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Wade04.book Page iii Thursday, April 15, 2004 12:20 PM

Basic and Advanced

Regulatory Control:
System Design and Application
2nd Edition

By Harold L. Wade
Wade04.book Page iv Thursday, April 15, 2004 12:20 PM

Notice
The information presented in this publication is for the general education of the reader.
Because neither the author nor the publisher have any control over the use of the information by the
reader, both the author and the publisher disclaim any and all liability of any kind arising out of
such use. The reader is expected to exercise sound professional judgment in using any of the infor-
mation presented in a particular application.
Additionally, neither the author nor the publisher have investigated or considered the affect of
any patents on the ability of the reader to use any of the information in a particular application. The
reader is responsible for reviewing any possible patents that may affect any particular use of the
information presented.
Any references to commercial products in the work are cited as examples only. Neither the
author nor the publisher endorse any referenced commercial product. Any trademarks or trade-
names referenced belong to the respective owner of the mark or name. Neither the author nor the
publisher make any representation regarding the availability of any referenced commercial product
at any time. The manufacturer’s instructions on use of any commercial product must be followed at
all times, even if in conflict with the information in this publication.

Copyright © 2004 by ISA—The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society

67 Alexander Drive
P.O. Box 12277
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709

All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

ISBN 1-55617-873-5 (pbk.)

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wade, Harold L.
Basic and advanced regulatory control :system design and application
/ Harold L. Wade.-- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 1-55617-873-5 (pbk.)
1. Automatic control. 2. Feedback control systems. I. Title.
TJ213.W313 2004
629.8--dc22
2004001322
Wade04.book Page v Thursday, April 15, 2004 12:20 PM

DEDICATION

To my mother, who provided an impetus for life-long learning,

and to Mary, who has provided love, support,
encouragement, and criticism when needed.
Wade04.book Page vii Thursday, April 15, 2004 12:20 PM

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Harold L. Wade is president of Wade Associates, Inc., a Houston, Texas, firm specializing in
process control systems consulting and training. He has 45 years’ experience in applying and
installing process control systems in such industries as petroleum refining, chemical produc-
tion, textiles, and water and waste treatment systems among others. He has held technical posi-
tions with Honeywell, Foxboro, and Biles & Associates.

Dr. Wade received a B.S. in Mechanical Engineering from Oklahoma State University and his
M.S. and Ph.D. in Systems Engineering from Case Western Reserve University. A Senior
Member of ISA, he also holds membership in IEEE and AIChE and is a licensed professional
engineer in Texas and Oklahoma.

Dr. Wade has taught courses in process control systems design for ISA since 1986. He has pre-
sented process control and controller tuning seminars for many companies worldwide. He is
also the developer of the process control training program, PC-ControLAB. Dr. Wade was a
2002 inductee into Control magazine’s Process Automation Hall of Fame.
Wade04.book Page xiii Thursday, April 15, 2004 12:20 PM

PREFACE

This book presents a practical approach to process control for the chemical, refining, pulp and
paper, utilities, and similar industries. It is the result of seminars in process control that I have
presented both in the United States and abroad. A typical participant in my seminars is an
engineer, currently employed by a processing company, who may have had formal training in
an undergraduate process control course but who may not be able to fully relate the material
from that course to his or her work experiences. This book aims to meet this need by explain-
ing concepts in a practical way with only a minimal amount of theoretical background.

The book serves both the beginning and the experienced control systems engineer. For the
beginning engineer, it initially presents very simple concepts. For the experienced engineer, it
develops these initial concepts so as to provide deeper understanding or new insights into
familiar concepts. The purpose is to provide everyone, beginner or experienced engineer, with
something they can put to beneficial use in their plant.

This edition also develops a unique method of controller tuning and a novel form of decou-
pling control, both of which were only introduced briefly in the first edition. The impact on
control strategy configuration of advances in the standardization of fieldbus communication
systems for process control is discussed. The coverage of model predictive control has been
expanded to reflect the wider acceptance of this technology, the development of more efficient
systems, and falling prices for the supporting hardware platform. This edition also includes a
new set of process control strategy application examples.

Although this is intended to be a practical “how-to” book, readers should not infer that this
means it is devoid of mathematical concepts. Where such concepts are utilized, however, it is
their application to practical situations, rather than the theory behind the concepts, that is
emphasized. A theme of the first edition—that wherever I had to choose between providing
mathematical rigor or promoting intuitive understanding, I always gave preference to under-
standability—has been carried forward into the present edition. This practicality distinguishes
this book from many academic texts.

The book is organized generally into three parts. The first three chapters present background
information, including a brief nonrigorous mathematical review, a discussion of symbols and
terminology, and a description of general characteristics of processes and of selected types of
control loops.

PREFACE — XIII
Wade04.book Page xiv Thursday, April 15, 2004 12:20 PM

BASIC AND ADVANCED REGULATORY CONTROL: SYSTEM DESIGN AND APPLICATION

The second part—chapters 4 through 7—deals with feedback control. The objective is to pro-
vide the reader with a thorough intuitive grasp of feedback control behavior and all its
nuances. In the chapter on feedback controller tuning (chapter 6), the discussion on improving
as-found tuning (also called “intelligent trial-and-error tuning”) has been considerably
expanded, and supplemented by the presentation of a tuning flow chart that embodies this
technique. This new tuning technique has been proven in practical applications and has been
well accepted in training classes where it has been presented. In this same chapter, new mate-
rial is included on tuning liquid-level control loops. The tuning of these loops, which have a
completely different characteristic from most other process control loops, has in general
received very little specific attention in the process control literature.

The last portion of the book—chapters 8 through 16—begins by defining the “feedback pen-
alty” that must be paid if feedback control alone is used. This leads into a discussion of
advanced regulatory control techniques (chapter 9), including chapters on cascade (chapter
10), ratio (chapter 11), feedforward (chapter 12), override (chapter 13), decoupling (chapter
13), model-based (chapter 14), and model predictive control (chapter 15). The chapter on feed-
forward control offers expanded coverage on the application of multiplicative feedforward
control. The chapter on override (selector) control includes additional application examples
for this technique, as well as an assessment of the performance of several alternative tech-
niques. The chapter on the control of multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) processes
(chapter 15) contains additional coverage of inverted decoupling. This MIMO technique was
introduced in the first edition; new material previously available only in technical journals is
presented here.

The chapter on model-based control in the first edition has been split into two chapters. Chap-
ter 14, devoted primarily to dead-time compensation, covers Smith predictor control, internal
model control, and Dahlin’s algorithm. The other chapter, chapter 15, contains very signifi-
cantly expanded coverage of model predictive control.

The concluding chapter, which is almost entirely new, covers process control application top-
ics that do not readily fit into any of the other chapters. In addition to cross-limiting control for
fired heaters, which was covered in the first edition, these new topics include floating control,
techniques for increasing valve rangeability, and time proportioning control.

One of the themes of this book is to emphasize control strategies that are platform indepen-
dent. However, since the appearance of the first edition, FOUNDATION™ Fieldbus (FF),
which permits the control strategy to be distributed directly into field devices, has grown in
acceptance. The network architecture, communication, and implementation aspects of FF are
briefly summarized in chapter 5. In this edition, the process control aspects of FF receive
greater coverage. Moreover, the chapters on modifications to feedback control, cascade, ratio,
feedforward, and override (chapters 5, 9, 10, 11, and 12) all conclude with an example in
which that chapter’s strategy is implemented using FF function blocks.

I would like to express gratitude to the many students who, by asking probing questions, have
enabled me to revise and sharpen my presentation and come up with more meaningful exam-

XIV — PREFACE
Wade04.book Page xv Thursday, April 15, 2004 12:20 PM

BASIC AND ADVANCED REGULATORY CONTROL: SYSTEM DESIGN AND APPLICATION

ples. In particular, I would like to thank the engineers at BASF–Freeport for encouraging me
to develop the controller tuning flow chart, to the staff of the ISA Training Institute for their
support during my seminars, and to Adrian and Ivan Susanto in Indonesia and Michael Wang
in Taiwan for sponsoring courses and providing me with an opportunity for travel abroad.

I would also like to express my thanks to Dr. R. Russell Rhinehart for many helpful comments
and suggestions, to my longtime friend and mentor (and reviewer of this book) Greg Shinskey,
as well as to John Shaw, Jonas Berge, and Bryan Griffen who have reviewed all or parts of this
book. And I have special thanks for Susan Colwell, who, through humor and patience, has
helped me endure the arduous task of writing.

PREFACE — XV
Wade04.book Page ix Thursday, April 15, 2004 12:20 PM

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

CHAPTER 2—MATHEMATICAL BACKGROUND, DIAGRAMS, AND

TERMINOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Mathematical Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Diagrams and Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Direct- or Reverse-acting? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

CHAPTER 3—PROCESS AND CONTROL LOOP CHARACTERISTICS . . 27

Steady-state Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Dynamic Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Control Loop Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

CHAPTER 4—PID CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Feedback Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

CHAPTER 5—MODIFICATIONS TO STANDARD PID CONTROL . . . . . . . 79

Set Point “Softening” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Integral-only Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Interactive or Noninteractive Controller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Independent Gains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Internal Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Nonlinearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Set Point Tracking and Bumpless Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
“Bumpless” Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Preventing Reset Windup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

TABLE OF CONTENTS — IX
Wade04.book Page x Thursday, April 15, 2004 12:20 PM

BASIC AND ADVANCED REGULATORY CONTROL: SYSTEM DESIGN AND APPLICATION

Discrete Control Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Incorporating Engineering Units in Controller Gain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Commercial Examples of Modifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Process Control Using FOUNDATION™ Fieldbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

CHAPTER 6—TUNING FEEDBACK CONTROL LOOPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Tuning for Self-regulating Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Tuning Liquid-level Control Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Other Tuning Situations: Runaway Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Typical Tuning Values for Particular Types of Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Practical Considerations for Loop Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

CHAPTER 7—SELF-TUNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Scheduled Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
On-demand Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Adaptive Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Tuning Aids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

CHAPTER 8—ADVANCED REGULATORY CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

CHAPTER 9—CASCADE CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Cascade Control Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Identifying Candidate Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Implementation, Operation, and Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Cascade Control Using FOUNDATION™ Fieldbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

CHAPTER 10—RATIO CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Ratio Control Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Automatic Ratio Adjustment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Scaling the Ratio Control Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Ratio Control Using FOUNDATION™ Fieldbus Function Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

CHAPTER 11—FEEDFORWARD CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Designing Feedforward Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Dynamic Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Further Considerations of the Feedback Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Feedforward: In Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Feedforward Control Using FOUNDATION™ Fieldbus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

X — TABLE OF CONTENTS
Wade04.book Page xi Thursday, April 15, 2004 12:20 PM

BASIC AND ADVANCED REGULATORY CONTROL: SYSTEM DESIGN AND APPLICATION

CHAPTER 12—OVERRIDE (SELECTOR) CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Override Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Other Methods of Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Override Control Using FOUNDATION™ Fieldbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

CHAPTER 13—CONTROL FOR INTERACTING PROCESS LOOPS. . . . . 267

Variable Pairing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Decoupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Decoupling Application Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

CHAPTER 14—DEAD-TIME COMPENSATION AND MODEL-BASED

CONTROL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Smith Predictor Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Dahlin’s Algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
An Overview of Z-Transform Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Internal Model Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

CHAPTER 15—MULTIVARIABLE MODEL PREDICTIVE

CONTROL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Real-world Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Unconstrained MPC for SISO Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Unconstrained MPC for MIMO Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Constrained MPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Variations in MPC Vendor Offerings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
MPC in Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

CHAPTER 16—OTHER CONTROL TECHNIQUES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

Split-range Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Cross-Limiting Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Floating Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Hot or Chilled Water Supply Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Cooling Tower Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Increasing Valve Rangeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Time Proportioning Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

TABLE OF CONTENTS — XI
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BASIC AND ADVANCED REGULATORY CONTROL: SYSTEM DESIGN AND APPLICATION

APPENDIX A—SIGNAL SCALING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

APPENDIX B—DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS FOR INSTALLED

VALVE CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

XII — TABLE OF CONTENTS

Wade04.book Page 1 Thursday, April 15, 2004 12:20 PM

1 INTRODUCTION

The term process control implies that there is a process for which there is a desired behavior
and that there is some controlling function that acts to elicit that desired behavior. This broad
concept can embrace everything from societal processes governed by some regulatory control
authority to automated manufacturing processes. In practically all cases, however, a common
thread is that some measure of the actual process behavior is compared with the desired pro-
cess behavior. This feedback action then generates a control policy that acts to minimize or
eliminate the deviation between desired and actual behavior.

We are concerned in this book with a particular segment of automated process control—that
which is applied to chemical, refining, pulp and paper, power generation, and similar types of
processes. Even within this limited scope of applications, we will limit the discussion prima-
rily to processes that are operated continuously for long periods of time and within a narrow
region of the operating variables. In other words, we exclude such important operating modes
as batch processing, start-ups, and grade changes. Many of the control techniques to be pre-
sented here, however, can be adapted to these other modes of operation.

For the processes we focus on in this book, the process’s behavior is often characterized by
measured values of such process variables as temperatures, flow rates, pressures, and the like.
The desired behavior, then, is stated to be the set points of those process variables. Until fairly
recent times, most applications of industrial process control used simple feedback controllers
that regulated the flows, temperatures, and pressures. These controllers required a form of
adjustment called tuning to match their controlling action to the unique requirements of indi-
vidual processes. Occasionally, more advanced forms of control, such as ratio and cascade,
could be found; even more rarely one might find a feedforward control loop. As long as most
of the control systems were implemented with analog hardware, applications were limited to
simple regulatory control. This was due to the cost of additional components, the additional
interconnections more advanced control required, the burden of maintenance, and the vulnera-
bility to failure of many devices in the control loop. With the advent of digital control systems,
however, more sophisticated loops became feasible. Advanced regulatory control—which
includes the previously mentioned ratio, cascade, and feedforward control as well as additional
forms such as constraint (selector) control and decoupling—could readily be implemented
simply by configuring software function blocks.

With this additional capability, however, a need developed for a systematic approach toward
using it. This is called control strategy design. In order to design a technically successful and

CHAPTER 1 — 1
Wade04.book Page 2 Thursday, April 15, 2004 12:20 PM

BASIC AND ADVANCED REGULATORY CONTROL: SYSTEM DESIGN AND APPLICATION

economically viable control strategy, the control system engineer must be well grounded in the
techniques of feedback control as well as the tools of advanced regulatory control. The requi-
site knowledge includes both how to implement and how to tune. Even before that, however,
the control system engineer must be adept at recognizing when to use (and conversely, when
not to use) certain control methods as well as in projecting the expected benefits.

Using advanced regulatory control provides many benefits. One of the most important is sim-
ply closer control of the process. It will become very clear later in this book that with basic
regulatory (i.e., feedback) control, there must be a deviation from set point before control
action can occur. We will call this the “feedback penalty.” The objective of advanced regula-
tory control is for the control action to be taken by incurring only a minimal feedback penalty.
The reduction in feedback penalty may be stated in a variety of ways, such as a reduction of
the maximum deviation from set point, as a reduction of the standard deviation, or simply as a
reduction in the amount of off-spec product produced. This reduction in feedback penalty can
provide several forms of economic benefit, such as improvement in product quality, energy
savings, increased throughput, or longer equipment life.

Process control is but one part of an overall control hierarchy. It extends downward to safety
controls and other directly connected process devices and upward to encompass optimization
and even higher levels of business management, such as scheduling, inventory, and asset man-
agement (see Figure 1-1). Indeed, corporate profitability may be enhanced more significantly
as a result of these higher-level activities than from improved process control per se. However,
since each layer of the hierarchy depends upon the proper functioning of the layers beneath it,
one of the primary benefits of advanced regulatory control is that it enables the higher levels,
such as optimization and enterprise management and control.

™ SYMBOLS
Chapter 2 discusses the graphical symbols used in control system documentation. Listed
below are the mathematical symbols that are used generally throughout the book. Some sym-
bols used in this book are used only for the discussion of a particular topic; these symbols are
therefore defined in that discussion and are not listed here. Chapter 15 uses a unique set of
symbols that are defined at the beginning of that chapter. The following are the symbols found
throughout this book:

b bias value (manual reset) on proportional-only controller output

e error (deviation between set point and process variable)
E when capitalized, refers to (Laplace) transform of error
K steady-state gain of first-order lag
KC controller gain (noninteractive and interactive control algorithms)
KD derivative gain (independent gains control algorithm)
KI integral gain (independent gains control algorithm)
KP proportional gain (independent gains control algorithm)
Kp process gain (change in process variable / change in controller output)
m manipulated variable, controller output

2 — CHAPTER 1
Wade04.book Page 3 Thursday, April 15, 2004 12:20 PM

BASIC AND ADVANCED REGULATORY CONTROL: SYSTEM DESIGN AND APPLICATION

(17(535,6(/(9(/&21752/6
$FFRXQWLQJ6FKHGXOLQJ
$VVHW0DQDJHPHQWHWF

237,0,=$7,21

$'9$1&('5(*8/$725<&21752/
&DVFDGH5DWLR)HHGIRUZDUG2YHUULGH
'HFRXSOLQJ'HDG7LPH&RPSHQVDWLRQ

%$6,&5(*8/$725<&21752/
)HHGEDFN

6$)(7<&21752/6

352&(66

Figure 1-1. Overall Process Control and Information System Hierarchy

M when capitalized, refers to (Laplace) transform of manipulated variable

PB proportional band
PI control algorithm with proportional and integral modes
PID control algorithm with proportional, integral, and derivative modes
PV process variable (see also symbol x)
SP set point (see also symbol xSP)
TD derivative time (noninteractive and interactive control algorithms)
TI integral time (minutes/repeat) (noninteractive and interactive control
algorithms)
x process variable (see also symbol PV)
xSP set point (see also symbol SP)
u disturbance variable
α derivative gain when a derivative filter is used with noninteractive or
interactive control algorithm)
θ dead time
τ first-order lag-time constant

CHAPTER 1 — 3
Other documents randomly have
different content
 The materials of which glazes are composed are about the same
as those that enter into the composition of clays with a few
additions. There is in glazes, as in clays, the play of soft and hard
materials, or the flux and frit. Flint, aluminum, or china clay forms
the frit or hard, refractory portion; potash, soda, lead or borax the
melting part or flux. The addition of clays gives durability.
In preparing the flux, it is melted like glass and then crushed to
powder. The frit must first be melted, then dropped from the crucible
into water before it can be powdered.
The making of glazes is not often done by amateurs, and unless
one is planning to start pottery-making as a business, and requires
large quantities of glazes, it is best to buy them from a reliable
dealer. They come in the form of powder—soft glaze, hard glaze,
and stannifère, which is a hard glaze with some oxide of tin added,
to make it opaque. The soft glazes are used on ware which fires at a
low heat, and is therefore not durable. A large proportion of hard
glaze must be added to make the preparation applicable to a pottery
which is fired at an intense heat, while if one wishes a mat-glaze the
stannifère is also used.
The colouring materials may be bought of the same dealer. They
are as follows: Antimony for yellow, cobalt for blue, copper for
green, chrome for green, manganese for brown, and iron for brown.
Red oxide of iron colours a purplish red, and carbonate of copper
makes a gray green that is very beautiful. A ground glass or stone
slab, on which to mix the glaze, and a palette knife, will be required;
also a small quantity of gum-arabic and of gum tragacanth, a small
teacup, and a measuring-glass. These, with two or three soft paint-
brushes of various sizes—one that is an inch wide, one smaller, and
another larger—will be enough of an outfit to start with.
The gum-arabic should be dissolved in water to the consistency of
honey. It is used in the first coat of glaze to bind the glaze and
prevent it from rubbing off. Quite a little of it may be prepared at a
time and kept in a covered glass jar until needed. The gum
tragacanth is bought in small quantities—five cents’ worth at a time.
Cover this amount with one pint of water and let it stand over night.
In the morning, strain it through a fine sieve and put it away in a
glass jar till it is needed.
If possible, very large pieces of pottery should be fired before they
are glazed—in the biscuit, as it is called. Small and medium-sized
pieces may be glazed on the green clay—the term by which unbaked
clay is known among potters. The piece should have dried
thoroughly for several days, until it is light gray in colour, and what is
known as bone dry. It is decorated, if decoration is required, and
then glazed. All vessels that are used to hold or measure glaze
should first be dipped in water to prevent waste from the glaze
clinging to them. The hands should be washed thoroughly after
working with glazes, as some of the materials used are poisonous.
For the inside of most pieces a transparent glaze is used, whether
the outer glaze is to be transparent or opaque.
All of the odds and ends of transparent glaze, no matter what the
colour, that are left after each glazing, are poured into a large bowl
or other vessel which is kept for the purpose. The mixture of all
colours in this combination of glazes makes a neutral tint which
harmonizes most agreeably with the outer glaze, whatever its colour.
It is applied as follows:

To Glaze the Inside of a Piece of Pottery

Take a small cupful of transparent glaze, and, holding the piece of
pottery over the large vessel containing the liquid, pour the cupful of
glaze into it, rolling it around the inside of the piece quickly but
carefully, so as to have it cover the entire inner surface. Then turn
the piece deftly and suddenly bottom up, so as to empty it into the
large vessel without letting any of it drip over onto the outside of the
piece. Should this happen, by accident, rub it quickly off with the
fingers.
 The Outside Glaze and How to Apply It
The most satisfactory finish for the outside of fine pottery is a mat
or opaque glaze in any soft dull shade of green, brown, blue, yellow,
or the red obtainable with red oxide of iron. For an art pottery,
composed of fire-and blue-clay, which requires a strong heat, the
following glaze is applicable:

Gray-Green Mat-Glaze
Mix
1 tablespoonful of soft glaze,
½ tablespoonful of stannifère, and
½ tablespoonful of China clay,
together on a stone or glass slab with a palette knife, adding ¼
teaspoonful of gum-arabic and enough water to make the
consistency a little thicker than thick cream. About ¼ teaspoonful of
carbonate of copper added to this mixture (and ground thoroughly
into it with the palette knife) will make a light gray-green. For
deeper shades increase the quantity slightly. The tint appears much
lighter than it will when fired; indeed, in the colouring of glazes, as
in painting on china, the worker needs a great deal of faith, for until
the magic of the kiln brings out the colours one would never guess
what they were to be.
In applying the glaze, place your piece bottom up on a table, or
other flat surface. Dip a soft, flat paint-brush into the bowl of glaze,
and beginning with the bottom, paint it on in short strokes in every
direction—what an artist would call cross-hatching—and overlapping
slightly like the shingles on a house. The bottom receives but one
coat of glaze, as it is liable to stick in firing and be uneven if it has
more than one. Next start at the sides, near the bottom (as the
piece stands upside down), and paint down for an inch or two all
around. The piece is then set right side up, providing, of course, that
the bottom is dry, which it will be undoubtedly, and the rest of it is
glazed. From time to time stir up the glaze from the bottom, that it
may be thoroughly mixed.
The edge especially should be carefully covered, and the outer
glaze may even be brought over inside the piece a little. Before
applying the second and third coats (for the piece receives three)
two teaspoonfuls of gum tragacanth, well mixed according to
directions, are added to the glaze. In putting on the second coat, the
piece is again placed upside down on the table, and beginning
where the sides join the bottom, the glaze is applied as before. The
sides and top edge only are glazed this time. The third coat, which is
put on when the second is dry, is begun at the top edge, covering it
well, and is ended gradually and unevenly half way down the sides.

Pale-green Mat-Glaze
To make a lighter shade of green, with just a hint of yellow to
soften it, add to half the quantity of the glaze first mixed as much
again of the uncoloured glaze and a slight sprinkling of yellow.
It will be seen from these directions how much the colouring of
glazes is like the blending of pigments for a picture. It is a delightful
field for experiment, and the element of chance is supplied by the
kiln, which often does unexpected and interesting things to one’s
colours and glazes—leaving here, a touch of brown about the rim to
relieve an expanse of green; there, a metallic tinge almost like
lustre; and again the biscuit peeps through the glaze, giving a
warmer tone to the edge of a decoration.
In mixing the glaze for a piece that has been fired in the biscuit,
make it a little thicker than that for use on the green clay—about the
consistency of whipped cream. It is applied somewhat differently,
too. A potter would tell you to "rag it on"—that is, put it on with
firm, short strokes, using the ends of the hairs of the brush instead
of the flat part. Let each coat dry well before the next is applied.
Three or four coats will be necessary, except for the bottom, which
receives but one. After the first coat, gum tragacanth is added, as in
glazing on green clay. The fourth coat need not entirely cover the
piece, but the top should be carefully glazed. If for any reason the
pottery has to be re-fired, it should be reglazed, but two coats only
will be necessary, and the glaze need not be quite so heavy as that
used on the biscuit. Do not be discouraged if your pieces need a
second or even a third firing, for often the most beautiful results are
obtained by re-firing. Quality—that combination of richness, and
depth of colour and texture—rarely comes with the first firing.
Pottery for Beauty and Use
 CHAPTER VI
POTTERY FOR BEAUTY AND USE

When one thinks of the limitless possibilities of pottery in

household decoration—the great dishes for flowers and fruit, the
lamp-bowls, candlesticks, and tiles—one may make, one can hardly
wait to begin. Now is the chance to work out a long-treasured idea
for a match-bowl, or a plant-jar to hang against the wall or window
frame. Now one can show the superiority of one’s conceptions over
the stupid things in shops! Let us hasten to get out the clay and
begin.

Dark-Green Fruit-Bowl
Materials required:
About 4½ pounds of clay,
A plaster mould for a bowl, 10 or 11 inches in diameter
at the top,
The oval tools of sheet steel,
The wooden modelling tools,
The pointed steel tool,
A flint bag,
A rolling-pin,
A bowl of slip,
A small sponge.
Take a good lump of clay, about four and a half pounds, well
worked and free from air-bubbles. Beat out a piece with the flat of
the hand on a table until it is about three-quarters of an inch thick
and more than large enough to cover the bottom of the plaster
mould you have chosen. It should be of even thickness, and may be
rolled with a rolling-pin to make it smooth. Be sure that the plaster
mould is clean and free from scraps of clay. Then dust it with
powdered flint tied up in a cotton cloth. Now fit the flat piece of clay
carefully into the bottom of the bowl mould, pressing it firmly, but
lightly, against it. Cut the edge evenly around. Next a long rope of
clay is rolled as described in Chapter II. It should be an inch in
diameter, and long enough to go around the bowl just above the
bottom. Pat it flat and even, and cut one end into a long point. After
cross-cutting the edge of the bottom piece (to insure its holding
firmly to the coil above), brush it with slip and lay the coil along,
pressing it firmly on to the edge of the bottom piece. Work the
edges of this piece and the coil together with firm, short strokes of
the flat part of the thumb or forefinger nail. Where the coil joins the
other end it is cut into a long, flat point that will fit exactly the point
at the beginning, completing the row.
 WHERE USE AND BEAUTY ARE COMBINED

For the next coil no cross-cutting with the tool is necessary, but
otherwise the process is the same in joining this and subsequent
coils. Care should be taken to press the clay firmly against the walls
of the mould, as well as upon the coil below. When the inside of the
mould is covered, if a deeper bowl is desired, add one or two more
coils above the edge, taking care to have them slope in such a way
as to continue the lines of the bowl. It is then set away to harden.
The next day the clay will have dried and shrunk sufficiently to come
easily away from the plaster. The bowl is then placed bottom up on a
table or flat slab, and the hollows left between the coils on the
outside are wet with slip and filled in evenly, with clay of the
consistency of that in the piece. This will take time and care. The
bowl is then allowed to dry for an hour or two. Next it is carefully
scraped and made even; first with the oval steel tool with a saw
edge, held at right angles with the bowl and curved to fit the form:
this is to get the large bumps off. It is then carefully evened off with
the smooth-edged oval tool bent to fit the curves of the bowl. The
inside is made smooth and even in the same way, brushing any deep
hollows with slip and filling them in with clay. This process should be
carefully and conscientiously done, so that the walls of the bowl, as
one feels them between finger and thumb, are even and free from
lumps. They should not be more than a quarter of an inch thick.
A damp sponge is then passed over the bowl, and the fingers and
thumb smooth and polish it outside and in. The edge is trimmed as
evenly as possible by eye with a steel tool and then bevelled as
follows:

Fig. 25

On a large slab of ground glass pour a little water, which should

be spread over the glass till it is thoroughly wet. Now, holding the
bowl bottom up, firmly with both hands, press its edge quickly and
with a circular motion flat on the glass. It must be done so rapidly
and deftly that it will not stick, but makes the edge even and true.
Slip it off at the side of the slab instead of lifting it up from the
centre. The bottom is finished as described in Chapter II. If this is
done in the morning, the bowl will be ready for the decoration in the
afternoon. This is a band of orange leaves (see Fig. 25), deeply
incised near the top of the bowl on the inside (see Chapter IV.).
More character will be given to the design if the line is broad and
deep, particularly at the points of the leaves, which are thus
emphasised. This piece being so large, should, if possible, be fired in
the biscuit and then finished, inside and out, with a dark-green mat-
glaze (see Chapter V.), and fired again.

Candlestick, Thumb Design

Materials required:
About 1¼ pounds of clay,
The boxwood modelling tools,
The pointed steel tool,
A plaster slab,
A small sponge.
This sturdy little candlestick shows that it is
hand moulded by the marks of the potter’s
thumb on base, handle and candle cup. The
square base is moulded from a single large piece
of clay. This is patted flat and even with the thick
part of the hand, and then cut square and the
Fig. 26
sides turned up for about an inch, making the
base about five inches square and three-eighths
of an inch thick. It is then placed on a plaster
slab, and the corners are pressed in with a firmly held thumb. The
sides of the square base are moulded into a gradual inward curve,
and the corners are slightly depressed (see plate). A cup for the
candle (see Fig. 26) is made by rolling a piece of clay into cylindrical
form, about an inch and three-quarters in diameter and two inches
and a quarter long. At the top of this roll, the finger makes a hollow
for the candle. It should be remembered that the clay shrinks both
in drying and firing, so this hole should be a trifle large and deep for
the candle. The sides of the cup, at about an inch from the top, are
squared and pressed in so that the four corners will stand out like
columns. The hollowed sides between the corners show the mark of
the thumb (see Fig. 26). The centre of the base is now wet with
thick slip and the candle cup pressed firmly on to it, while the edges
are moulded closely on to the base.
A piece of clay is then rolled and flattened into
a handle an inch in diameter and five inches
long. This is put on at one corner of the base,
and is not attached at any other point. Before
moulding it on to the base, touch the corner
lightly with thick slip, to insure its holding. Where
the handle joins the base it is made thick and
Fig. 27
substantial by adding a little extra clay. The print
of the thumb is made where the handle joins the
corner, another is pressed on the top, and another still on the end of
the handle (see plate and Fig. 27). To support the handle until it
dries, roll a ball of soft paper under it. After the candlestick has
stood for a few hours out-of-doors or indoors overnight, it is
carefully trimmed with one of the wooden tools or the sharp-pointed
metal one, taking care to leave sufficient thickness to give it a
sturdy, substantial character, yet not enough to make it clumsy. It is
then rubbed over with a damp sponge and polished with the thumb
and finger, which will smooth away any lumps and give the piece a
hand-moulded look. Should there be any very deep hollows to make
it uneven, they should be wet with slip very slightly and filled in with
clay as nearly the consistency of that in the candlestick as possible.
When it is bone dry, it will be ready for the glaze (see Chapter V.).

Bowl for a Lamp

Materials required:
About 3½ pounds of clay,
A plaster mould for a bowl,
The wooden modelling tools,
The oval sheet steel tools,
The pointed steel tool,
 A rolling-pin,
A flint bag,
A small sponge.
Having chosen a good mould for your bowl, brush it inside with
ground flint tied in a cotton cloth, so that the clay will not stick to it.
Now beat out a piece of well-worked clay on a board, with the flat of
the hand, until it is perhaps two inches more in diameter than the
bottom of the mould, and half an inch thick. It should be rolled
smooth with the rolling-pin. Lay it in the mould, pressing it firmly
against the bottom and sides. It may not be out of place here to say
that no tool but a wooden one should be used in working in moulds,
as metal tools are liable to injure the plaster. The edge of the bottom
piece is next cut even with a wooden modelling tool, and a lump of
clay is formed into a rude cube shape between the hands and then
rolled out on a table or board with the flat of the hand till about
three-quarters of an inch in diameter. This roll of clay is flattened
evenly for its whole length. The top edge of the bottom piece is
marked with criss-cross lines and wet with slip. The roll of clay is
then started on edge, along the top of the bottom piece, pressed
firmly down upon it and against the sides of the mould. It is joined
to the bottom with firm, even strokes of the thumb or forefinger nail.
When the circuit has been made, the two ends, each cut in a long,
flat point, so that they will unite perfectly, are joined. Another roll is
now made, the upper edge of the previous coil is wet with slip, and
the coil is attached in the same way, being careful to start at a
different place from where the previous coil was joined. Thus the
whole bowl is built up. Where there are any decided hollows made
by joining the coils, they should be filled in with clay of the
consistency of the piece, and the bottom and sides smoothed with
dampened finger or modelling tool. If a moderately deep mould has
been chosen, after the sides are covered with layers of clay, four or
more coils may be added above the mould to make a deeper bowl,
continuing the sides in a graceful line. To do this, when the first coil
above the mould has been attached, the bowl is set away, out of
doors for fifteen or twenty minutes if it is in summer or indoors for a
longer time if one is working in the winter. Whenever two coils have
been built up, the piece is set away to harden. These coils, being
free from the mould, can be joined on the outside as well as within.
They are brought gradually in (see plate) until there is a space five
and a half inches in diameter at the top. If a central-draught lamp is
to be used in this bowl, a pierced design will be practical, as it does
away with the necessity for a hole at the bottom of the bowl. There
is much to be done, however, before the piece is ready for the
design. When it has stood for four or five hours or overnight, the
bowl can be lifted from the mould, the cracks on the outside where
it was impossible to join the coils are wet with slip and filled in with
clay of the consistency of the bowl, using the finger or a wooden
tool. When the bowl is quite dry, it is smoothed inside and out, first
with the oval tool with saw teeth, and then with the smooth-edged
one, as described on page 19. The strokes with these tools should
be short and firm, in every direction. The piece is then turned
bottom up, a circle is drawn half an inch in from the edge of the
bottom, and the clay within it scraped out, so as to leave a flat
surface slightly lower than the outer rim. This is where the potter
cuts his mark—a simple, quickly made initial in lieu of a signature.
The top edge, after it has been cut as true as possible by eye, is
made absolutely even by the method described on page 70. The
whole piece is then rubbed with a damp sponge and smoothed and
polished with the fingers. It is now ready for the design (see Fig.
28).
 Fig. 28

The top edge of the bowl is marked off into fifths, and at three-
quarters of an inch from the top the design is drawn with pencil, so
that each time it is repeated the centre shall be directly below a
mark on the edge. It is first incised with a metal tool, in firm, sure
lines. Again the outline is traced, this time more deeply. Then the
clay within the lines is cut out as deep as it has been incised, and
finally the sharp edge of the tool cuts through the wall, close to the
line. The left hand should support the inner wall of the bowl during
this process. When the whole design has been made, dip the finger
in water and soften the edges of the cut portion. The bowl is now
ready for glazing. If possible, it will be better to fire such a large
piece as this in the biscuit before glazing. It will look well if glazed
with gray blue or dark green (see Chapter V.).

Wall Jar for Plants or Flowers

Materials required:
About 4½ pounds of well-mixed clay,
A plaster slab about 10 by 12 inches,
The oval tools of sheet steel,
The pointed steel tool,
A rolling-pin,
 Ultramarine blue water-colour paint,
A medium-sized paint-brush with fine point,
A saucerful of ground, baked clay, mixed with water.
An Indian water-jar of basketry, smeared with pinon gum, pointed
at the bottom so that it could be set upright in the ground or hung
by leather thongs to a tree, suggested the form of this jar. One side
is made flat, so that it can hang against the wall of library or piazza
holding some long trailing plant that grows in water, ivy, or
wandering Jew, or wild flowers gathered on a walk through woods
and lanes. What more appropriate way to make it than the Indian
process described in Chapter II.? We shall need about four and a
half pounds of clay, well mixed. A large lump, almost two pounds, is
flattened out on a table, with the thick part of the hand and then
made even with the rolling-pin. The sheet of clay should be ten by
twelve inches, and not less than three-eighths of an inch thick. Upon
it the jar form shown in Fig. 29 is outlined with a pencil, making it as
large as possible to allow for shrinkage. It is then cut out with the
pointed steel tool and transferred very carefully to a large plaster
slab, where it remains while the walls are being built upon it. A coil
of clay is rolled out, as described in Chapter II., and beginning at the
left side of the jar shape, at the top, it is attached to the edge
(which has previously been criss-crossed with a steel tool and wet
with slip), all the way around to the opposite side of the top.
The jar is then put in the air until
quite hard, when the next coil is
added in the same way. The third coil
is brought in a little toward the centre,
and subsequent coils come in still
more, so as to make the form that of
a jar cut exactly in half. After each coil
is attached, it should be left in the air
to stiffen, or the clay beneath will not Fig. 29
support the coil in progress, so great
is the strain in forming such a shape. Each time a coil is added the
wall below should be criss-crossed with the steel tool (an extra
precaution) and wet with slip. Care should be taken not to make the
walls too thick, and to join the coils and finish the inside as it is
made; for, when the jar is completed, it is impossible to get the hand
and tool in far enough to smooth and finish it well.
When the jar is made, except for a
diamond-shaped gap in the middle of
the front wall, the piece to fill it is cut
and fitted in. It will lie almost parallel
with the back wall. Take care to make
it full large for the opening, and join it
to the inner edges most carefully, for
here, if anywhere, is the jar liable to
crack. The top is now made even by Fig. 30
eye, using the pointed steel tool.

POTTERY FOR BEAUTY AND USE

The pale-green rose-bowl with a moth design, at the left, has beside it a low
Dutch dish. On the right is a fruit-bowl with a deep-green mat-glaze.
 HOW TO MAKE A PLASTER MOULD
At the left is a plaster mould, and beside it a rose-bowl which was partially
formed within it. See chapter VII.

POTTERY FOR BEAUTY AND USE

The lamp-bowl on the left has a gray-blue mat-glaze. Next to it is a
candlestick, with the marks of the potter’s thumb on every part. The wall-jar in
the background is for plants that grow in water. On the right is a flower
candlestick in green and white.
 When the jar is somewhat dry, two handles (see plate) are formed
of rolls of clay (the consistency of that used in making the jar), five
and a half inches long by an inch wide and half an inch thick. These
are firmly attached to the back wall of the jar at the top (see plate),
according to the method described on pages 39 and 40. The
decoration (see Fig. 30) is drawn on the rounded front wall of the jar
with ultramarine water-colour, and then built up with powdered
burnt clay and water (see directions in Chapter IV.). If possible, this
piece should be first fired in the biscuit. A glaze of dark gray green
(see Chapter V.) will finish it most attractively.

Dutch Dish for Candy

Materials required:
About 1½ pounds of clay,
The wooden modelling tools,
The sharp-pointed steel tool,
A plaster tile,
A rolling-pin.
A quaint Dutch dish, brought from Holland years ago, was the
model for this sturdy little piece of pottery. It may be used for candy
or to hold a vase of flowers, or a potted plant, protecting a polished
table. A lump of clay is rolled on a table with the hands and a
rolling-pin to the thickness of half an inch. Upon this clay sheet a
rectangle four and a quarter by four and a half inches is drawn with
a pencil and cut out with the pointed steel tool. It is then transferred
to a plaster tile.
To the edge of this rectangle a coil of clay is attached according to
the directions in Chapter II., and flared slightly outward, taking care
not to make the corners sharp, but rounded and even. After the first
coil has stiffened, and the sides have been made somewhat uniform
and thin, it is cut even by eye, curving the edge up gradually toward
the middle of the sides and depressing it slightly at the corners.
A second coil is now added, but instead of attaching it to the top
of the first one, it is joined just below the top and inside the first
coil. When it has stiffened sufficiently in the air, the dish is smoothed
carefully inside and out with the hand and the wooden modelling
tools, making the walls even and thin and perfecting the shape.
The effect of legs is given by cutting under the sides, beginning
half an inch above the bottom. If this is started three-quarters of an
inch from the corners, it will leave a sturdy, short leg an inch and a
half wide at each of the four corners of the dish.
A roll of clay about five and a half inches long, an inch wide, and
three-eighths of an inch thick is made into a handle (see plate),
which is attached at the middle of one of the sides of the dish. At
the two points where it is to be joined, the side of the dish is criss-
crossed with the steel tool and wet with slip.
The bottom is finished by drawing a square with a pencil, half an
inch in from the edge, and depressing it within the square, so as to
leave a flat, even surface. The potter’s mark is then made within this
square.
A pale green mat-glaze (see Chapter V.) makes a charming finish
for this piece.

Rose-Bowl with Moth Design

Materials required:
About 5 pounds of clay,
A rolling-pin,
The oval sheet-steel tools,
The pointed-steel tool,
The steel tool with a flat end,
 A plaster tile.
This rose-bowl, which is shown in the plate, was built up without a
pasteboard outline. If one’s eye is reasonably true this is not a
difficult matter, but otherwise the outline process (see Chapter II.)
may be followed.
A piece of clay is first patted flat with the hand, and then rolled
out with the rolling-pin, until it is six inches square and about five-
eighths of an inch thick. Upon this clay sheet a circle is marked, five
inches in diameter, cut out and placed on a plaster tile. The edge is
criss-crossed with a steel tool and wet with slip, and the first coil is
attached (see Chapter II.).
Two coils are built up, and then they
are pressed outward to form the
beginning of the outline, shown in Fig
31. This outline was taken from the
lower sweep of the wings of a lunar
moth, and the same moth forms the
relief design upon it (see Fig. 32).
Fig. 31 The
bowl is
then put out-of-doors until the clay is
sufficiently firm to support two more
coils. These are added; flaring them to
follow the outline, and then the bowl is
put away to harden—in the air, if the
temperature is not too cold, otherwise
indoors. It is built up exactly as was
the flower jar in Chapter II., except
Fig. 32
that there is no cardboard outline to
test it; the eye alone is the guide.
Great care should be taken not to add the coils until those below are
quite stiff, for the decided flare makes it difficult to keep the sides
firm and true in outline. The circumference of the bowl, at its widest
part, should be about thirty inches. When it is finished, the sides
within and without are smoothed, first with the saw-edged oval tool,
then with the smooth one. The edge is cut as true as possible by
eye, and made perfectly level by pressing it quickly and lightly on
the ground-glass slab, wet with clear water, as already described. A
damp sponge is then passed over the piece, inside and out, while
the fingers rub and polish it dry.
The bottom is finished and the potter’s mark made as described in
Chapter II.
When the bowl is thoroughly dry—say the following day—it is
ready for the decoration.
Divide the circumference of the top of the bowl into fifths, with
pencil marks, lightly made. Then draw the design upon it, so that
the top of the upper wings shall be not less than an inch from the
edge of the bowl. Make the moths as nearly life size as the bowl will
allow. Three and a half inches across, from tip to tip of the upper
wings, with spaces an inch and a half between them, will look well,
if the bowl is large enough. Having drawn the design in pencil,
outline it firmly with the sharp steel tool, taking care to bevel the
edge of the design. Never cut under the edge, as the glaze will not
flow well over it. Go over the outline, making it firm and deep, with a
wooden point. Now, starting close to the edge of the moth, with the
flat-pointed steel tool scrape away from it, so as to cut as deep as
the outline, close to the design, and shave off to nothing at about
half an inch from it. This will give a low relief effect, which is very
attractive. The antennæ are incised (see Chapter IV.), and the
markings of the moth may be built up with ground, baked clay, so as
to heighten the relief. The bowl may be glazed a pale green with a
slight yellow tinge (see Chapter V.) to suggest the colour of the
moth. It should, however, if possible be fired first in the biscuit.

Flower Candlestick
Materials required:
 About 1½ pounds of clay,
The wooden modelling tools,
A plaster tile.
A candlestick in flower form may be made in green and white, for
a bedroom in a country house.
Five leaves, much the shape of poppy leaves, radiate from the
centre, making a base from which the stem rises for three inches. A
round, slightly flattened calyx, topped by a five-petalled flower,
forms the cup for the candle. A sixth leaf, starting at the centre of
the base, curls over until its tip rests sideways against the stem,
serving the double purpose of a handle and a brace for the stem.
The base should be modelled first, from a single piece of clay, placed
on a plaster tile. Care should be taken to have it sufficiently thick—at
least half an inch in most places. Although the leaves should be
indicated, do not try to carry the leaf form way to the centre of the
base. Let the irregular outline of the whole base, with an occasional
raised tip, or edge of a leaf, suggest rather than imitate leaves. The
leaf that forms the handle will, of course, be more carefully
modelled. Now mould the stem, about an inch in diameter and three
inches long, with the calyx on the end, an inch and three-quarters in
diameter, and an inch high. After criss-crossing the middle of the
base with the pointed-steel tool, wet it with slip and set the stem on
the base, working the edges firmly on to it with the flat of the nail
and wooden modelling tools. The leaf for the handle is brought over
against the stem with a graceful turn, and there fastened with a
touch of slip and some clay added underneath. Be careful to have
the whole candlestick substantial, and not at all thin in construction,
or it will suggest metal work rather than pottery.
After the candlestick has stiffened for a few hours, a five-petalled
flower, three and three-quarter inches in diameter, is modelled and
put on top of the calyx, which has first been criss-crossed and wet
with slip. The cup for the candle is next hollowed out in the centre of
the flower and calyx, raising the edge of the flower centre slightly
above the surrounding petals. The candle cup should be a trifle
larger than it will need to be when finished, as it shrinks somewhat
in drying and firing, and the glaze, too, fills it up a little. Be sure,
also, to have it deep enough to hold the candle.
The base, stem, and handle are finished with a gray green mat-
glaze (see Chapter V.), while the petals are white—the uncoloured
mat-glaze.
How to Make a Plaster Mould
 CHAPTER VII
HOW TO MAKE A PLASTER MOULD

In building pieces of pottery whose walls have a decided flare, a

plaster mould will be found most useful. Its sides support the coils of
clay and enable the potter to form his piece much more rapidly and
surely than he could by eye, or even with the cardboard outline.
It should, however, be used with judgment, rather as an aid in
beginning a piece which is afterward finished by eye than as a
mould in which pieces are duplicated. Turning out many pieces
exactly alike savours of commercialism and does not develop the
potter’s individuality. Several bowl-shaped moulds, varied in form
and flare, if used as suggested, will be a great assistance to the
potter. They are made quite easily, as follows:

A Bowl-shaped Mould of Plaster

Materials required:
6 or 8 pounds of clay, well mixed,
A bowl, or mould in bowl shape,
A dishpan full of plaster of paris,
A dishpan of water,
A bag of ground flint,
A piece of oilcloth 8 inches wide by 1¼ yards long,
2 clothes pins,
A stout cord or rope,
A wooden wedge,
 A few drops of olive oil,
The wooden modelling tools,
The rectangular tool of sheet steel,
A large hoe-shaped tool,
A large kitchen spoon.
Having chosen the bowl that you wish to copy, dust it with a
cotton cloth in which ground flint is tied, and roll out a piece of clay
two or more inches larger in diameter than the bottom of the bowl,
and about an inch thick. Press this carefully into the bottom, making
sure that it touches everywhere. Now roll out several other pieces of
the same thickness, large enough to reach from the upper edge of
the bottom piece to the rim of the bowl, and four or five inches
wide. The upper edge of the bottom piece having been cut even and
wet with slip, these pieces are pressed down firmly and joined to it
with the nail stroke before mentioned. Great care is also taken to
press these pieces against the sides of the bowl. When the bowl is
lined in this way with a coating of clay an inch or more in thickness
at every point close against its walls, the clay is smoothed evenly on
top, on a line with the rim of the bowl (using the rectangular tool of
sheet steel) and set outside to harden.
When somewhat firm, the bowl is filled in with clay until only a
space the size of a man’s hand is left in the middle. It is then set
away, this time over night, to harden.
The next day the clay will have dried and shrunk sufficiently to
enable the potter to slip it out of the mould. Any cracks or hollows
that may be found on the outside are wet with slip and filled in with
clay of the consistency of the piece. After the clay is quite dry, the
form of the mould should be made perfectly true by hand (using the
oval sheet-steel tools) or on the wheel. If the latter method is
chosen, place the clay mould bottom side up on the wheel, centre it
(according to the directions in Chapter III), and, taking a large hoe-
shaped tool, hold it firmly, bracing the hand still better with a stick
laid across from a plaster mould, or other convenient object, on the
 table, to one’s lap. Having set the
wheel in motion, hold the dull point of
the tool so that it just touches the
wall of the mould, near the wheel.
Move the point up very slightly with
each revolution of the wheel—this will
trim and perfect the sides. The
bottom is made even in the same
way. Now wash the wheel outside of
the mould carefully and oil it with
Fig. 33 olive oil. Take a piece of heavy
oilcloth, about eight inches wide and
long enough to reach around the wheel, overlapping about a foot.
Placing it with the right side in, draw it tightly and fasten with
clothes pins (see Fig. 33). Next tie a rope or stout cord around the
oilcloth, about on a level with the wheel, and, to make it more
secure, wedge it with a piece of wood. Roll strips of clay about the
diameter of a lead pencil, and stop the cracks where the oilcloth
overlaps, also between the oilcloth and the wheel, very carefully, so
as not to touch the clay mould. Be careful, from now on, not to
move the wheel until the mould is made. Now mix your plaster of
paris, as follows: Have an empty basin or dishpan, large enough to
hold the quantity necessary for the mould—you will learn to judge
this pretty well by eye. Put in as much water as you will need, and
sift gradually into it, by the handfuls, the dry plaster, pressing out all
lumps; in this way the water will reach every particle. When there is
a small island of plaster, about an inch above the surface of the
water, there will be enough. Let the plaster get thoroughly saturated
by the water, as it will in a few minutes; then mix with the hands or
a large spoon until it is the consistency of thick cream. Pour it
gradually around and over the clay mould, not all in one place, until
it is about an inch and a half or two inches above the bottom of it.
Let it set for an hour or more until it seems perfectly hard. The
oilcloth is then taken off, and with the dull point of the hoe-shaped
tool the bottom is trimmed true on the wheel, in the same way as
the wheel-made pottery is finished. The sides should also be
smoothed and made even with the straight-edged sheet-steel tool. It
then looks like a great frosted cake. When the plaster is hard and
set, the mould is taken from the wheel and reversed, so that the
clay may be removed. To do this, dig out the inside of the clay
mould with a large sheet-steel tool, taking care not to come near the
plaster, which would be injured by the steel. The shell of clay
remaining can be easily lifted out with the fingers.
One who does not own a wheel can make a mould by setting the
clay bowl, bottom up, in the centre of a small shallow bread or dish
pan, which must then be well oiled on its inner surface. The plaster
of paris is mixed and poured around and over the clay mould, as
already described.
If one uses a great deal of
clay, plaster basins may be
made for drying out the
superfluous water from the clay
after it has been mixed. These
are moulded in the form shown
in Fig. 34, the straight-sided
circular cavity in the centre
being about three inches deep,
and the whole slab perhaps
sixteen inches square. The
basin part, like the bowl-shaped
mould just described, is first
Fig. 34
formed in solid clay, and the
mould is made in the same
manner.
Plaster slabs, both round and square, to hold the pieces of pottery
while they are being made and dried, may also be moulded.

Rose-Bowl Started in a Mould

Materials required:
 A bowl-shaped mould of plaster, 3½ inches in diameter
at the bottom and 9½ inches at the top,
About 3½ pounds of clay,
A bag of ground flint,
The wooden modelling tools,
The oval tools of sheet steel,
The sharp-pointed steel tool,
A bowl of slip,
A small sponge,
A rolling-pin.
A charming rose-bowl may be built up in the plaster mould
described in this chapter. About three and a half pounds of well-
worked clay will be needed, and the usual tools.
A small lump of clay is first patted out with the hands on a table
or board, then rolled smooth with a rolling-pin until it is three-
eighths of an inch thick and about six inches across. This is laid into
the bottom of the mould, which has previously been dusted with
ground flint tied in a cotton cloth. The clay is pressed lightly, but
carefully, against the bottom and sides, and then made even at its
upper edge with a wooden tool. Strokes of the wooden modelling
tool, cutting this upper edge criss-cross, and a touch of slip, prepare
it for the first roll of clay, which is made and attached as described in
Chapter II. These coils need not be as thick as those used in making
the first pieces. As the worker gains experience, he can make the
walls of his pieces much lighter than at first, and still keep them
strong. Subsequent coils are joined in the same way, taking care to
press each against the wall of the mould, as well as upon the coil
beneath. When the sides of the bowl are covered, a coil is attached
above the edge of the mould. This should be almost vertical, instead
of flaring, and a second coil (which is joined after the first has
stiffened out-of-doors for twenty minutes) is brought in slightly
toward the centre. The bowl is then left over night, when it will be
quite dry and have shrunk sufficiently to slip easily out of the mould.
It is turned bottom up on a table, and the cracks between the coils
are wet with slip and carefully filled in with clay of the consistency of
the bowl. After it has been set away to harden for a few hours, it is
made smooth and even with the oval tools of sheet steel as
described in previous chapters. In trimming the walls to an even
thickness, they may be made comparatively thin—a little less than a
quarter of an inch. Next the bottom is finished and the potter’s mark
made. The edge, after it has been bevelled by eye, is perfected on
the ground-glass slab.

Fig. 35

The piece is now ready for its decoration. This is the design shown
in Fig. 35. The circumference of the top of the bowl is divided into
fifths, and marks are made in pencil half an inch below the rim. Just
below each of these marks the design is drawn, placing it so that if a
line were drawn straight down from the pencil mark, one of the oval
figures would be on each side of it. The centre of the design is
pierced, as indicated in Fig. 35, by the method described in Chapter
IV., and a deep incised line surrounds it.
A pale green mat-glaze (see Chapter V.) completes the bowl.
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