅̅
v
3
̅̅̅2 1
P= nmv
3
5.Show that the average kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas.
1 ̅̅̅2
P= nmv
3
N
n= , N=nV
V
̅̅̅21
PV= Nmv
3
where N is the number of molecules in the sample.
2 1 ̅̅̅
2)
PV= (N mv
3 2
2
PV= E---------------------(1)
3

Ideal gas equation, PV =Nk B T -------------------(2)

2
From eq(1)and (2) E = Nk BT
3
3
E = Nk B T
2
3
E/N = k B T
2
The average kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to the absolute temperature

6.Obtain the expression for Root Mean Square (rms) Speed of a molecule of an ideal gas
3
E/N = k B T
2
1 ̅̅̅2 = 3 k B T
mv
2 2

̅̅̅ 3k T
v2 = B
m

𝟑𝐤 𝐁 𝐓
𝐯𝐫𝐦𝐬 = √
𝐦

7.Estimate the average thermal energy of helium atom at a temperature of 𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝐂.

(Boltzmann constant is 1.38 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝐉𝐊)
3
Average thermal energy(average kinetic energy) = k B T
2
T=27+273=300K
3
Average thermal energy = x 1.38 x 10−23 x 300
2
=6.21 x 10−21 J
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8.Define degrees of freedom of a gas molecule?
The total number of independent ways in which a system can possess energy is called
degree of freedom.
A molecule has one degree of freedom for motion in a line.
Two degrees of freedom for motion in a plane.
Three degrees of freedom for motion in space.

9.State law of equipartition of energy

Law of Equipartition of Energy states that, in equilibrium, the total energy is equally
distributed in all possible energy modes, with each mode having an average energy
𝟏
equal to 𝐤 𝐁 T
𝟐

10.By using law of equipartiotion of energy obtain the values of specific heat capacities
of monoatomic gases. Also find the value of 𝛄
The molecule of a monatomic gas has only 3 translational degrees of freedom.
1 3
Average energy of one molecule =3 𝑥 k B T = k B T
2 2
The total internal energy of one mole ,
3
U= k B T x NA
2
k B NA =R
3
U = RT
2
Specific heat capacity at constant volume
dU
Cv =
dt
d 3
= (2 RT)
dT
𝟑
𝐂𝐕 = R
𝟐
For an ideal gas, CP – CV = R (Mayer’s relation)
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure,
CP = CV + R
3
= R +R
2
𝟓
𝐂𝐏 = R
𝟐
The ratio of specific heats
5
CP R
2
= γ = 3
CP R
2
𝟓
Adiabatic constant , 𝜸=
𝟑

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11.By using law of equipartition of energy obtain the values of specific heat capacities
of rigid diatomic molecule. Also find the value of 𝛄
A diatomic rigid rotator has , 3 translational and 2 rotational degrees of freedom.
1
Average energy of one molecule = 5 x k B T
2
5
= kB T
2
The total internal energy of one mole,
5
U= k B T x NA
2
k B NA =R
5
U = RT
2
Specific heat capacity at constant volume
dU
Cv =
dt
d 5
= (2 RT)
dT
𝟓
𝐂𝐕 = R
𝟐
For an ideal gas, CP – CV = R (Mayer’s relation)
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure,
CP = CV + R
5
= R +R
2
𝟕
𝐂𝐏 = R
𝟐
The ratio of specific heats
7
CP R
2
=γ= 5
CP R
2
𝟕
Adiabatic constant , 𝛄 =
𝟓

12.By using law of equipartition of energy obtain the values of specific heat capacities
of non rigid diatomic molecule. Also find the value of 𝛄
A non rigid diatomic molecule has , 3 translational , 2 rotational and 1 vibrational
degrees of freedom.
1
(Each vibrational degree of freedom contributes ,2x k B T =k B T)
2
5
Average energy of one molecule = k B T + k B T
2
7
= kBT
2

The total internal energy of one mole ,

7
U= k B T x NA
2
k B NA =R
7
U = RT
2

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Specific heat capacity at constant volume
dU
Cv =
dt
d 7
= (2 RT)
dT
𝟕
𝐂𝐕 = R
𝟐
For an ideal gas, CP – CV = R (Mayer’s relation)
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure,
CP = CV + R
7
= R +R
2
𝟗
𝐂𝐏 = R
𝟐
The ratio of specific heats
9
CP R
2
= γ= 7
CP R
2
𝟗
Adiabatic constant , 𝛄=
𝟕

13.By using law of equipartition of energy obtain the values of specific heat capacities
of Polyatomic Gases. Also find the value of 𝛄
A polyatomic molecule has 3 translational, 3 rotational degrees of freedom and a
certain number ( f ) of vibrational modes.
3 3
Average energy of a molecule = k B T + k B T +f k B T
2 2

The total internal energy of a mole of such a gas is,

3 3
U=( k B T + k B T + f k B T ) NA
2 2
U=( 3 + f )k B TNA
( k B NA =R)
U=( 3 + f )RT
Specific heat capacity at constant volume
dU
Cv =
dt
𝐂𝐕 =( 𝟑 + 𝐟 )𝐑
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure,
CP = CV + R
=( 3 + f )R +R
𝐂𝐏 =( 𝟒 + 𝐟 )𝐑
The ratio of specific heats
CP ( 4+f )R
γ= =(
CP 3 +f )R
( 𝟒+𝐟 )
Adiabatic constant , 𝛄 = (𝟑
+𝐟 )

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14.By using law of equipartition of energy obtain the values of specific heat capacity of
of solids
Consider a solid of N atoms, each vibrating about its mean position.
1
A vibration in one dimension has average energy = 2x k B T
2
= kBT
In three dimensions, the average energy = 3k B T
The total internal energy of one mole of solid is,
U =3k B T x NA
k B NA =R
U =3RT
dU
Specific heat capacity C=
dt
d
= (3 RT)
dT

𝐂 = 𝟑𝐑
15.By using law of equipartition of energy obtain the values of specific heat capacity of
of Water
We treat water like a solid.
Average energy of each atom in three dimension= 3k B T
Water molecule has three atoms, two hydrogen and one oxygen.
Average energy of Water molecule = 3 x 3k B T
= 9k B T
The total internal energy of a mole of water is,
U = 9k B T x NA
k B NA =R
U = 9RT
dU
Specific heat capacity , C=
dt
d
= (9 RT)
dT
𝐂 =𝟗 R

16.Define mean free path of a gas molecule.

The mean free path 𝑙 is the average distance covered by a molecule between two
successive collisions.
𝟏
𝒍= 𝟐
√𝟐𝐧𝛑𝐝

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 Chapter 14
Oscillations
1.What is non periodic motion?
The motion which is non-repetitive .
e.g. rectilinear motion , motion of a projectile.
2.What is periodic motion?
A motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic motion.
e.g. uniform circular motion , orbital motion of planets in the solar system.
3.What is oscillatory motion?
Periodic to and fro motion is called oscillatory motion.
e.g. motion of a cradle , motion of a swing, motion of the pendulum of a wall clock.
Every oscillatory motion is periodic, but every periodic motion need not be oscillatory.
4.What is the difference between oscillations and vibration?
▪ When the frequency is small, we call it oscillation.
e.g.The oscillation of a branch of a tree
▪ When the frequency is high, we call it vibration.
e.g. The vibration of a string of a musical instrument.

5.What is period of oscillation?

The period T is the time required for one complete oscillation, or cycle.
Its SI unit is second.

6.What is frequency of oscillation?

The frequency ν of periodic or oscillatory motion is the number of oscillations per unit
time. It is the reciprocal of period .
𝟏
𝛎=
𝐓
The SI unit of ν is hertz ( Hz).

7.Define amplitude of oscillation.

The maximum displacement from the mean poition is called amplitude (A) of
oscillation.

8.Define Simple Harmonic Motion(SHM)

Simple harmonic motion is the motion executed by a particle subject to a force, which is
proportional to the displacement of the particle and is directed towards the mean
position.

9.Write a mathematical expression for an SHM. Explain the terms.

x (t) = A cos (ωt + 𝛟)
x (t) =displacement, A=amplitude , ω =angular frequency,
(ωt + ϕ) = phase , ϕ=phase constant or initial phase angle

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10.Write the expression for angular frequency
2𝜋
ω= or ω =2𝜋𝜈
𝑇
Unit of ω is rad/s
Angular frequency is a scalar quantity

𝝅
11.An SHM is given by x = 8 sin(10𝝅𝒕 + ) m
𝟒
Find the (i) amplitude (ii)Angular frequency (iii)period
(iv)frequency(v) initial phase angle or phase constant
𝜋
x = 8 sin(10𝜋𝑡 + )
4
Comparing with general expression for SHM
x (t) = A cos (ωt + ϕ)

(i)Amplitude , A=8 m
(ii)Angular frequency , ω = 10𝜋 rad/s
2𝜋
(iii)ω =
𝑇
2𝜋 2𝜋
Period , T = = =1/5 s
ω 10𝜋
1 5
(iv)Frequency , 𝜈 = = =5Hz
T 1
𝜋
(v)Initial phase angle, ϕ = rad
4

12.Obtain the expression for velocity in Simple Harmonic Motion

Displacement in SHM is , x = A cos (ωt + ϕ)
d
Velocity in SHM , v= x
dt
d
v= [A cos (ωt + ϕ)]
dt
v = – ωA sin (ωt + ϕ)
v =–ωA √1 − cos 2 (ωt + ϕ)
v =–ω√A2 − A2 cos 2 (ωt + ϕ)
v = – ω√A2 − x 2

▪ At Mean position( x =0), v = ωA

The velocity is maximum At Mean position
▪ At extreme position( x =A), v = 0.
The velocity is minimum at extreme positions.

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13.Obtain the expression for acceleration in SHM
dv
Acceleration in SHM , a=
dt
d
a = – ωA sin (ωt + ϕ)
dt
a =– ωA cos (ωt + ϕ) x ω
a =– ω2 A cos (ωt + ϕ)
x = A cos (ωt + ϕ)
a =– 𝛚𝟐 x -------------(3)
In SHM, the acceleration is proportional to the displacement and is always directed
towards the mean position.

▪ At Mean position,(x =0), a =0

The magnitude of acceleration is minimum at mean position.
▪ At extreme position,(x=A). a = – ω2 A
The magnitude of acceleration is maximum at extreme positions.

14.Obtain the expression for force for Simple Harmonic Motion

F = ma
a=– ω2 x
F = –m ω2 x
F = –kx -------------(4)
k
where k= m ω2 ; ω=√
m
The force in SHM is proportional to the displacement and its direction is opposite to
the direction of displacement. Therefore, it is a restoring force.

15.Derive the expression for kinetic energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

1
K = mv 2
2
1
K = mv 2
2
v= – ω√A2 − x 2
v 2 = ω2 (A2 − x 2 )
1
K = mω2 (A2 − x 2 ) ----------------(5)
2

1
▪ At mean position,(x= 0), K = mω2 A2
2
KE is maximum At Mean position
▪ At extreme position,(x= A), K= 0.
KE is minimum At extreme positions.

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16.Obtain the expression for potential energy in simple harmonic motion
1
U = kx 2
2
k= m ω2
1
U = mω2 x 2 ----------------(6)
2

▪ At Mean position, x= 0 , U = 0
PE is minimum At Mean position
1
▪ At Extreme position, x = A , U = mω2 A2
2
PE is maximum At extreme positions.

17.Derive the expression for total energy in SHM

E=U+K
1 1
E = mω2 x 2 + mω2 (A2 − x 2 )
2 2
1 1 1
E = mω x + mω2 A2 − mω2 x 2
2 2
2 2 2
𝟏
E = m𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐
𝟐
The total mechanical energy of a harmonic oscillator is a constant or independent of
time.

18.Draw the variation of potential energy , kinetic energy k and the total energy e with
time t for a linear harmonic oscillator

19.At what position the KE of a simple harmonic oscillator becomes equal to its
potential energy?
KE =PE
1 1
mω2 (A2 − x 2 ) = mω2 x 2
2 2
A − x = x2
2 2

A2 = 2x 2
A2
x 2=
2
𝐀
x=
√𝟐
20.Give examples of systems executing simple harmonic motion
▪ Oscillations due to a Spring
▪ Oscillations of a simple pendulum

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21.Define spring constant of a spring.
F mg
k= =
𝑥 𝑥
The restoring force per unit displacement of the spring is called spring constant.
A stiff spring has large k and a soft spring has small k.

22.Derive the expression for period of oscillations of a spring

Restoring force, F = –k x
where k= mω2
k k
ω2 = , ω=√
m m
2π 2π
Period, T= =
ω k
√
m

𝐦
T = 𝟐𝛑√
𝐤
23.A 5 kg collar is attached to a spring of spring constant 500 N 𝒎−𝟏 . It slides without
friction over a horizontal rod. The collar is displaced from its equilibrium position by
10.0 cm and released. Calculate
(a) the period of oscillation,
(b) the maximum speed and
(c) maximum acceleration of the collar.
(a) The period of oscillation as given by
m
T = 2π√
k
5
T = 2π√
500
1
T = 2x 3.14 x = 0.63 s
10

(b) The velocity of the collar executing SHM is

v = – ω√A2 − x 2
Maximum speed, v= Aω (at mean position ,x=0)
k
ω=√
m
k
v = A√
m
A=10cm = 0.1m
500
v = 0.1 x√
5
v= 0.1 x10 =1 m/s
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(c) Acceleration in SHM
a=– ω2 x
Maximum acceleration, a= ω2 A (at extreme position)
k
ω2 =
m
k
a= A
m
500
a= x 0.1
5
a=10m/s 2
24.Derive the expression for period of oscillations of a simple pendulum

τ = –L (mg sinθ ) --------------(1)

For rotational motion we have,
τ = I α -----------------(2)
From eqn (1) and (2)

I α = –L mg sinθ
–mgL
α= θ ---------------(3) (since θ is very small, sinθ≈θ)
I

Acceleration of SHM , a=– ω2 x -------------------(4)

Comparing eqns (3) and (4)

mgL
ω2 =
I
I =mL2
mgL g
ω2 = =
mL2 L

g
ω=√
L

2π 2π
Period, T= =
ω g
√L

𝐋
T = 𝟐𝛑√
𝐠

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25.A girlis swinging on a swing in sitting position with period T. What will happen to
the period of oscillation when she stands up?
L
T = 2π√
g
When she stands up ,the length of the pendulum decreases and hence period of
oscillation decreases.

26.What is a seconds pendulum?

A simple pendulum of period T = 2 second is called a seconds pendulum.

27.What is the length of a simple pendulum, which ticks seconds? Or

What is the length of a seconds pendulum ?
A simple pendulum of period T = 2 second is called a seconds pendulum.
L
T = 2π√
g
l
T2 = 4π2
g

T2 g
L=
4π2

For seconds pendulum ,T = 2s

22 x 9.8
L= =0.994≈ 1m
4 x 3.14 2

28.What is damped simple harmonic motion?

Periodic oscillations of gradually decreasing amplitude due to external forces, are
called dampes simple harmonic motion.

29.Draw the displacement as a function of time in damped harmonic oscillations

30.Write the differential equation for damped simple harmonic motion

Total force, F = −kx − bv
ma =−kx − bv
d2 x dx
m +b + kx = 0
dt2 d

31.Write the equation for angular frequency of the damped oscillator ,

k b2
ω′=√ −
m 4m2

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32.What are free oscillations?
If an oscillator is displaced and released, it begins to oscillate with its natural frequency
(ω). Such oscillations in the absence of an external force are called free oscillations.
E.g, A person swinging in a swing without anyone pushing it .
A simple pendulum, displaced and released.

33.What are forced oscillations ?

If a periodic force is applied to a free oscillator to sustain its oscillations, it will oscillate
with the frequency of driving force (ωd ). Such oscillations are called forced or driven
oscillations.
E.g.,while swinging in a swing if you apply a push periodically by pressing your
feet against the ground, you can maintain oscillations and can increase amplitude.
34.What is resonance?
The phenomenon of increase in amplitude when the driving frequency(ωd ) is equal to
the natural frequency (ω) of the oscillator is called resonance.
At resonance, ω = ωd
35.Draw the variation of amplitude of a forced oscillator with angular frequency at
resonance

36.Some daily life phenomena which involve resonance:

▪ You can swing to greater heights ,if the rhythm of pushing against the ground is
equal to the natural frequency of the swing.
▪ At Tacoma Narrows Bridge at , Washington, USA winds produced a pulsating
resultant force in resonance with the natural frequency of the structure. This
caused a steady increase in the amplitude of oscillations until the bridge
collapsed.
▪ The marching soldiers break steps while crossing a bridge to avoid resonance
condition.
▪ Aircraft designers make sure that none of the natural frequencies at which a wing
can oscillate match the frequency of the engines in flight.
▪ In an earthquake, short and tall structures remain unaffected while the medium
height structures fall down. This happens because the natural frequencies of the
short structures happen to be higher and those of taller structures lower than the
frequency of the seismic waves.

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 Chapter 15
Waves
1.The waves governed by Newton’s laws, and require a material medium for their
propagation are called ……………………..
Mechanical waves
E.g, water waves, sound waves, seismic waves, etc.
2.The waves which not require any medium for their propagation and travel through
vacuum at speed of light are …………………
Electromagnetic waves
E.g, visible light, ultraviolet light, radio waves, microwaves, x-rays etc.

3.The waves associated with moving electrons, protons, neutrons and other
fundamental particles are called…………..
Matter waves.

4.Write the characteristics of transverse waves

▪ In transverse waves, the constituents of the medium oscillate perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation.

▪ They travel in the form of crests and troughs.

▪ Transverse waves can be propagated only in solids and strings, and not in fluids.
▪ E.g, Waves on a stretched string,
5.Write the characteristics of longitudinal waves
▪ In longitudinal waves the constituents of the medium oscillate along the direction
of wave propagation.

▪ They travel in the form of compressions and rarefactions.

▪ Longitudinal waves can propagate in all elastic media,i.e,solids,liquids nd gases.
▪ E.g, sound waves, vibrations in a spring.

6.Given below are some examples of wave motion. State in each case if the wave motion
is transverse, longitudinal or a combination of both:
(a)Motion of a kink(particle) in a longitudinal spring produced
by displacing one end of the spring sideways.
(b)Waves produced in a cylinder containing a liquid by moving
its piston back and forth.
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(c) Waves produced by a motorboat sailing in water.
(d) Ultrasonic waves in air produced by a vibrating quartz crystal.
(e) The waves in an ocean.
Answer:- (a) Transverse and longitudinal
(b) Longitudinal
(c) Transverse and longitudinal
(d) Longitudinal
(e) Transverse and longitudinal
7.What is a travelling wave or progressive wave?
A wave, transverse or longitudinal, is said to be travelling or progressive if it travels
from one point of the medium to another.

8.Write the displacement relation for a progressive wave travelling along the positive
direction of the x-axis and explain the terms.
y (x, t ) = a sin (kx – ωt + 𝛟)
y (x, t ) = displacement
a=amplitude
(kx – ωt + ϕ) =phase,
k=wave number or propagation constant
ω=angular frequency
Φ =initial phase angle or phase constant

9.Write the displacement relation for a progressive wave travelling along the negative
direction of the x-axis
y (x, t ) = a sin (kx +ωt + 𝛟)

10.Write the equation for propagation constant or angular wave number

𝟐𝝅
k=
𝝀
Its SI unit is radian per metre or rad 𝑚−1

11.Write the equation for angular frequency

𝟐𝛑
ω = = 𝟐𝛑𝝂
𝐓
Its SI unit is rad s −1

A wave travelling along a string is described by,

y(x, t) = 0.005 sin (80.0 x – 3.0 t), in which the numerical constants are in
SI units (0.005 m, 80.0 rad 𝑚−1 , and 3.0 rad 𝑠 −1 ). Calculate
(a) the amplitude,
(b) the wavelength,
(c) the period and frequency of the wave.
(d) Calculate the displacement y of the wave at a distance
x = 30.0 cm and time t = 20 s ?
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Answer
y(x, t) = 0.005 sin (80.0 x – 3.0 t)
The general expression for a travelling wave is
y (x,t ) = a sin (kx – ωt + ϕ)
Comparing these equations
(a) Amplitude , a=0.005m

(b) k=80 rad 𝑚−1

2𝜋
but , k=
𝜆
2𝜋
= 80
𝜆
2𝜋
𝜆 = =0.0785 m
80
𝜆 = 7.85 𝑐𝑚

(c) ω=3
2𝜋
but, ω =
𝑇
2𝜋
=3
𝑇
2𝜋
𝑇 = = 2.09 s
3
Frequency, 𝜈 = 1/T
=1/2.09 = 0.48 Hz

(d) y(x, t) = 0.005 sin (80.0 x – 3.0 t)

x = 30.0 cm =0.3m
t = 20 s
y(x, t) = 0.005 sin (80.0 x 0.3 – 3.0 x20)
= (0.005 m) sin (–36 )
= 5 mm

12.Derive the expression for speed of a travelling wave

Consider a wave propagating in positive x direction with initial phase ϕ =0
y (x, t ) = a sin (kx – ωt )
Here, (kx – ωt ) = constant
𝑑
(kx – ωt ) = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
k −ω =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 ω
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑘
𝛚
v=
𝒌
2𝜋𝜈
v= 2𝜋
𝜆
v = 𝝂𝝀

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13.Write the expression for speed of a transverse wave on stretched string
𝑇
v=√
μ
𝑚
μ - linear mass density or mass per unit length, μ=
𝑙
T-Tension on the string.

14.A steel wire 0.72 m long has a mass of 5.0 ×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 kg. If the wire is under a tension of
60 N, what is the speed of transverse waves on the wire ?
𝑇
v=√
μ
𝑀 5.0 ×10−3
μ= = = 6.9 ×10−3 kg 𝑚−1
𝑙 0.72
T = 60 N
60
v=√
6.9 ×10−3
−1
v= 93 m 𝑠
15.Asteel wire has a length of 12m and a mass of 2.1 kg. What is the tension in the wire
if the speed of transverse wave on the on the wire is 343ms-1
𝑇
v=√
μ
𝑇
v2 =
μ
T= v2 μ
𝑀
T= v2 x
𝑙
2.1
T = 3432 x =20588.56 N =2.06 104N
12
16.Write the expression for speed of a transverse wave on stretched string.
𝑻 𝑚
v=√ μ = linear mass density or mass per unit length=
𝛍 𝑙
T=tension on string
17.Write the expression for speed of longitudinal wave in a fluid
𝑩
v=√ B= the bulk modulus of medium
𝛒
ρ = the density of the medium
18.Write the expression for speed of a longitudinal wave in a solid bar
𝒀
v=√ Y =Young’s modulus
𝛒
ρ=density of the medium,
19.Write Newtons Formula for speed of a longitudinal wave in an ideal gas
𝑷
v=√ P= Pressure of gas
𝛒
ρ = density of gas

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20. Write Laplace correction to Newton’s formula for speed of a longitudinal wave in
an ideal gas
𝜸𝐏
v=√ P= Pressure of gas
𝛒
ρ = density of gas
𝐶
γ= 𝑃
𝐶𝑉
21.Derive Newtons Formula for speed of a longitudinal wave in an ideal gas
𝑩
v=√
𝛒
Newton assumed that, the pressure variations in a medium during propagation of
sound are isothermal.
For isothermal process, PV = constant
VΔP + PΔV = 0
VΔP =- PΔV
−VΔP
=P
ΔV
B =P
𝑷
v=√
𝛒
22.Derive Laplace correction to Newton’s formula for speed of a longitudinal wave in
an ideal gas.
𝐵
v=√
ρ
Laplace found that the pressure variations in a medium during propagation of sound
are adiabatic and not isothermal.
For adiabatic process, P𝑉 𝛾 = constant
Δ P𝑉 𝛾 =0
P𝛾𝑉 𝛾−1 ΔV + 𝑉 𝛾 Δ P =0
P 𝛾𝑉 𝛾−1 ΔV =− 𝑉 𝛾 Δ P
−𝑉 𝛾 ΔP
𝛾P=
𝑉 𝛾−1 ΔV
−VΔP
𝛾P= =B
ΔV
B=𝛾P
𝜸𝐏
v=√
𝛒
23.The speed of sound in air at STP = ---------------
331.3 m 𝑠 −1

24.A progressive gets reflected at a rigid boundary . Write the displacement relation for
incident wave and reflected wave.
Incident wave, 𝑦𝑖 (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt)
Reflected wave, 𝑦𝑟 (x, t) = a sin (kx + ωt + π)
▪ For reflection at a rigid boundary ,the reflected wave will have a phase reversal
i.e, a phase difference of π radian or 1800 .
▪ For reflection at a rigid boundary ,the displacement at the boundary is zero
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25.A progressive gets reflected at a open boundary . Write the displacement relation for
incident wave and reflected wave.
Incident wave, 𝑦𝑖 (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt)
Reflected wave, 𝑦𝑟 (x, t) = a sin (kx + ωt).
▪ The reflected wave will have same sign (no phase reversal) and amplitude as the
incident wave.
▪ There will be maximum displacement at the boundary( twice the amplitude of
either of the pulses)
26.What are standing waves?
The interference of two identical waves moving in opposite directions produces
standing waves.
27.Draw standing waves in a stretched string and mark nodes and antinodes.

28.Obtain the expression for a standing wave and find the condition for nodes and
antonodes.
Wave travelling in +ve x-axis, 𝑦1 (x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt)
Wave travelling in -ve x-axis , 𝑦2 (x, t) = a sin (kx + ωt)
When they superpose, y (x, t) = 𝑦1 (x, t) + 𝑦2 (x, t)
= a sin (kx – ωt) + a sin (kx + ωt)
y (x, t) = (2a sin kx) cos ωt
Amplitude of wave , A= 2a sin kx.

Condition for Nodes

The positions of zero amplitude in a staning wave are called nodes.
2a sin kx =0
sin kx =0
kx = nπ, for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
2π
But k =
λ
2π
x = nπ
λ
𝛌
x=𝒏 , for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
𝟐

Condition for Antinodes

The positions of maximum amplitude are called antinodes.
2a sin kx =maximum
sin kx =±1
1
kx = (n + ) π, for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..
2
2π
but ,k =
λ
2π 1
x = (n + ) π
λ 2
𝟏 𝛌
x = (n + ) , for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …..
𝟐 𝟐
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29.Draw the different modes of standing waves produced in a stretched string fixed at
both the ends. Also obtain the frequencies of harmonics .
(or) Prove that the frquencies produced in a stretched string fixed at both ends are in
the ratio 𝟏: 𝟐: 𝟑

Fundamental mode or the first harmonic

The oscillation mode with n=1 , the lowest frequency is called the fundamental mode
or the first harmonic.

𝜆
L= 1
2
𝜆1 = 2L
v
But v=𝜈λ , 𝜈 =
𝜆
v
Frequency, 𝜈1 =
𝜆1

v
𝜈1 = ----------(1)
2L
The second harmonic
The second harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2.

𝜆
L = 2 2 =𝜆2
2
𝜆2 = L
v
Frequency, 𝜈2 =
𝜆2
v
𝜈2 =
L
v
𝜈2 = 2 -------------(2)
2L
𝜈2 = 2𝜈1
The Third Harmonic
The third harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 3.

𝜆3
L=3
2
2𝐿
𝜆3 =
3
v
Frequency, 𝜈3 =
𝜆3
v
𝜈3 = 2𝐿
3
v
𝜈3 = 3 --------------(3)
2L

𝜈3 = 3𝑣1
and so on
𝜈1 : 𝜈2 : 𝜈3 = 1: 2: 3

Thus all harmonics are possible in a stretched string fixed at both the ends.
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30.Draw the different modes of standing waves produced in a closed pipe. Also obtain
the frequencies of harmonics .
(or) Prove that the frquencies produced in a closed pipe are in the ratio 𝟏: 𝟑: 𝟓
(or) Show that only odd harmonics are possible in a closed pipe.
Eg: Resonance Column(Air columns such as glass tubes partially filled with water) .
Fundamental mode or the first harmonic
The oscillation mode with n=0 , fundamental mode or the first harmonic.

𝜆1
L=
4

𝜆1 = 4L
v
Frequency, 𝜈1 =
𝜆1

v
𝜈1 = ------------(1)
4L

The Third Harmonic

The Third harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 1.
𝜆
L=3 3
4
4𝐿
𝜆3 =
3
v
Frequency, 𝜈3 =
𝜆3
v
𝜈3 = 4𝐿
3
v
𝜈3 = 3 --------------(2)
4L
𝜈3 = 3𝜈1

The Fifth Harmonic

The Fifth harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2.

𝜆4
L=5
4
4𝐿
𝜆4 =
5
v
Frequency, 𝜈5 =
𝜆5
v
𝜈5 = 4𝐿
5
v
𝜈5 = 5 -------------(3)
4L
𝜈5 = 5𝜈1
And so on
𝜈1 : 𝜈3 : 𝜈5 = 1: 3: 5
Thus only odd harmonics are possible in a closed pipe.
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31.Draw the different modes of standing waves produced in an open pipe. Also obtain
the frequencies of harmonics .
(or) Prove that the frquencies produced in an open pipe are in the ratio 𝟏: 𝟐: 𝟑
(or) Show that all harmonics are possible in an open pipe.
Example for open pipe -Flute
Fundamental Mode or The First Harmonic
The oscillation mode with n=1 , the lowest frequency is called the fundamental mode
or the first harmonic.

𝜆
L= 1
2
𝜆1 = 2L
v
Frequency, 𝜈1 =
𝜆1
v
𝜈1 = ------------(1)
2L

The Second Harmonic

The second harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2.
𝜆
L=2 2
2
𝜆2 = L
v
Frequency, 𝜈2 =
𝜆2
v
𝜈2 =
L
v
𝜈2 = 2 ------------(2)
2L
𝜈2 = 2𝜈1
The Third Harmonic
The third harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 3.
𝜆3
L=3
2
2𝐿
𝜆3 =
3
v
Frequency, 𝜈3 =
𝜆3
v
𝜈3 = 2𝐿
3
v
𝜈3 = 3 ------------(3)
2L
𝜈3 = 3𝜈1
and so on.
𝜈1 : 𝜈2 : 𝜈3 = 1: 2: 3
Thus all harmonics are possible in an open pipe.
32.Why open pipes are preferred over closed pipes in musical instruments?
All harmonics are possible in an open pipe, but in a cloed pipe only odd harmonics are
possible.
So open pipes are preferred over closed pipes in musical instruments.
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33.Show that the frequency of fundamental mode(first harmonic) of an open pipe is
twice that of a closed pipe.
Fundamental frequency of open pipe

𝜆
L= 1
2
𝜆1 = 2L
v
Frequency, 𝜈1 =
𝜆1
v
𝜈1 = ------------(1)
2L

Fundamental frequency for closed pipe,

The oscillation mode with n=0 , fundamental mode or the first harmonic.

𝜆1
L=
4

𝜆1 = 4L
v
Frequency, 𝜈1 =
𝜆1
v
𝜈1 = ------------(2)
4L

From eq (1) and (2),Fundamental frequency of open pipe is twice that of a closed pipe.

34.What are beats?

The waxing and waning (periodinc wavering) of sound intensity when two waves of
nearly same frequencies and amplitudes travelling in the same direction, are
superimposed on each other is called beats.
If 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 are the frequencies of superposing waves, the beat frequency
𝝂𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒕 = 𝝂𝟏 − 𝝂𝟐
35.What is Doppler effect?
The apparent change in the observed frequency of a wave when the source and the
observer moves relative to the medium is called Doppler Effect.

36.Write the expression for apparent frequency of sound heard by the observer when
the source and observer moving in the same direction of propagation of sound.
𝐯+𝐯
𝝂𝒐 = 𝝂𝒔 ( 𝐨 )
𝐯+ 𝐯 𝐬
vs -velocity of source, vo – velocity of observe
𝜈𝑠 – frequency of sound, 𝜈𝑜 - apparent frequency of sound heard by the observer

Seema Elizabeth
MARM Govt HSS Santhipuram
Thrissur

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