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Information
Visualization

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 Information
Visualization
PERCEPTION FOR DESIGN
Third Edition


Colin Ware

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SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Morgan Kaufmann is an imprint of Elsevier
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Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods or professional practices, may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers
must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information or methods described
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ware, Colin.
Information visualization : perception for design / Colin Ware. – 3rd [edition].
pages cm – (Interactive technologies)
Summary: “This is a book about what the science of perception can tell us about visualization. There is a gold mine of
information about how we see to be found in more than a century of work by vision researchers. The purpose of this book is
to extract from that large body of research literature those design principles that apply to displaying information
effectively” – Provided by publisher.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-12-381464-7 (hardback)
1. Visual perception. 2. Visualization. 3. Information visualization. I. Title.
BF241.W34 2012
152.14–dc23
2012009489

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

For information on all MK publications

visit our website at www.mkp.com

Printed in China
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Typeset by: diacriTech, Chennai, India

Contents

Preface ............................................................................................................................... xv
About the Author ............................................................................................................ xxi

Chapter 1 Foundations for an Applied Science of Data Visualization .................................. 1

Visualization Stages..................................................................................................................4
Experimental Semiotics Based on Perception.......................................................................5
Semiotics of Graphics ...............................................................................................................6
Are Pictures Arbitrary? ......................................................................................................7
Sensory versus Arbitrary Symbols.........................................................................................9
Properties of Sensory Representation................................................................................12
Testing Claims about Sensory Representations................................................................15
Representations That Are Arbitrary .................................................................................15
The Study of Arbitrary Conventional Symbols ................................................................17
Gibson’s Affordance Theory .................................................................................................17
A Model of Perceptual Processing .......................................................................................20
Stage 1. Parallel Processing to Extract Low-Level Properties of the Visual Scene.........21
Stage 2. Pattern Perception...............................................................................................21
Stage 3. Visual Working Memory ....................................................................................22
Attention ............................................................................................................................22
Costs and Benefits of Visualization .....................................................................................23
Types of Data ..........................................................................................................................25
Entities ...............................................................................................................................26
Relationships ......................................................................................................................26
Attributes of Entities or Relationships..............................................................................26
Data Dimensions: 1D, 2D, 3D, … .................................................................................26
Types of Numbers..............................................................................................................27
Uncertainty........................................................................................................................28
Operations Considered as Data.........................................................................................28
Metadata...................................................................................................................................29
Conclusion................................................................................................................................29

Chapter 2 The Environment, Optics, Resolution, and the Display ..................................... 31

The Environment.....................................................................................................................32
Visible Light.......................................................................................................................32
Ecological Optics ...............................................................................................................32
Optical Flow ......................................................................................................................34
Textured Surfaces and Texture Gradients........................................................................35
The Paint Model of Surfaces .............................................................................................36
The Eye .....................................................................................................................................41
The Visual Angle Defined.................................................................................................42
vi Contents

Lens ....................................................................................................................................43
Optics and Augmented-Reality Systems ..........................................................................44
Optics in Virtual-Reality Displays ...................................................................................47
Chromatic Aberration ........................................................................................................48
Receptors ............................................................................................................................49
Simple Acuities ..................................................................................................................50
Acuity Distribution and the Visual Field.........................................................................52
Brain Pixels and the Optimal Screen ...............................................................................55
Spatial Contrast Sensitivity Function ..............................................................................59
Visual Stress ......................................................................................................................62
The Optimal Display ..............................................................................................................63
Aliasing..............................................................................................................................64
Number of Dots .................................................................................................................66
Superacuities and Displays ...............................................................................................66
Temporal Requirements of the Perfect Display ................................................................67
Conclusion................................................................................................................................68

Chapter 3 Lightness, Brightness, Contrast, and Constancy ................................................ 69

Neurons, Receptive Fields, and Brightness Illusions ........................................................70
Simultaneous Brightness Contrast....................................................................................73
Mach Bands .......................................................................................................................74
The Chevreul Illusion ........................................................................................................74
Simultaneous Contrast and Errors in Reading Maps......................................................75
Contrast Effects and Artifacts in Computer Graphics .....................................................75
Edge Enhancement ............................................................................................................76
Luminance, Brightness, Lightness, and Gamma................................................................79
Constancies ........................................................................................................................79
Luminance..........................................................................................................................80
Displaying Details .............................................................................................................82
Brightness ..........................................................................................................................82
Monitor Gamma ................................................................................................................83
Adaptation, Contrast, and Lightness Constancy..............................................................84
Contrast and Constancy....................................................................................................85
Contrast on Paper and on Screen .....................................................................................85
Perception of Surface Lightness............................................................................................87
Lightness Differences and the Gray Scale ........................................................................88
Contrast Crispening ..........................................................................................................89
Monitor Illumination and Monitor Surrounds...................................................................90
Conclusion................................................................................................................................93

Chapter 4 Color ..................................................................................................................... 95

Trichromacy Theory ...............................................................................................................96
Color Blindness..................................................................................................................98
Color Measurement ................................................................................................................98
Change of Primaries ........................................................................................................100
 Contents vii

Chromaticity Coordinates ................................................................................................102

Color Differences and Uniform Color Spaces .................................................................105
Opponent Process Theory....................................................................................................108
Naming ............................................................................................................................108
Cross-Cultural Naming...................................................................................................109
Unique Hues....................................................................................................................109
Neurophysiology ..............................................................................................................110
Categorical Colors............................................................................................................110
Properties of Color Channels ..............................................................................................111
Spatial Sensitivity............................................................................................................111
Stereoscopic Depth...........................................................................................................112
Motion Sensitivity ...........................................................................................................112
Form .................................................................................................................................113
Color Appearance .................................................................................................................114
Monitor Surrounds..........................................................................................................114
Color Constancy ..............................................................................................................114
Color Contrast .................................................................................................................115
Saturation ........................................................................................................................116
Brown...............................................................................................................................117
Applications of Color in Visualization ..............................................................................117
Application 1: Color Specification Interfaces and Color Spaces ...................................117
Color Spaces.....................................................................................................................118
Color Naming Systems....................................................................................................120
Color Palettes ...................................................................................................................122
Application 2: Color for Labeling (Nominal Codes).......................................................122
Application 3: Color Sequences for Data Maps...............................................................128
Form and Quantity .........................................................................................................129
Interval Pseudocolor Sequences.......................................................................................132
Ratio Pseudocolors ...........................................................................................................132
Sequences for the Color Blind .........................................................................................133
Bivariate Color Sequences ...............................................................................................134
Application 4: Color Reproduction ....................................................................................135
Conclusion..............................................................................................................................138

Chapter 5 Visual Salience and Finding Information.......................................................... 139

Eye Movements .....................................................................................................................140
Accommodation................................................................................................................142
The Eye Movement Control Loop ...................................................................................142
V1, Channels, and Tuned Receptors..................................................................................143
The Elements of Form .....................................................................................................145
The Gabor Model and Visual Distinctness.....................................................................147
A Differencing Mechanism for Fine Discrimination......................................................149
Feature Maps, Channels, and Lessons for Visual Search ..............................................150
Preattentive Processing and Ease of Search .....................................................................152
Attention and Expectations.............................................................................................156
Highlighting and Asymmetries.......................................................................................157
viii Contents

Coding with Combinations of Features...........................................................................158

Coding with Redundant Properties ................................................................................159
What Is Not Easily Findable: Conjunctions of Features................................................159
Highlighting Two Data Dimensions: Conjunctions That Can Be Seen........................160
Integral and Separable Dimensions: Glyph Design ........................................................162
Restricted Classification Tasks ........................................................................................163
Speeded Classification Tasks ...........................................................................................164
Integral–Separable Dimension Pairs ...............................................................................167
Representing Quantity .........................................................................................................168
Representing Absolute Quantities ..................................................................................169
Multidimensional Discrete Data: Uniform Representation
versus Multiple Channels ...........................................................................................170
Stars and Whiskers..........................................................................................................172
The Searchlight Metaphor and Cortical Magnification ..................................................173
Useful Field of View........................................................................................................173
Tunnel Vision, Stress, and Cognitive Load....................................................................173
The Role of Motion in Attracting Attention ..................................................................174
Motion as a User Interrupt.............................................................................................174
Conclusion..............................................................................................................................176

Chapter 6 Static and Moving Patterns............................................................................... 179

Gestalt Laws ..........................................................................................................................181
Proximity .........................................................................................................................181
Similarity .........................................................................................................................182
Connectedness..................................................................................................................183
Continuity........................................................................................................................183
Symmetry.........................................................................................................................185
Closure and Common Region .........................................................................................186
Figure and Ground..........................................................................................................189
More on Contours ...........................................................................................................191
Representing Vector Fields: Perceiving Orientation and Direction ..............................193
Comparing 2D Flow Visualization Techniques..............................................................194
Showing Direction...........................................................................................................196
Texture: Theory and Data Mapping ..................................................................................199
Tradeoffs in Information Density: An Uncertainty Principle .......................................201
Primary Perceptual Dimensions of Texture ...................................................................202
Texture Contrast Effects..................................................................................................202
Other Dimensions of Visual Texture..............................................................................203
Nominal Texture Codes...................................................................................................204
Using Textures for Univariate and Multivariate Map Displays...................................205
Quantitative Texture Sequences .....................................................................................209
Perception of Transparency: Overlapping Data ..............................................................211
Perceiving Patterns in Multidimensional Discrete Data .................................................213
Pattern Learning....................................................................................................................218
Priming ............................................................................................................................220
Vigilance ..........................................................................................................................220
The Visual Grammar of Node–Link Diagrams................................................................221
 Contents ix

The Visual Grammar of Maps ............................................................................................227

Patterns in Motion ................................................................................................................229
Form and Contour in Motion .........................................................................................231
Moving Frames................................................................................................................232
Expressive Motion ...........................................................................................................233
Perception of Causality....................................................................................................233
Perception of Animated Motion .........................................................................................235
Enriching Diagrams with Simple Animation.................................................................236
The Processes of Pattern Finding .......................................................................................236

Chapter 7 Space Perception................................................................................................. 239

Depth Cue Theory ................................................................................................................240
Perspective Cues ..............................................................................................................241
The Duality of Depth Perception in Pictures.................................................................242
Pictures Seen from the Wrong Viewpoint ......................................................................244
Occlusion .........................................................................................................................246
Shape-from-Shading.........................................................................................................247
Shading Models ...............................................................................................................248
Cushion Maps..................................................................................................................249
Surface Texture................................................................................................................250
Cast Shadows...................................................................................................................253
Distance Based on Familiar Size.....................................................................................255
Depth of Focus.................................................................................................................255
Eye Accommodation ........................................................................................................256
Structure-from-Motion ....................................................................................................256
Eye Convergence..............................................................................................................258
Stereoscopic Depth...........................................................................................................258
Problems with Stereoscopic Displays ..............................................................................260
Frame Cancellation ..........................................................................................................261
The Vergence–Focus Problem .........................................................................................261
Distant Objects ................................................................................................................262
Making Effective Stereoscopic Displays..........................................................................262
Cyclopean Scale ...............................................................................................................264
Virtual Eye Separation ....................................................................................................264
Artificial Spatial Cues .....................................................................................................266
Depth Cues in Combination ...............................................................................................269
Task-Based Space Perception ..............................................................................................272
Tracing Data Paths in 3D Graphs ......................................................................................272
Judging the Morphology of Surfaces.................................................................................276
Conformal Textures .........................................................................................................277
Guidelines for Displaying Surfaces.................................................................................280
Bivariate Maps–Lighting and Surface Color ..................................................................281
Patterns of Points in 3D Space............................................................................................282
Perceiving Patterns in 3D Trajectories...............................................................................283
Judging Relative Positions of Objects in Space................................................................284
Judging the Relative Movements of Self within the Environment ...............................285
x Contents

Selecting and Positioning Objects in 3D ...........................................................................286

Judging the “Up” Direction ................................................................................................288
The Aesthetic Impression of 3D Space (Presence)...........................................................289
Conclusion..............................................................................................................................290

Chapter 8 Visual Objects and Data Objects....................................................................... 293

Image-Based Object Recognition ........................................................................................294
Priming ............................................................................................................................296
Searching an Image Database .........................................................................................297
Life Logging .....................................................................................................................298
Structure-Based Object Recognition ...................................................................................299
Geon Theory.....................................................................................................................299
Silhouettes ........................................................................................................................299
The Object Display and Object-Based Diagrams.............................................................303
The Geon Diagram ..........................................................................................................305
Faces ........................................................................................................................................308
Coding Words and Images .................................................................................................311
Mental Images .................................................................................................................312
Labels and Concepts.............................................................................................................313
Object Categorization ......................................................................................................313
Canonical Views and Object Recognition.......................................................................315
Concept Mapping .................................................................................................................316
Concept Maps and Mind Maps ......................................................................................316
Iconic Images versus Words versus Abstract Symbols ..................................................320
Static Links ......................................................................................................................321
Scenes and Scene Gist ..........................................................................................................322
Priming, Categorization, and Trace Theory ...................................................................322
Conclusion..............................................................................................................................323

Chapter 9 Images, Narrative, and Gestures for Explanation ............................................. 325

The Nature of Language......................................................................................................326
Sign Language .................................................................................................................326
Language Is Dynamic and Distributed over Time.........................................................328
Is Visual Programming a Good Idea? ............................................................................328
Images versus Sentences and Paragraphs.......................................................................331
Links between Images and Words...................................................................................332
Integrating Visual and Verbal and the Narrative Thread..............................................333
Linking Text with Graphical Elements of Diagrams .....................................................333
Gestures as Linking Devices in Verbal Presentations....................................................333
Deixis ...............................................................................................................................334
Symbolic Gestures ...........................................................................................................336
Expressive Gestures.........................................................................................................336
Animated versus Static Presentations................................................................................337
Visual Narrative ....................................................................................................................339
Animated Images .............................................................................................................341
Conclusion..............................................................................................................................343
 Contents xi

Chapter 10 Interacting with Visualizations.......................................................................... 345

Data Selection and Manipulation Loop.............................................................................346
Choice Reaction Time ......................................................................................................346
Two-Dimensional Positioning and Selection ..................................................................347
Hover Queries..................................................................................................................348
Path Tracing ....................................................................................................................349
Two-Handed Interaction..................................................................................................349
Learning ...........................................................................................................................350
Control Compatibility ......................................................................................................351
Exploration and Navigation Loop .....................................................................................353
Locomotion and Viewpoint Control ................................................................................354
Spatial Navigation Metaphors.........................................................................................355
Wayfinding, Cognitive Maps and Real Maps ................................................................359
Landmarks, Borders, and Place .......................................................................................361
Frames of Reference .........................................................................................................362
Egocentric Frame of Reference ........................................................................................362
Exocentric Frames of Reference.......................................................................................363
Map Orientation..............................................................................................................364
Focus, Context and Scale in Nonmetaphoric Interfaces .................................................366
Distortion Techniques......................................................................................................368
Rapid Zooming Techniques.............................................................................................370
Elision Techniques ...........................................................................................................371
Multiple Simultaneous Views .........................................................................................372
Conclusion..............................................................................................................................373

Chapter 11 Visual Thinking Processes ................................................................................. 375

The Cognitive System ..........................................................................................................376
Memory and Attention ........................................................................................................377
Working Memories ..........................................................................................................378
Visual Working Memory Capacity .................................................................................379
Change Blindness ............................................................................................................380
Spatial Information ..........................................................................................................381
Attention ..........................................................................................................................383
Object Files, Coherence Fields, and Gist ........................................................................384
Long-Term Memory .............................................................................................................386
Chunks and Concepts ......................................................................................................388
Knowledge Formation and Creative Thinking ................................................................388
Knowledge Transfer.........................................................................................................389
Visualizations and Mental Images .....................................................................................392
Review of Visual Cognitive System Components ...........................................................393
Early Visual Processing ..................................................................................................393
Pattern Perception ...........................................................................................................393
Eye Movements................................................................................................................393
The Intrasaccadic Scanning Loop ...................................................................................393
Working Memory ............................................................................................................394
xii Contents

Mental Imagery ...............................................................................................................394

Epistemic Actions ............................................................................................................394
Visual Queries .................................................................................................................396
Computational Data Mappings.......................................................................................396
Visual Thinking Algorithms................................................................................................397
Algorithm 1: Visual Queries ...............................................................................................398
Algorithm 2: Pathfinding on a Map or Diagram ............................................................400
Visual Query Construction.............................................................................................401
The Pattern-Finding Loop ...............................................................................................402
Algorithm 3: Reasoning with a Hybrid of a Visual Display
and Mental Imagery.........................................................................................................403
Algorithm 4: Design Sketching...........................................................................................405
Algorithm 5: Brushing..........................................................................................................407
Algorithm 6: Small Pattern Comparisons in a Large Information Space ....................408
Algorithm 7: Degree-of-Relevance Highlighting .............................................................412
Algorithm 8: Generalized Fisheye Views..........................................................................415
Algorithm 9: Multidimensional Dynamic Queries with Scatter Plot ...........................417
Algorithm 10: Visual Monitoring Strategies.....................................................................420
Conclusion..............................................................................................................................422

Appendix A Changing Primaries ........................................................................................... 425

Appendix B CIE Color Measurement System ....................................................................... 427

Appendix C The Perceptual Evaluation of Visualization Techniques and Systems ............. 431
Research Goals.......................................................................................................................431
Psychophysics ........................................................................................................................433
Detection Methods...........................................................................................................434
Method of Adjustment.....................................................................................................435
Cognitive Psychology...........................................................................................................435
Structural Analysis................................................................................................................436
Testbench Applications for Discovery.............................................................................436
Structured Interviews......................................................................................................437
Rating Scales ...................................................................................................................438
Statistical Exploration...........................................................................................................438
Principal Components Analysis ......................................................................................438
Multidimensional Scaling ...............................................................................................439
Clustering ........................................................................................................................439
Multiple Regression.........................................................................................................439
Cross-Cultural Studies..........................................................................................................439
Child Studies..........................................................................................................................440
Practical Problems in Conducting User Studies ..............................................................440
Experimenter Bias............................................................................................................440
How Many Subjects to Use? ..........................................................................................441
Combinatorial Explosion .................................................................................................442
 Contents xiii

Task Identification ...........................................................................................................442

Controls............................................................................................................................443
Getting Help ....................................................................................................................443

Appendix D Guidelines ........................................................................................................... 445

Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 459

Index ....................................................................................................................................... 497
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Iamblichus'
Life of Pythagoras, or Pythagoric Life
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Iamblichus' Life of Pythagoras, or Pythagoric Life

Author: Iamblichus

Translator: Thomas Taylor

Release date: September 26, 2020 [eBook #63300]

Most recently updated: October 18, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by MFR, Stephen Hutcheson, and the Online

Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net (This
file was produced from images generously made
available
by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IAMBLICHUS'

LIFE OF PYTHAGORAS, OR PYTHAGORIC LIFE ***
 IAMBLICHUS’
LIFE OF PYTHAGORAS,
OR
PYTHAGORIC LIFE.
ACCOMPANIED BY
FRAGMENTS OF THE ETHICAL WRITINGS
OF CERTAIN PYTHAGOREANS IN THE DORIC DIALECT;
AND A

Collection of Pythagoric Sentences

FROM STOBÆUS AND OTHERS,
WHICH ARE OMITTED BY GALE IN HIS
OPUSCULA MYTHOLOGICA,
AND HAVE NOT BEEN NOTICED BY ANY EDITOR.

TRANSLATED FROM THE GREEK.

BY THOMAS TAYLOR.

Approach ye genuine philosophic few,

The Pythagoric Life belongs to you:
But far, far off ye vulgar herd profane;
For Wisdom’s voice is heard by you in vain:
And you, Mind’s lowest link, and darksome end,
Good Rulers, Customs, Laws, alone can mend.
 LONDON:
PRINTED BY A. J. VALPY,
TOOKE’S COURT, CHANCERY LANE;
AND SOLD BY THE AUTHOR,
9, MANOR PLACE, WALWORTH.
1818.
 CONTENTS
The Life, &c.
Chap. I 1
Chap. II 2
Chap. III 9
Chap. IV 12
Chap. V 13
Chap. VI 18
Chap. VII 21
Chap. VIII 23
Chap. IX 28
Chap. X 32
Chap. XI 34
Chap. XII 38
Chap. XIII 40
Chap. XIV 41
Chap. XV 43
Chap. XVI 48
Chap. XVII 50
Chap. XVIII 56
Chap. XIX 66
Chap. XX 69
Chap. XXI 71
Chap. XXII 73
Chap. XXIII 75
Chap. XXIV 77
Chap. XXV 80
Chap. XXVI 83
Chap. XXVII 89
Chap. XXVIII 97
Chap. XXIX 114
 Chap. XXX 122
Chap. XXXI 135
Chap. XXXII 151
Chap. XXXIII 162
Chap. XXXIV 170
Chap. XXXV 176
Chap. XXXVI 188
Fragments of the Ethical Writings of Certain Pythagoreans 193
From Hippodamus, the Thurian, in his Treatise on Felicity 195
From Euryphamus, in his Treatise Concerning Human Life 202
From Hipparchus, in his Treatise On Tranquillity 207
From Archytas, in his Treatise Concerning the Good and Happy
Man
212
From Theages, in his Treatise On the Virtues 222
From Metopus, in his Treatise Concerning Virtue 227
From Clinias 231
From Theages, in his Treatise On the Virtues 233
From the Treatise of Archytas On Ethical Erudition 242
From Archytas, in his Treatise On the Good and Happy Man 244
From Crito, in his Treatise On Prudence and Prosperity 245
From Archytas, in his Treatise On the Good and Happy Man 250
From Archytas, in his Treatise On Disciplines 252
From Polus, in his Treatise On Justice 254
Pythagoric Ethical Sentences from Stobæus, which are omitted
in the Opuscula Mythologica, &c. of Gale
259
Select Sentences of Sextus the Pythagorean 268
Pythagoric Sentences, from the Protreptics of Iamblichus 278
Additional Notes 281

v
 INTRODUCTION.
When it is considered that Pythagoras was the father of philosophy,
authentic memoirs of his life cannot fail to be uncommonly
interesting to every lover of wisdom, and particularly to those who
reverence the doctrines of Plato, the most genuine and the best of
all his disciples. And that the following memoirs of Pythagoras by
Iamblichus are authentic, is acknowledged by all the critics, as they
are for the most part obviously derived from sources of very vi
high antiquity; and where the sources are unknown, there is
every reason to believe, from the great worth and respectability of
the biographer, that the information is perfectly accurate and true.

Of the biographer, indeed, Iamblichus, it is well known to every tyro

in Platonism that he was dignified by all the Platonists that
succeeded him with the epithet of divine; and after the encomium
passed on him by the acute Emperor Julian, “that he was posterior
[1]
indeed in time, but not in genius, to Plato,” all further praise of
him would be as unnecessary, as the defamation of him by vii
certain modern critics is contemptible and idle. For these
homonculi looking solely to his deficiency in point of style, and not to
the magnitude of his intellect, perceive only his little blemishes, but
have not even a glimpse of his surpassing excellence. They minutely
notice the motes that are scattered in the sunbeams of his genius,
but they feel not its invigorating warmth, they see not its dazzling
radiance.

Of this very extraordinary man there is a life extant by Eunapius, the

substance of which I have given in my History of the Restoration of
the Platonic Theology, and to which I refer the English reader. At
present I shall only select from that work the following biographical
particulars respecting our Iamblichus: He was descended of a viii
family equally illustrious, fortunate, and rich. His country was
Chalcis, a city of Syria, which was called Cœle. He associated with
Anatolius who was the second to Porphyry, but he far excelled him in
his attainments, and ascended to the very summit of philosophy. But
after he had been for some time connected with Anatolius, and most
probably found him insufficient to satisfy the vast desires of his soul,
he applied himself to Porphyry, to whom (says Eunapius) he was in
nothing inferior, except in the structure and power of composition.
For his writings were not so elegant and graceful as those of
Porphyry: they were neither agreeable, nor perspicuous; nor free
from impurity of diction. And though they were not entirely involved
in obscurity, and perfectly faulty; yet as Plato formerly said of
Xenocrates, he did not sacrifice to the Mercurial Graces. Hence he is
far from detaining the reader with delight, who merely regards ix
his diction; but will rather avert and dull his attention, and
frustrate his expectation. However, though the surface of his
conceptions is not covered with the flowers of elocution, yet the
depth of them is admirable, and his genius is truly sublime. And
admitting his style to abound in general with those defects, which
have been noticed by the critics, yet it appears to me that the
decision of the anonymous Greek writer respecting his Answer to the
[2]
Epistle of Porphyry, is more or less applicable to all his other
works. For he says, ‘that his diction in that Answer is concise and
definite, and that his conceptions are full of efficacy, are elegant,
[3]
and divine.’

Iamblichus shared in an eminent degree the favor of divinity, on x

account of his cultivation of justice; and obtained a numerous
multitude of associates and disciples, who came from all parts of the
world, for the purpose of participating the streams of wisdom, which
so plentifully flowed from the sacred fountain of his wonderful mind.
[4]
Among these was Sopater the Syrian, who was most skilful both in
speaking and writing; Eustathius the Cappadocian; and of the
Greeks, Theodorus and Euphrasius. All these were excellent for their
virtues and attainments, as well as many other of his disciples, who
were not much inferior to the former in eloquence; so that it xi
seems wonderful how Iamblichus could attend to all of them,
with such gentleness of manners and benignity of disposition as he
continually displayed.

He performed some few particulars relative to the veneration of

divinity by himself, without his associates and disciples; but was
inseparable from his familiars in most of his operations. He imitated
in his diet the frugal simplicity of the most ancient times; and during
his repast, exhilarated those who were present by his behaviour, and
filled them as with nectar by the sweetness of his discourse.

A celebrated philosopher named Alypius, who was deeply skilled in

dialectic, was contemporary with Iamblichus, but was of such a
diminutive stature, that he exhibited the appearance of a xii
pigmy. However, his great abilities amply compensated for this
trifling defect. For his body might be said to be consumed into soul;
just as the great Plato says, that divine bodies, unlike those that are
mortal, are situated in souls. Thus also it might be asserted of
Alypius, that he had migrated into soul, and that he was contained
and governed by a nature superior to man. This Alypius had many
followers, but his mode of philosophizing was confined to private
conference and disputation, without committing any of his dogmas
to writing. Hence his disciples gladly applied themselves to
Iamblichus, desirous to draw abundantly from the exuberant streams
of his inexhaustible mind. The fame therefore of each continually
increasing, they once accidentally met like two refulgent stars, and
were surrounded by so great a crowd of auditors, that it xiii
resembled some mighty musæum. While Iamblichus on this
occasion waited rather to be interrogated, than to propose a
question himself, Alypius, contrary to the expectation of every one,
relinquishing philosophical discussions, and seeing himself
surrounded with a theatre of men, turned to Iamblichus, and said to
him: “Tell me, O philosopher, is either the rich man unjust, or the
heir of the unjust man? For in this case there is no medium.” But
Iamblichus hating the acuteness of the question, replied: “O most
wonderful of all men, this manner of considering, whether some one
excels in externals, is foreign from our method of philosophizing;
since we inquire whether a man abounds in the virtue which it is
proper for him to possess, and which is adapted to a philosopher.”
After he had said this he departed, and at the same time all the
surrounding multitude was immediately dispersed. But xiv
Iamblichus, when he was alone, admired the acuteness of the
question, and often privately resorted to Alypius, whom he very
much applauded for his acumen and sagacity; so that after his
decease, he wrote his life. This Alypius was an Alexandrian by birth,
and died in his own country, worn out with age: and after him
[5]
Iamblichus, leaving behind him many roots and fountains of
philosophy; which through the cultivation of succeeding Platonists,
produced a fair variety of vigorous branches, and copious streams.

For an account of the theological writings of Iamblichus, I refer the

reader to my above-mentioned History of the Restoration of xv
the Platonic Theology; and for accurate critical information
concerning all his works, to the Bibliotheca Græca of Fabricius.

Of the following work, the life of Pythagoras, it is necessary to

observe that the original has been transmitted to us in a very
imperfect state, partly from the numerous verbal errors of the text,
partly from the want of connexion in the things that are narrated,
and partly from many particulars being related in different places, in
the very same words; so that the conjecture of Kuster, one of the
German editors of this work is highly probable, that it had not
received the last hand of Iamblichus, but that others formed this
treatise from the confused materials which they found among his
Manuscripts, after his death. Notwithstanding all its defects, xvi
however, it is, as I have before observed, a most interesting
work; and the benefits are inestimable, which the dissemination of it
is calculated to produce. And as two of the most celebrated critics
among the Germans, Kuster and Kiessling, have given two splendid
editions of this work, it is evident they must have been deeply
impressed with a conviction of its value and importance.

As to the Pythagoric Ethical Fragments, all eulogy of them is

superfluous, when it is considered that, independently of their being
written by very early Pythagoreans, they were some of the sources
from which Aristotle himself derived his consummate knowledge of
morality, as will be at once evident by comparing his Nicomachean
Ethics with these fragments.

With respect to the collection of Pythagoric Sentences in this xvii

volume, it is almost needless to observe that they are
incomparably excellent; and it is deeply to be regretted that the
[6]
Greek original of the Sentences of Sextus being lost, the
fraudulent Latin version of them by the Presbyter Ruffinus alone
remains. I call it a fraudulent version, because Ruffinus, wishing to
persuade the reader that these Sentences were written by a bishop
of the name of Sixtus, has in many places perverted and
contaminated the meaning of the original. In the selection, however,
which I have made from these Sentences, I have endeavoured, and
I trust not in vain, to give the genuine sense of Sextus, xviii
unmingled with the barbarous and polluted interpolations of
Ruffinus. If the English reader has my translation of the Sentences
of Demophilus, and Mr. Bridgman’s translation of the Golden
[7]
Sentences of Democrates, and the Similitudes of Demophilus, he
will then be possessed of all the Pythagoric Sentences that are
extant, those alone of Sextus excepted, which I have not translated,
in consequence of the very impure and spurious state, in which they
at present exist.

I deem it also requisite to observe, that the Pythagoric life which is

here delineated, is a specimen of the greatest perfection in virtue
and wisdom, which can be obtained by man in the present xix
state. Hence, it exhibits piety unadulterated with folly, moral
virtue uncontaminated with vice, science unmingled with sophistry,
dignity of mind and manners unaccompanied with pride, a sublime
magnificence in theory, without any degradation in practice, and a
vigor of intellect, which elevates its possessor to the vision of
divinity, and thus deifies while it exalts.

The original of the engraving of the head of Iamblichus in the title-

page, is to be found at the end of a little volume consisting of Latin
translations of Iamblichus De Mysteriis, Proclus On the First
Alcibiades of Plato, &c. &c. &c. 18mo. Genev. 1607. This engraving
was added because it appeared to me to be probable that the
original was copied from an ancient gem. And as it is not xx
impossible that it was, if it is not genuine, it is at least
ornamental.

1
 THE LIFE,
&c.

CHAP. I.

Since it is usual with all men of sound understandings, to call on

divinity, when entering on any philosophic discussion, it is certainly
much more appropriate to do this in the consideration of that
philosophy which justly receives its denomination from the divine
Pythagoras. For as it derives its origin from the Gods, it cannot be
apprehended without their inspiring aid. To which we may also add,
that the beauty and magnitude of it so greatly surpasses human
power, that it is impossible to survey it by a sudden view; but then
alone can any one gradually collect some portion of this philosophy,
when, the Gods being his leaders, he quietly approaches to it. On all
these accounts, therefore, having invoked the Gods as our leaders,
and converting both ourselves and our discussion to them, we shall
acquiesce in whatever they may command us to do. We shall not,
however, make any apology for this sect having been neglected for a
long time, nor for its being concealed by foreign disciplines, and
certain arcane symbols, nor for having been obscured by false 2
and spurious writings, nor for many other such-like difficulties
by which it has been impeded. For the will of the Gods is sufficient
for us, in conjunction with which it is possible to sustain things still
more arduous than these. But after the Gods, we shall unite
ourselves as to a leader, to the prince and father of this divine
philosophy; of whose origin and country we must rise a little higher
in our investigation.

CHAP. II.
It is said, therefore, that Ancæus who dwelt in Samos in
Cephallenia, was begot by Jupiter, whether he derived the fame of
such an honorable descent through virtue, or through a certain
greatness of soul. He surpassed, however, the rest of the
Cephallenians in wisdom and renown. This Ancæus, therefore, was
ordered by the Pythian oracle to form a colony from Arcadia and
Thessaly; and that besides this, taking with him some of the
inhabitants of Athens, Epidaurus, and Chalcis, and placing himself at
their head, he should render an island habitable, which from the
[8]
virtue of the soil and land should be called Melamphyllos; and that
he should call the city Samos, on account of Same in 3
Cephallenia. The oracle, therefore, which was given to him, was
as follows: “I order you, Ancæus, to colonise the marine island
Samos instead of Same, and to call it Phyllas.” But that a colony was
collected from these places, is not only indicated by the honors and
sacrifices of the Gods, transferred into those regions together with
the inhabitants, but also by the kindred families that dwell there,
and the associations of the Samians with each other.

It is said, therefore, that Mnesarchus and Pythaïs, who were the

parents of Pythagoras, descended from the family and alliance of
this Ancæus, who founded the colony. In consequence, however, of
this nobility of birth being celebrated by the citizens, a certain
Samian poet says, that Pythagoras was the son of Apollo. For thus
he sings,

Pythaïs, fairest of the Samian tribe,

Bore from th’embraces of the God of day
Renown’d Pythagoras, the friend of Jove.

It is worth while, however, to relate how this report became so

prevalent. The Pythian oracle then had predicted to this Mnesarchus
(who came to Delphi for the purposes of merchandize, with his wife
not yet apparently pregnant, and who inquired of the God
concerning the event of his voyage to Syria) that his voyage would
be lucrative and most conformable to his wishes, but that his 4
wife was now pregnant, and would bring forth a son surpassing
in beauty and wisdom all that ever lived, and who would be of the
greatest advantage to the human race in every thing pertaining to
the life of man. But, when Mnesarchus considered with himself, that
the God, without being interrogated concerning his son, had
informed him by an oracle, that he would possess an illustrious
prerogative, and a gift truly divine, he immediately named his wife
Pythaïs, from her son and the Delphic prophet, instead of Parthenis,
which was her former appellation; and he called the infant, who was
soon after born at Sidon in Phœnicia, Pythagoras; signifying by this
appellation, that such an offspring was predicted to him by the
Pythian Apollo. For we must not regard the assertions of
Epimenides, Eudoxus, and Xenocrates, who suspect that Apollo at
that time, becoming connected with Parthenis, and causing her to be
pregnant from not being so, had in consequence of this predicted
concerning Pythagoras, by the Delphic prophet: for this is by no
[9]
means to be admitted. Indeed, no one can doubt that the 5
soul of Pythagoras was sent to mankind from the empire of
Apollo, either being an attendant on the God, of co-arranged 6
with him in some other more familiar way: for this may be
inferred both from his birth, and the all-various wisdom of his soul.
And thus much concerning the nativity of Pythagoras.

But after his father Mnesarchus had returned from Syria to Samos,
with great wealth, which he had collected from a prosperous
navigation, he built a temple to Apollo, with the inscription of
Pythius; and took care to have his son nourished with various and
the best disciplines, at one time by Creophilus, at another by
Pherecydes the Syrian, and at another by almost all those who
presided over sacred concerns, to whom he earnestly recommended
Pythagoras, that he might be as much as possible sufficiently
instructed in divine concerns. He, however, was educated in such a
manner, as to be fortunately the most beautiful and godlike of all
those that have been celebrated in the annals of history. On the
death of his father, likewise, though he was still but a youth, his
aspect was most venerable, and his habits most temperate, so that
he was even reverenced and honored by elderly men; and converted
the attention of all who saw and heard him speak, on himself, and
appeared to be an admirable person to every one who beheld 7
him. Hence it was reasonably asserted by many, that he was
the son of a God. But he being corroborated by renown of this kind,
by the education which he had received from his infancy, and by his
natural deiform appearance, in a still greater degree evinced that he
deserved his present prerogatives. He was also adorned by piety and
disciplines, by a mode of living transcendency good, by firmness of
soul, and by a body in due subjection to the mandates of reason. In
all his words and actions, he discovered an inimitable quiet and
serenity, not being subdued at any time by anger, or laughter, or
emulation, or contention, or any other perturbation or precipitation
of conduct; but he dwelt at Samos like some beneficent dæmon.
Hence, while he was yet a youth, his great renown having reached
Thales at Miletus, and Bias at Priene, men illustrious for their
wisdom, it also extended to the neighbouring cities. To all which we
may add, that the youth was every where celebrated as the long-
haired Samian, and was reverenced by the multitude as one under
the influence of divine inspiration. But after he had attained the
eighteenth year of his age, about the period when the tyranny of
Policrates first made its appearance, foreseeing that under such a
government he might receive some impediment in his studies, which
engrossed the whole of his attention, he departed privately by night
with one Hermodamas (whose surname was Creophilus, and 8
who was the grandson of him who had formerly been the host,
friend, and preceptor in all things of Homer the poet,) to
Pherecydes, to Anaximander the natural philosopher, and to Thales
at Miletus. He likewise alternately associated with each of these
philosophers, in such a manner, that they all loved him, admired his
natural endowments, and made him a partaker of their doctrines.
Indeed, after Thales had gladly admitted him to his intimate
confidence, he admired the great difference between him and other
young men, whom Pythagoras left far behind in every
accomplishment. And besides this, Thales increased the reputation
Pythagoras had already acquired, by communicating to him such
disciplines as he was able to impart: and, apologizing for his old age,
and the imbecility of his body, he exhorted him to sail into Egypt,
[10]
and associate with the Memphian and Diospolitan priests. For he
confessed that his own reputation for wisdom, was derived from the
instructions of these priests; but that he was neither naturally, nor
by exercise, endued with those excellent prerogatives, which were
so visibly displayed in the person of Pythagoras. Thales, therefore,
gladly announced to him, from all these circumstances, that he
would become the wisest and most divine of all men, if he
associated with these Egyptian priests.

9
CHAP. III.

Pythagoras, therefore, having been benefited by Thales in other

respects, and especially having learned from him to be sparing of his
time; for the sake of this he entirely abstained from wine and animal
food, and still prior to these from voracity, and confined himself to
such nutriment as was slender and easy of digestion. In
consequence of this, his sleep was short, his soul vigilant and pure,
and his body confirmed in a state of perfect and invariable health. In
possession of such advantages, therefore, he sailed to Sidon, being
persuaded that this was his natural country, and also properly
conceiving that he might easily pass from thence into Egypt. Here he
conversed with the prophets who were the descendants of Mochus
the physiologist, and with others, and also with the Phœnician
hierophants. He was likewise initiated in all the mysteries of Byblus
and Tyre, and in the sacred operations which are performed in many
parts of Syria; not engaging in a thing of this kind for the sake of
superstition, as some one may be led to suppose, but much rather
from a love and desire of contemplation, and from an anxiety that
nothing might escape his observation which deserved to be learnt in
the arcana or mysteries of the Gods. Having been previously
instructed therefore in the mysteries of the Phœnicians, which 10
were derived like a colony and a progeny from the sacred rites
in Egypt, and hoping from this circumstance that he should be a
partaker of more beautiful, divine, and genuine monuments of
erudition in Egypt; joyfully calling to mind also the admonitions of
his preceptor Thales, he immediately embarked for Egypt, through
the means of some Egyptian sailors, who very opportunely at that
time landed on the Phœnician coast under mount Carmelus, in
whose temple Pythagoras, separated from all society, for the most
part dwelt. But the sailors gladly received him, foreseeing that they
should acquire great gain by exposing him to sale. But when, during
the voyage, they perceived with what continence and venerable
gravity he conducted himself, in conformity to the mode of living he
had adopted, they were more benevolently disposed towards him.
Observing, likewise, that there was something greater than what
pertains to human nature in the modesty of the youth, they called to
mind how unexpectedly he had appeared to them on their landing,
when from the summit of mount Carmelus, which they knew was
more sacred than other mountains, and inaccessible to the vulgar,
he leisurely descended without looking back, or suffering any delay
from precipices or opposing stones; and that when he came to the
boat, he said nothing more than, “Are you bound for Egypt?” 11
And farther, that on their answering in the affirmative, he
ascended the ship and sate silent the whole time of the voyage, in
that part of the vessel where he was not likely to incommode the
occupations of the sailors. But Pythagoras remained in one and the
same unmoved state for two nights and three days, neither
partaking of food, nor drink, nor sleep, unless perhaps as he sate in
that firm and tranquil condition, he might sleep for a short time
unobserved by all the sailors. To which we may add, that when the
sailors considered how, contrary to their expectations, their voyage
had been continued and uninterrupted, as if some deity had been
present; putting all these things together, they concluded that a
divine dæmon had in reality passed over with them from Syria into
Egypt. Hence, speaking both to Pythagoras and to each other with
greater decorum and gentleness than before, they completed,
through a most tranquil sea, the remainder of their voyage, and at
length happily landed on the Egyptian coast. Here the sailors
reverently assisted him in descending from the ship; and after they
had placed him on the purest sand, they raised a certain temporary
altar before him, and heaping on it from their present abundance
the fruits of trees, and presenting him as it were with the first fruits
of their freight, they departed from thence, and hastened to their
destined port. But Pythagoras, whose body through such long 12
fasting was become weaker, did not oppose the sailors in
assisting him to descend from the ship, and immediately on their
departure eat as much of the fruits as was requisite to restore his
decayed strength. From thence also he arrived safe at the
neighbouring lands, constantly preserving the same tranquillity and
modesty of behaviour.

CHAP. IV.

But here, while he frequented all the Egyptian temples with the
greatest diligence and with accurate investigation, he was both
admired and loved by the priests and prophets with whom he
associated. And having learnt with the greatest solicitude every
particular, he did not neglect to hear of any transaction that was
celebrated in his own time, or of any man famous for his wisdom, or
any mystery in whatever manner it might be performed; nor did he
omit to visit any place in which he thought something more excellent
might be found. On this account he went to all the priests, by whom
he was furnished with the wisdom which each possessed. He spent
therefore two and twenty years in Egypt, in the adyta of temples,
astronomizing and geometrizing, and was initiated, not in a
superficial or casual manner, in all the mysteries of the Gods, till at
length being taken captive by the soldiers of Cambyses, he 13
was brought to Babylon. Here he gladly associated with the
Magi, was instructed by them in their venerable knowledge, and
learnt from them the most perfect worship of the Gods. Through
their assistance likewise, he arrived at the summit of arithmetic,
music, and other disciplines; and after associating with them twelve
years, he returned to Samos about the fifty-sixth year of his age.

CHAP. V.

On his return to Samos, however, being known by some of the more

aged inhabitants, he was not less admired than before. For he
appeared to them to be more beautiful and wise, and to possess a
divine gracefulness in a more eminent degree. Hence, he was
publicly called upon by his country to benefit all men, by imparting
to them what he knew. Nor was he averse to this request, but
endeavoured to introduce the symbolical mode of teaching, in a way
perfectly similar to the documents by which he had been instructed
in Egypt; though the Samians did not very much admit this mode of
tuition, and did not adhere to him with that according aptitude which
was requisite. Though no one therefore attended to him, and no one
was genuinely desirous of those disciplines which he 14
endeavoured by all means to introduce among the Greeks, yet
he neither despised nor neglected Samos, because it was his
country, and therefore wished to give his fellow-citizens a taste of
the sweetness of the mathematical disciplines, though they were
unwilling to be instructed in them. With a view to this, therefore, he
employed the following method and artifice. Happening to observe a
certain youth, who was a great lover of gymnastic and other
corporeal exercises, but otherwise poor and in difficult
circumstances, playing at ball in the Gymnasium with great aptness
and facility, he thought the young man might easily be persuaded to
attend to him, if he was sufficiently supplied with the necessaries of
life, and freed from the care of procuring them. As soon as the
youth, therefore, left the bath, Pythagoras called him to him, and
promised that he would furnish him with every thing requisite to the
support of his bodily exercise, on condition that he would receive
from him gradually and easily, but continually, so that he might not
be burthened by receiving them at once, certain disciplines, which
he said he had learnt from the Barbarians in his youth, but which
now began to desert him through forgetfulness and the incursions of
old age. But the young man immediately acceded to the conditions,
through the hope of having necessary support. Pythagoras,
therefore, endeavoured to instruct him in the disciplines of
arithmetic and geometry, forming each of his demonstrations 15
in an abacus, and giving the youth three oboli as a reward for
every figure which he learnt. This also he continued to do for a long
time, exciting him to the geometrical theory by the desire of honour;
diligently, and in the best order, giving him (as we have said) three
oboli for every figure which he apprehended. But when the wise
man observed that the elegance, sweetness, and connexion of these
disciplines, to which the youth had been led in a certain orderly
path, had so captivated him that he would not neglect their pursuit
though he should suffer the extremity of want, he pretended
poverty, and an inability of giving him three oboli any longer. But the
youth on hearing this replied, “I am able without these to learn and
receive your disciplines.” Pythagoras then said, “But I have not the
means of procuring sufficient nutriment for myself.” As it is requisite,
therefore, to labour in order to procure daily necessaries and mortal
food, it would not be proper that his attention should be distracted
by the abacus, and by stupid and vain pursuits. The youth, however,
vehemently abhorring the thought of discontinuing his studies,
replied: “I will in future provide for you, and repay your kindness in
a way resembling that of the stork: for I in my turn will give you
three oboli for every figure.” And from this time he was so captivated
by these disciplines, that he alone, of all the Samians, migrated from
his country with Pythagoras, having the same name with him, 16
but being the son of Eratocles. There are said to be three
books of this Samian On Athletics, in which he orders the Athletæ to
feed on flesh instead of dry figs; which books are very improperly
ascribed by some to Pythagoras the son of Mnesarchus. It is likewise
said, that about the same time Pythagoras was admired at Delos,
when he approached to the bloodless altar, as it is called, of the
father Apollo, and worshipped it. After which he went to all the
oracles. He likewise dwelt for some time in Crete and Sparta, for the
purpose of becoming acquainted with their laws; and, having been
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