The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions

The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions

Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The Transcendental Functions

Mongi BLEL

Department of Mathematics
King Saud University

2017-2018

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Table of contents

1 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions

2 The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions

3 Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

The Trigonometric and The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

4 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule

Indeterminate Forms
L’Hôpital’s Rule

5 Exercises

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The Natural Logarithm Function

• For α ∈ Q, the function x 7−→ x α is continuous on (0, +∞),

then it is Riemann integrable on any interval [a, b] ⊂ (0, +∞).
x α+1
Z
• For α ∈ Q, α 6= −1, x α dx = + c.
α+1
Definition
For x > 0, we define the function
Z x
1
ln(x) = dt.
1 t

ln(x): called the Natural Logarithmic Function of x.

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Remark
For x > 0, we define the function

 the area of the region between the graph
of the function f (t) = 1t





the x − axis and the lines




t = 1 and t = x, if x > 1


Z x 

1 
ln(x) = dt = 
1 t 

 − the area of the region between

the graph of the function




f (t) = 1t the x − axis and the 





 lines t = x and t = 1, if 0 < x < 1 .


Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Theorem

For all x, y in ]0, +∞[, we have

1 ln xy = ln x + ln y .
2 ln x1 = − ln x.
3 ln x n = n ln x, for all n ∈ N.
4 ln x r = r ln x, for all r ∈ Q.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Theorem

ln(1 + h)
1 lim =1
h→0 h
2 lim ln x = +∞.
x→+∞
3 lim ln x = −∞
x→0+
ln x
4 lim = 0.
x→+∞ x
ln x
5 lim = 0; ∀ s ∈ Q∗+ .
x→+∞ x s

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Corollary

The Logarithmic function is bijective from ]0, +∞[ onto R. There

exists a unique real number denoted e such that ln(e) = 1,
(2 < e < 3), e is called the basis of the natural Logarithmic
function.

Theorem
• ln(x) > 0, ∀x > 1 and ln(x) < 0, ∀0 < x < 1.
d 1
• (ln(x)) = > 0, ∀x > 0, i.e. the function x 7−→ ln(x) is
dx x
increasing on (0, ∞).
d2 1
• (ln(x)) = − 2 > 0; ∀x > 0. i.e. the function x 7−→ ln(x) is
dx 2 x
concave on (0, ∞).
• lim+ ln(x) = −∞ and lim ln(x) = ∞.
x→0 x→∞
Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions
 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The Logarithmic Differentiation

In some cases, to compute the derivative of a function f we can
find the derivative of the function ln |f |.
Theorem
(The Logarithmic Differentiation)
Let u : I −→ R \ {0} be a differentiable function, then

d u 0 (x)
(ln |u(x)|) = .
dx u(x)
In particular if u(x) > 0 for every x ∈ I ,

d u 0 (x)
(ln(u(x))) = .
dx u(x)
u0
( is called the Logarithmic differentiation of u).
u Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions
 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Examples

1 If f (x) = ln(x 2 + 2x + 4), f 0 (x) = 2x+2

x 2 +2x+4
.
2 If f (x) = ln(|2 − 3x|5 ),
5 × (−3) × (2 − 3x)4 15
f 0 (x) = 5
=− .
(2 − 3x) 2 − 3x
3 If f (x) = ln(|(2 − 3x)5 |) = 5 ln |2 − 3x|, then
−3 15
f 0 (x) = 5. =− .
2 − 3x 2 − 3x

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

4 If f (x) = ln(|(2 − 3x)5 |) = 5 ln |2 − 3x|, then

−3 15
f 0 (x) = 5. =− .
2−s3x 2 − 3x
4 + x2
5 Let f (x) = ln( ).
4 − x2
s
1
4 + x2 (4 + x 2 ) 2
f (x) = ln( ) = ln( 1 )
4 − x2 (4 − x 2 ) 2
1 1
= ln((4 + x 2 ) 2 ) − ln((4 − x 2 ) 2 )
1 1
= ln(4 + x 2 ) − ln(4 − x 2 ).
2 2
Then
f 0 (x) 1 2x 1 (−2x) x x 8x
= 2
− 2
= 2
+ 2
= .
f (x) 24+x 24−x 4+x 4−x (4 + x )(4 − x 2 )
2

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

6 We can use implicit differentiation to find y 0

x
y 2 + ln( ) − 4x = −3.
y
y 2 + ln |x| − ln |y | − 4x = −3.
Differentiating with respect to x,

1 y0
2yy 0 + − − 4 = 0,
x y
Then
y0 1 1 1
2yy 0 − = 4 − ⇒ (2y − )y 0 = 4 −
y x y x
and
4xy − y
y0 = .
2y 2 x − x
Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions
The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises
q √
7 If f (x) = (3x 2 + 2) 6x − 7.
q √
ln(f (x)) = ln( (3x 2 + 2) 6x − 7)
1 √
= ln((3x 2 + 2) 6x − 7)
2
1 1 √
= ln(3x 2 + 2) + ln( 6x − 7)
2 2
1 2 1
= ln(3x + 2) + ln(6x − 7).
2 4
Now differentiating with respect to x
f 0 (x) 1 6x 1 6 3x 1 3
= 2
+ = 2 + .
f (x) 2 3x + 2 4 6x − 7 3x + 2 2 6x − 7
Then
0 3x 1 3 
q √
f (x) = 2
+ (3x 2 + 2) 6x − 7.
3x + − 7Transcendental Functions
2 2 6x The
Mongi BLEL
The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

8 If f (x) = (x + 1)2 (x + 2)3 (x − 5)7 .

ln |f (x)| = ln |(x + 1)2 (x + 2)3 (x − 5)7 |

= ln |(x + 1)2 | + ln |(x + 2)3 | + ln |(x − 5)7 |
= 2 ln |x + 1| + 3 ln |x + 2| + 7 ln |x − 5|.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Now differentiating with respect to x

f 0 (x) 1 1 1
=2 +3 +7 .
f (x) x +1 x +2 x −5
So
 2 3 7 
f 0 (x) = + + (x + 1)2 (x + 2)3 (x − 5)7
x +1 x +2 x −5

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The Exponential Function

Definition
The Logarithmic function is increasing from ]0, +∞[ onto R and
bijective. It has an inverse function denoted exp(x), ln−1 (x) or e x
and called the Natural Exponential Function.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Theorem

1 The exponential function e : R −→]0, +∞[ is increasing.

d x
2
dx e = ex ,
3 e x+y = ex ey .
ex − 1
4 lim =1
x→0 x
5 lim e x = 0, lim e x = +∞.
x→−∞ x→+∞
ex
6 limx→+∞ x = +∞.
x
7 lim xe = 0.
x→−∞

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Corollary

If u : I −→ R is a differentiable function
d u(x)
(e ) = u 0 (x)e u(x) .
dx

Example 1 :
2 2
If f (x) = e 1−x , f 0 (x) = −2xe 1−x .
Example 2 :
If f (x) = e x ln(x) , f 0 (x) = (ln(x) + x. x1 )e x ln(x) = (ln(x) + 1)e x ln(x) .

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Example 3 :
If xe y + 2x − ln(y + 1) = 3, in use of the implicit differentiation,
differentiating with respect to x, we have

y0
xe y + 2x − ln(y + 1) = 3 ⇒ e y + xy 0 e y + 2 − =0
y +1
y0
⇒ xy 0 e y − = −(2 + e y )
y +1
1
⇒ (xe y − )y 0 = −(2 + e y )
y +1
2 + ey
⇒ y0 = − y 1
.
xe − y +1

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Exercise
Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the function
f (x) = x − e −x that is parallel to the line (D) of equation
6x − 2y = 7.

Recall that : if
(D1 ) : y = ax + c
(D2 ) : y = a0 x + c 0
then
(D1 ) k (D2 ) ⇐⇒ a = a0
(D1 ) ⊥ (D2 ) ⇐⇒ a.a0 = −1.

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The required tangent line equation is

y − y1 = m(x − x1 ), with m = f 0 (x1 ). (1)

The equation of D is y = 3x − 72 , then (1) is parallel to D if and

only if m = 3. Now, it suffices to find x such that f 0 (x) = 3.

1
f 0 (x) = 1+e −x = 3 ⇒ e −x = 2 ⇒ −x = ln(2) ⇒ x = − ln(2) = ln( ).
2

Then x1 = − ln(2) and f (x1 ) = − ln(2) − e ln(2) = 2 − ln(2).

Therefore
y − 2 + ln(2) = 3(x + ln(2)). (2)

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Integration using “ ln ” and “ exp ” functions

Theorem
By using the last properties of the functions ln and exp, we have
Z
1
dx = ln |x| + c,
x
Z 0
u (x)
dx = ln |u(x)| + c,
u(x)
Z
e x dx = e x + c,
Z
u 0 (x)e u(x) dx = e u(x) + c.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Examples 1 :
Z Z
dx 1 2 1
1 = dx = ln |2x + 7| + c.
2x + 7 2 2x + 7 2
Z Z
3 1 3 1 3
2 x 2 e 3x dx = (9x 2 )e 3x dx = e 3x + c.
9 9
x −2 2(x − 2)
Z Z
1
3 dx = dx =
x 2 − 4x + 9 2 x 2 − 4x + 9
1
ln |x 2 − 4x + 9| + c.
2

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

(2 + ln(x))10
Z Z
1
4 I = dx = (2 + ln(x))10 dx. If
x x
u = 2 + ln(x),

(2 + ln(x))10 (2 + ln(x))11
Z Z
I = dx = u 10 du = + c.
x 11

(ln(x))−2
Z Z Z
dx
5 = dx = (ln(x))0 (ln(x))−2 dx =
x(ln(x))2 x
−1
+ c.
ln(x)

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

ex
Z Z
6 dx = (e x + 1)0 (e x + 1)−2 dx = −(e x + 1)−1 + c.
(e x + 1)2
e − e −x (e x + e −x )0
Z x Z
7 dx = dx = ln(e x + e −x ) + c.
e x + e −x e x + e −x
Z Z
sin(x)
8 tan(x)dx = dx = − ln | cos(x)| + c =
cos(x)
ln | sec(x)| + c.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Z Z
cos(x)
9 cot(x)dx = dx = ln | sin(x)| + c.
sin(x)
tan(e −3x )
Z
10 To compute the integral, dx we set u = e −3x ,
e 3x
then du = −3e −3x dx and

tan(e −3x ) tan(e −3x )

Z Z
dx = dx
e 3x e 3x
Z
1 1
= − tan(u)du = − ln | sec(u)| + c
3 3
1
= − ln | sec(e −3x )| + c.
3

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Theorem
Z
sec(x)dx = ln | sec(x) + tan(x)| + c
Z
csc(x)dx = ln | csc(x) − cot(x)| + c

= − ln | csc(x) + cot(x)| + c 0 .

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Proof:

(sec)0 (x) = sec(x) tan(x) and (tan)0 (x) = sec2 (x), then
(sec + tan)0 (x) = sec(x)(sec(x) + tan(x)) and

(sec + tan)0 (x)

= sec(x).
(sec(x) + tan(x))

We deduce that
Z
sec(x)dx = ln | sec(x) + tan(x)| + c.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
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(csc)0 (x) = − csc(x) cot(x) and (cot)0 (x) = − csc2 (x), then
(csc − cot)0 (x) = csc(x)(csc(x) − cot(x)),
(csc + cot)0 (x) = − csc(x)(csc(x) + cot(x)) and

(csc − cot)0 (x)

= csc(x),
(csc(x) − cot(x))

(csc + cot)0 (x)

= − csc(x).
(csc(x) + cot(x))
We deduce that
Z
csc(x)dx = ln | csc(x) − cot(x)| + c = − ln | csc(x) + cot(x)| + c 0

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The General Exponential Function

Definition
For a > 0, the function f (x) = e x ln(a) defined on R is called the
exponential function with base a and denoted by ax .

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Theorem
Let a > 0 and b > 0. If x and y are two real numbers, we have the
following properties
• ax+y = axxay
a
• ax−y = y
a
• (ax )y = axy
• (ab)x = ax b x
a ax
• ( )x = x .
b b

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Theorem
(Derivative of the General Exponential Function)

d x
(a ) = ax ln(a)
dx
d u(x)
(a ) = au(x) ln(a)u 0 (x).
dx

Example 1 :
d x
(5 ) = 5x ln(5)
dx
d √x √ 1
(6 ) = 6 x ln(6) √ .
dx 2 x

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
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Exercises

Theorem
(Properties of the General Exponential Functions)
• If a > 1, (ax )0 = ax ln(a) > 0 for all x ∈ R. Hence ax is an
increasing function on R.
• If 0 < a < 1, (ax )0 = ax ln(a) < 0 for all x ∈ R. Hence ax is a
decreasing function on R.

Theorem
If a > 0 and a 6= 1, then
ax
Z
ax dx = + c.
ln(a)

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Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Examples 2 :

3x
Z
1 3x dx = + c.
ln(3)
1 − 13
Z 0 h 3x i0 2
2 3x dx = = = .
−1 ln(3) −1 ln(3) 3 ln(3)
(2x + 1)2 (2x )2 + 2.2x + 1
Z Z
3 dx = dx =
2x 2x
2x ( 1 )x
Z
1
2x + 2 + ( )x dx = + 2x + 2 1 + c.
2 ln 2 ln( 2 )
Z tan(x) Z Z
5
4 dx = 5 tan(x)
sec 2
(x)dx = 5tan(x) tan0 (x)dx =
cos2 (x)
5tan(x)
+ c.
ln(5)
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Theorem
1 1
lim (1 + h) h = lim (1 + )x = e.
h→0 x→∞ x

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 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The General Logarithm Function

Definition
(The General Logarithm Function)
If a ∈ (0, ∞) and a 6= 1, the function f : R −→ (0, ∞) defined by
f (x) = ax is bijective. Its inverse function f −1 is denoted by loga
and called the logarithm function with base a. For y ∈ (0, ∞) and
x ∈ R,
x = loga (y ) ⇐⇒ y = ax .

Example 2 :
9 = 32 ⇐⇒ 2 = log3 (9)
16 = 42 ⇐⇒ 2 = log4 (16)
64 = 43 ⇐⇒ 3 = log4 (64).

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Theorem
For a ∈ (0, ∞) \ {1},
d 1
loga (x) = ,
dx x ln(a)
ln(x)
loga (x) = , ∀x > 0,
ln(a)
loge (x) = ln(x).

Notation. For a = 10 the function log10 is denoted by Log.

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Examples

1 If f (x) = Log| ln(x)|,

1
1
f 0 (x) = x
= .
ln(10) ln(x) x ln(10) ln(x)
2 If f (x) = ln |Log(x)|,
1
1
f 0 (x) = x = .
ln(x) x ln(x)
2
3 If f (x) = x 4+x , ln(f (x)) = (4 + x 2 ) ln(x). Then

f 0 (x) 1
= 2x ln(x) + (4 + x 2 ) .
f (x) x

Then  1 2
f 0 (x) = 2x ln(x) + (4 + x 2 ) x 4+x .
Mongi BLEL x Functions
The Transcendental
The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Example 3 :
If

f1 (x) = x 4 , f2 (x) = π x , f3 (x) = x π , f4 (x) = π π , f5 (x) = x x .

f10 (x) = 4x 3 , f20 (x) = π x ln(π), f30 (x) = πx π−1 , f40 (x) = 0.

f50 (x)
ln(f5 (x)) = x ln(x) =⇒ = ln(x) + 1 ⇒ f50 (x) = (ln(x) + 1)x x .
f5 (x)

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We get two very interesting relations, namely

x = log10 (10x ) and N = 10log10 N .

If b > 0 and b 6= 1, we get x = logb (b x ) and y = b (logb y ) . The

Logarithmic function with base b, b > 0, b 6= 1, satisfies the
following important properties
1 logb (b) = 1, logb (1) = 0, and logb (b x ) = x for all x ∈ R.
2 logb (xy ) = logb x + logb y , x > 0, y > 0.
3 logb ( yx ) = logb x − logb y , x > 0, y > 0.
4 logb (x y ) = y logb x, x > 0, x 6= 1, for all y ∈ R.
5 b x b y = b x+y
bx
6 = b x−y
by
7 (b x )y = b xy .
Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions
 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The sine Function
The function f : I = [− π2 , π2 ] −→ J = [−1, 1] defined by
f (x) = sin x, is continuous and bijective. Its inverse function is
denoted by f −1 (x) = sin−1 x.
f −1 : [−1, 1] −→ [− π2 , π2 ] is a continuous function.
For x ∈] − 1, 1[,
1 1
(f −1 )0 (x) = (sin−1 )0 (x) = −1
=√ .
cos(sin (x)) 1 − x2
then sin(sin−1 x) = x; ∀x ∈ [−1, 1], sin−1 (sin x) = x,
∀x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ].

Remark
sin−1 (sin x) = x only for x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ].

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Graph

y y

−π π
2 2 x x

y = sin x y = sin−1 x

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Exercise
Find cos(sin−1 x) for x ∈ [−1, 1]. tan(sin−1 x) for x ∈] − 1, 1[.
cot(sin−1 x) for x ∈ [−1, 1], x 6= 0.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The Cosine Function

The function f : [0, π] −→ [−1, 1] defined by f (x) = cos x is
continuous and bijective. f is decreasing. Its inverse function f −1
is denoted by cos−1 : [−1, 1] −→ [0, π].
Remarks

1 cos(cos−1 x) = x, if x ∈ [−1, −1
√ 1]. cos (cos x) = x, if
−1 2
x ∈ [0, π]. sin(cos x) = 1 − x , if x ∈ [−1, 1].
2 For x ∈] − 1, 1[,
−1 −1
(f −1 )0 (x) = (cos−1 )0 (x) = −1
=√ .
sin(cos (x)) 1 − x2

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Graph

π
π

1
y = cos x y = cos−1 x

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The Tangent Function The function f : ] − π2 , π2 [−→ R defined

by f (x) = tan x is increasing and continuous. Its inverse function
f −1 is denoted by tan−1 .
y = tan−1 x ⇐⇒ x = tan y , ∀x ∈ R and ∀y ∈] − π2 , π2 [. Then
tan(tan−1 x) = x if x ∈ R. tan−1 (tan x) = x; ∀x ∈] − π2 , π2 [.
1 1
(f −1 )0 (x) = (tan−1 )0 (x) = = .
1 + tan2 (tan−1 (x)) 1 + x2

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Exercises

Graph

π
2

− π2 π y = tan−1 x
2
− π2
y = tan x

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The cotangent function

In the same way we define the function cot−1 : R −→]0, π[, as the
inverse function of cot : ]0, π[−→ R.
−1 −1
(cot−1 )0 (x) = 2 −1
= .
1 + cot (cot (x)) 1 + x2

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The Secant Function

1
The function f : [0, π2 [∪] π2 , π] defined by f (x) = = sec x is
∞
cos x
increasing and C . Its inverse function is denoted by
f −1 (x) = sec−1 x for x ∈] − ∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞[.
sec0 (x) = sec(x) tan(x) and

1
(sec−1 )0 (x) = √
|x| x 2 − 1

for x ∈] − ∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞[.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
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Exercises

y = sec
y = csc
π
2

π y = csc
2

y = sec

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The Cosecant Function The function f : [− π2 , 0[∪]0, π2 ] defined

1
by f (x) = = csc x is decreasing and C ∞ . Its inverse function
sin x
is denoted by f −1 (x) = csc−1 x for x ∈] − ∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞[.
−1
csc0 (x) = − csc(x) cot(x) and (csc−1 )0 (x) = √ , for
|x| x 2 − 1
x ∈] − ∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞[.
Exercise
Prove that
a) sin−1 x + cos−1 x = π2 .
1 π 1 π
b) tan−1 x + tan−1 = if x > 0 and tan−1 x + tan−1 = −
x 2 x 2
if x < 0.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Basic Trigonometric Formulas

• sin−1 (x) is the angle in the interval [− π2 , π2 ] whose sine is x.
For x ∈ [−1, 1] and y ∈ [− π2 , π2 ];

y = sin−1 (x) ⇐⇒ x = sin(y ).

• cos−1 (x) is the angle in the interval [0, π] whose cosine is x.
For x ∈ [−1, 1] and y ∈ [0, π];

y = cos−1 (x) ⇐⇒ x = cos(y ).

• tan−1 (x) is the angle in the interval − π2 < θ < π
2 whose tan is x.
For x ∈ (− π2 , π2 ) and y ∈ R;

y = tan−1 (x) ⇐⇒ x = tan(y ).

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Theorem
d 1 d u 0 (x)
sin−1 (x) = √ ; (sin−1 (u(x))) = p
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − u(x)2
d −1 d u 0 (x)
cos−1 (x) = √ ; (cos−1 (u(x))) = − p
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − u(x)2
d 1 d u 0 (x)
tan−1 (x) = ; (tan−1 (u(x))) =
dx 1 + x2 dx 1 + u(x)2
d −1 d u 0 (x)
cot−1 (x) = ; (cot−1 (u(x))) = −
dx 1 + x2 dx 1 + u(x)2
d 1 d u 0 (x)
sec−1 (x) = √ ; (sec−1 (u(x))) = p .
dx |x| x 2 − 1 dx |u(x)| u(x)2 − 1

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
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Exercises

Corollary

For a > 0, we have

Z
dx x
√ = sin−1 ( ) + c
2 2 a
Z a −x
dx 1 x
= tan−1 ( ) + c
a2 + x 2 a a
Z
dx 1 x
√ = sec−1 ( ) + c, for x > 0
x x 2 − a2 a a

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Remark
The three given substitutions are very useful in calculus. In
general, we use the following substitutions for the given radicals
√
1 a2 − x 2 , x = a sin θ,
√
2 x 2 − a2 , x = a sec θ,
√
3 a2 + x 2 , x = a tan θ.

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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Examples 3 :
Evaluate the following integrals:
ex
Z
1 I = dx,
1
1 + e 2x
Z 1
ex
2 I = dx
2
0 1 + e 2x
Z
x
3 I =
3 √ dx
1 − x4
Z 2− 41
x
4 I =
4 √ dx =
0 1 − x4

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Exercises

Z
cos(x)
5 I5 = q dx
2
1 − sin (x)
Z π
4 cos(x)
6 I6 = q dx
0 1 − sin2 (x)
Z
1
7 I7 = √
dx
6
Z x xx − 1
e
8 I8 = √ dx.
e 2x − 1

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic functions

e x − e −x
• Hyperbolic sine function: sinh(x) = ; x ∈ R.
2
x
e +e −x
• Hyperbolic cosine function: cosh(x) = ; x ∈ R.
2
• Hyperbolic tangent function:
sinh(x) e x − e −x
tanh(x) = = x ; x ∈ R.
cosh(x) e + e −x
• Hyperbolic cotangent function:
cosh(x) e x + e −x
coth(x) = = x ; x ∈ R \ {0}.
sinh(x) e − e −x
• Hyperbolic secant function:
1 2
sech(x) = = x ; x ∈ R.
cosh(x) e + e −x
• Hyperbolic cosecant function:
1 2
csch(x) = = x ; x ∈ R \ {0}.
sinh(x) e − e −x
Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions
The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Theorem

1 cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) = 1, ∀x ∈ R,

2 1 − tanh2 (x) = sech2 (x), ∀x ∈ R,
3 coth2 (x) − 1 = csch2 (x), ∀x ∈ R \ {0},
4 cosh(x + y ) = cosh(x) cosh(y ) + sinh(x) sinh(y ),
5 sinh(x + y ) = sinh(x) cosh(y ) + cosh(x) sinh(y ).

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Theorem
(Derivative of Hyperbolic Functions)

d
(sinh(x)) = cosh(x)
dx
d
(cosh(x)) = sinh(x)
dx
d
(tanh(x)) = sech2 (x)
dx
d
(coth(x)) = −csch2 (x)
dx
d
(sech(x)) = −sech(x) tanh(x)
dx
d
(csch(x)) = −csch(x) coth(x).
dx

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Exercises

Theorem
(Integration of Hyperbolic Functions)
Z
sinh(x)dx = cosh(x) + c
Z
cosh(x)dx = sinh(x) + c
Z
sech2 (x)dx = tanh(x) + c
Z
csch2 (x)dx = − coth(x) + c
Z
sech(x) tanh(x)dx = −sech(x) + c
Z
csch(x) coth(x)dx = −csch(x) + c.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Examples

1 If f (x) = sinh(x 2 + 1), f 0 (x) = 2x cosh(x 2 + 1).

2

√ √
√
Z Z
sinh( x) u= x
√ dx = 2 sinh(u)du = 2 cosh( x) + c.
x
3 Z
cosh(x)csch2 (x)dx = − cosh(x) + c.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Example

Find the points on the graph of f (x) = sinh(x) at which the

tangent line has slope 2.
The slope of the tangent line is
dy
m= = f 0 (x) = cosh(x).
dx
Then m = 2 ⇐⇒ cosh(x) = 2 ⇐⇒ e 2x − 4e x + 1 = 0.
Put X = e x , then X satisfies X 2 − 4X + 1 = 0. √
There is two
√ solutions of this equation: X1 = 2 + 3 and
X2 = 2 − 3. √ √
As X = e x , then x1 = ln(2 + 3) and x2 = ln(2 − 3).

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Example

√ √
Compute f (x1 ) = sinh(ln(2 + 3)) and f (x2 ) = sinh(ln(2 − 3)):
√ √
e ln(2+ 3) − e − ln(2+ 3)
f (x1 ) =
2
√ 1√
ln( )
e ln(2+− e 2+ 33)
=
√ 2 1
2 + 3 − 2+√3 √
= = 3
2

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

√ √
e ln(2− 3) − e − ln(2− 3)
f (x2 ) =
2
√ 1√
ln( )
e ln(2−− e 2− 33)
=
√ 2
2 − 3 − 2−1√3 √
= = − 3.
2

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

The Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

• The inverse sine hyperbolic function

The function f : R −→ R defined by f (x) = sinh(x) is bijective and
increasing since f 0 (x) = cosh x > 0. The function f is odd.
limx→+∞ sinh x = +∞ and limx→+∞ sinh x
x
= +∞.
−1
Its inverse function is denoted by sinh . If x, y ∈ R;

y = sinh−1 (x) ⇐⇒ x = sinh(y ).

1
(sinh−1 )0 (x) = √ , ∀x ∈ R.
1 + x2

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
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Exercises

y = sinh−1 (x)
y = sinh(x)

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
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Exercises

• The inverse cosine hyperbolic function

The function f : [0, +∞[−→ [1, +∞[ defined by f (x) = cosh(x) is
bijective and increasing since f 0 (x) = sinh x > 0.
f (x) = cosh x, f 0 (x) = sinh x. The function f is even.
limx→+∞ cosh x = +∞ and limx→+∞ cosh x
x
= +∞.
−1
Its inverse function is denoted by cosh . If x ∈ [1, +∞[ and
y ∈ [0, +∞[,

y = cosh−1 (x) ⇐⇒ x = cosh(y ).

1
(cosh−1 )0 (x) = √ , ∀x ∈]1, +∞[.
x2 −1

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
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Exercises

y = cosh(x)
y = cosh−1 (x)

1
Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions
The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

• The inverse tangent hyperbolic function

The function f : R −→] − 1, 1[ defined by f (x) = tanh(x) is
bijective and increasing since f 0 (x) = 1 − tanh2 x > 0. The
function f is odd.
limx→+∞ tanh x = 1.
Its inverse function is denoted by tanh−1 . If x ∈] − 1, 1[ and y ∈ R,

y = tanh−1 (x) ⇐⇒ x = tanh(y ).

1
(tanh−1 )0 (x) = , ∀x ∈] − 1, 1[.
1 − x2

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Exercises

−1 1

−1
y = tanh−1 (x)
y = tanh(x)

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

• The inverse secant hyperbolic function

The function f : [0, +∞[−→]0, 1] defined by
2
f (x) = sech(x) = x is bijective and decreasing since
e + e−x
0
f (x) = −sech(x) tanh(x) < 0.
Its inverse function is denoted by sech−1 . If x ∈]0, 1] and
y ∈ [0, +∞[,

y = sech−1 (x) ⇐⇒ x = sech(y).

√
−1 1+ 1 − x2
sech (x) = ∀x ∈]0, 1[.
x
−1
(sech−1 )0 (x) = √ , ∀x ∈]0, 1[.
x 1 − x2

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

y = sech−1 (x)
1

y = sech(x)
Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions
The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

• The inverse cosecant hyperbolic function

The function f : R \ {0} −→ R \ {0} defined by
2
f (x) = csch(x) = x is bijective and decreasing since
e − e −x
f 0 (x) = −csch(x) coth(x) < 0.
Its inverse function is denoted by csch−1 . If x ∈ R and y ∈ R \ {0},

y = csch−1 (x) ⇐⇒ x = csch(y ).

√
−1 1+ 1 + x2
csch (x) = ∀x ∈]0, +∞[.
x
−1
(csch−1 )0 (x) = √ , ∀x ∈]0, +∞[.
x 1 + x2

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Theorem
p
sinh−1 (x) = ln(x + x 2 + 1), ∀x ∈ R.
p
cosh−1 (x) = ln(x + x 2 − 1), ∀x ∈ [1, ∞[.
1 1 + x 
tanh−1 (x) = ln , ∀x ∈] − 1, 1[.
2 1−x
 1 + √1 − x 2 
−1
sech (x) = ln , ∀x ∈]0, 1].
x
√
−1 1 + 1 + x2
csch (x) = ∀x ∈]0, +∞[.
x

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

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Exercises

Theorem
(Derivative of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions)

d 1
sinh−1 (x) = √ , ∀x ∈ R
dx x2 +1
d 1
cosh−1 (x) = √ , ∀x ∈ (1, ∞)
dx x2 −1
d 1
tanh−1 (x) = , ∀x ∈] − 1, 1[
dx 1 − x2
d 1
sech−1 (x) = − √ , ∀x ∈]0, 1[.
dx x 1 − x2
d −1
csch−1 (x) = √ , ∀x ∈]0, +∞[.
dx x 1 + x2

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Exercises

Corollary
(Some important formulas)
If a > 0,

Z
dx x
√ = sinh−1 ( ) + c, ∀x ∈ R
x2
+ a2 a
Z
dx x
√ = cosh−1 ( ) + c, ∀x ∈ (a, ∞)
2 2 a
Z x −a
1 1 x
= tanh−1 ( ) + c, ∀x ∈] − a, a[
a − x2
2 a a
|x|
Z
1 1
√ = − sech−1 ( ) + c, ∀x ∈] − a, 0[∪]0, a[.
x a2 − x 2 a a
|x|
Z
1 1
√ = − csch−1 ( ) + c, ∀x ∈ R \ {0}.
x a + x2
2 a a
Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions
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Exercises

Examples
√
1 If f (x) = cosh−1 ( x),
1 1
f 0 (x) = √ √ .
2 x x −1
2 If f (x) = tanh−1 (sin(3x)),
3 cos(3x) 3
f 0 (x) = 2
= .
cos (3x) cos(3x)
3 If f (x) = ln(cosh−1 (4x)),
4
p
(4x)2 − 1 4
f 0 (x) = −1
=p .
cosh (4x) (4x) − 1 cosh−1 (4x)
2

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4
Z Z
dx u=4x 1 du
√ = √
81 + 16x 2 4 9 + u2
2
1 u
= sinh−1 ( ) + c
4 9
1 −1 4x
= sinh ( ) + c.
4 9
5
Z Z
dx u=e x du
√ =
√ 2
q
5 − e 2x
u 5 − u2
1 |u|
= − √ sech( √ ) + c
5 5
1 ex
= − √ sech( √ ) + c.
5 5
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Exercises

We resume the following

x2
Z
1 xdx = + c,
2
x n+1
Z
2 x n dx = + c, n 6= −1,
Z n+1
1
3 dx = ln |x| + c,
Z x
4 sin(x)dx = − cos(x) + c,
Z
1
5 sin(ax)dx = − cos(ax) + c, a 6= 0,
Z a
6 cos(x)dx = sin(x) + c,
Z
1
7 cos(ax)dx = sin(ax) + c, a 6= 0,
a
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Exercises

Z
8 tan(x)dx = ln | sec(x)| + c,
Z
1
9 tan(ax)dx = ln | sec(ax)| + c, a 6= 0,
a
Z
10 cot(x)dx = ln | sin(x)| + c,
Z
1
11 cot(ax)dx = ln | sin(ax)| + c, a 6= 0,
a
Z
12 e x dx = e x + c,
Z
13 e −x dx = −e −x + c,
Z
1
14 e ax dx = e ax + c, a 6= 0,
a

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Exercises

Z
15 sinh(x)dx = cosh(x) + c,
Z
16 cosh(x)dx = sinh(x) + c,
Z
17 tanh(x)dx = ln cosh(x) + c,
Z
18 coth(x)dx = ln | sinh(x)| + c,
Z
1
19 sinh(ax) = cosh(ax) + c, a 6= 0,
a
Z
1
20 cosh(ax)dx = sinh(ax) + c, a 6= 0,
a
Z
1
21 tanh(ax)dx = ln cosh(ax) + c, a 6= 0
a

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Exercises

Z
1
22 coth(ax)dx = ln | sinh(ax)| + c, a 6= 0,
a
Z
23 sec(x)dx = ln | sec(x) + tan(x)| + c,
Z
24 csc(x)dx = − ln | csc(x) + cot(x)| + c,
Z
1
25 sec(ax)dx = ln | sec(ax) + tan(ax)| + c, a 6= 0,
a
Z
26 sec2 (x)dx = tan(x) + c,
Z
1
27 sec2 (ax)dx = tan(ax) + c, a 6= 0,
a
Z
28 csc2 (x)dx = − cot(x) + c,

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Exercises
Z
1
29 csc2 (ax)dx = − cot(ax) + c, a 6= 0,
Z a
30 tan2 (x)dx = tan(x) − x + c,
Z
31 cot2 (x)dx = − cot(x) − x + c,
Z
32 sec(x) tan(x)dx = sec(x) + c,
Z
33 csc(x) cot(x)dx = − csc(x) + c
Z
1 1 sin(2x)
34 sin2 (x)dx = (x − sin(x) cos(x)) + c = (x − ) + c,
Z 2 2 2
1
35 csc(ax)dx = − ln | csc(ax) + cot(ax)| + c, a 6= 0,
Z a
1 1 sin(2x)
36 cos3 (x)dx = (x + sin(x) cos(x)) + c = (x + ) + c,
2 2 2
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Exercises

Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule

The indeterminate forms arise from the fact that (R̄, +, .), is not a
field, where R̄ = R ∪ {−∞, +∞}. The only operations that are
wrong are 0.∞ and +∞ + (−∞). These operations are obtained
for example within the real sequences or the limits of functions.
For example if a sequence (un )n converges to 0 and the sequences
(vn )n tends to ∞, we can not decide about the limit of the
sequence (un .vn )n .

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The only indeterminate forms are 0.∞ and +∞ + (−∞). The

other indeterminate forms a different form of writing theses forms.
For examples we have
0 ∞
= 0.∞, = 0.∞, 1∞ = e ∞ ln(1) = e 0.∞ , 00 = e 0 ln(0) = e 0.∞ .
0 ∞

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Exercises

Example

(x − 2)2
lim = lim (x − 2) = 0,
x→2 (x − 2) x→2

3(x − 2)
lim = lim 3 = 3,
x→2 (x − 2) x→2

(x − 2)2 1
lim = lim = +∞.
x→2 (x − 2)4 x→2 (x − 2)2

In each of above cases the functions are undefined at x = 2. And

both numerator and denominator in each example approach to 0 as
x → 0.

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Exercises

Examples
ln(cos(x)) 1 ln(1 − sin2 (x))
1 lim = lim = 0,
x→0 sin(x) 2 x→0 sin(x)
1 e 3x ln(1 + x1 )
2 lim e 3x ln(1 + ) = lim 1
= +∞,
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
x
p
3 lim (1 + x)2 − x 4 + x + 2 =
x→+∞
4x 3 + 6x 2 + 3x − 1
lim √ =
x→+∞ (1 + x)2 + x 4 + x + 2
4x + 6 + x3 − x12
lim q = +∞,
x→+∞
(1 + x1 )2 + 1 + x13 + x24
ln(1+ x1 )
1 1
4 lim (1 + )x = lim e x = e.
x→+∞ x x→+∞

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Exercises

Theorem
L’Hôpital’s Rule
Let f , g be two differentiable functions on ]a, b[\{c}. Assume that
g 0 (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈]a, b[\{c} and lim f (x) = lim g (x) = 0.
x→c x→c
f 0 (x) f (x)
If lim 0 = ` ∈ R ∪ {−∞, +∞}, then lim = `.
x→c g (x) x→c g (x)

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Exercises

Remarks

1 Theorem 4.1 is valid for one-sided limits as well as the

twosided limit. This theorem is also true if c = +∞ or
c = −∞.
2 Theorem 4.1 is valid for the case when lim f (x) = ∞ or −∞
x→c
and lim g (x) = ∞ or −∞.
x→c

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Exercises

Examples
Find the following limits if it exist
2 sinh x − sinh 2x
1 lim .
x→0 2x(cos x − 1)
sin 3x sin x
2 lim − 3 .
x→0 3x 3 x
sin 3x
3 lim ,
x→0 sin 5x
tan 2x
4 lim ,
x→0 tan 3x
sin x
5 lim ,
x→0 x
x
6 lim ,
x→0 sin x
1 − cos x
7 lim ,
x→0 x2
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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Exercises

8 lim x ln x.
x→0
√
x −1−2
9 lim ,
x→5 x 2 − 25
x 3 − 3x + 2
10 lim 2 ,
x→1 x − 2x + 1
1 − sin(x)
11 limπ ,
x→ 2 cos(x)
x
12 lim ,
x→∞ ln(x)
1
13 lim (1 + )5x ,
x→∞ x
14 lim x x ,
x→∞
 3 2 
15 lim+ − .
x→1 ln(x) x − 1
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Exercises

Solutions

1
2 sinh x − sinh 2x 2 sinh x − sinh 2x x2
= .
2x(cos x − 1) x3 2(cos x − 1)
From L’Hôpital’s rule,
2 sinh x − sinh 2x 2 cosh x − 2 cosh 2x
lim = lim
x→0 x3 x→0 3x 2
2 sinh x − 4 sinh 2x
= lim
x→0 6x
2 cosh x − 8 cosh 2x
= lim = −1,
x→0 6

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Exercises

x2 2x
lim = lim
x→0 2(cos x − 1) x→0 −2 sin x
2
= lim = −1,
x→0 −2 cos x

2 sinh x − sinh 2x
then lim = 1.
x→0 2x(cos x − 1)

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Exercises

2
sin 3x sin x sin 3x − 3 sin x
− 3 = .
3x 3 x 3x 3
From L’Hôpital’s rule,

sin 3x − 3 sin x 3 cos 3x − 3 cos x

lim = lim
x→0 3x 3 x→0 9x 2
−9 sin 3x + 3 sin x
= lim
x→0 18x
−27 cos 3x + 3 cos x
= lim
x→0 18
4
= − .
3

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Exercises

sin 3x 3 cos 3x 3
3 lim = lim = ,
x→0 sin 5x x→0 5 cos 5x 5
tan 2x 2
2 sec 2x 2
4 lim = lim = ,
x→0 tan 3x x→0 3 sec2 3x 3
sin x
item lim = lim cos x = 1,
x→0 x x→0
x 1
5 lim = lim = 1,
x→0 sin x x→0 cos x
1 − cos x sin x cos x 1
6 lim 2
= lim = lim = ,
x→0 x x→0 2x x→0 2 2
ln x
7 lim x ln x = lim 1 = lim −x = 0.
x→0 x→0 x→0
x

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Exercises
√
x −1−2 1 1
8 lim 2
= lim √ = ,
x→5 x − 25 x→5 4x x − 1 40
x 3 − 3x + 2 3x 2 − 3 3(x + 1)
9 lim = lim = lim = 3,
x→1 x 2 − 2x + 1 x→1 2x − 2 x→1 2
1 − sin(x) cos(x)
10 limπ = limπ = 0,
x→ 2 cos(x) x→ 2 sin(x)
x
11 lim = lim x = +∞,
x→∞ ln(x) x→∞
ln(1+ 1 )
1 5 1x
12 lim (1 + )5x = lim e x = e 5 ,
x→∞ x x→∞
13 lim x x = lim e x ln(x) = +∞,
x→∞ x→∞
 3 2  3(x − 1) − 2 ln x
14 lim+ − = lim+ =
x→1 ln(x) x − 1 x→1 (x − 1) ln(x)
3 − x2
lim+ = ∞.
x→1 ln(x) + x−1
x
Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions
 The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Exercises

Exercise 1 Compute y 0 in each of the following

1 y = 2 sinh(3x) + 4 cosh(2x),
2 y = 4 tanh(5x) − 6 coth(3x),
3 y = xsech(2x) + x 2 csch(5x),
4 y = 3 sinh2 (4x + 1),
5 y = 4csch2 (2x − 1),
6 y = sinh(2x)csch(3x),
7 y = (x 2 + 1)sin(2x) ,

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Exercises

3
8 y = x 2 e −x ,
2
9 y = 2x ,
10 y = ln(x 2 + 1) ,
11 y = log2 (sec x + tan x),
3 +1)
12 y = 10(x ,
13 y = x ln x − x,

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Exercises

p
14 y = ln(x + x 2 − 4),
p
15 y = ln(x + 4 + x 2 ),
 
1 1+x
16 y = ln ,
2 1−x
17 y = sinh−1 (3x),
18 y = cosh−1 (3x).

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Exercises

Solution

1 y 0 = 6 cosh(3x) + 8 sinh(2x),
2 y 0 = 20(1 − tanh2 (5x)) − 18(1 − coth2 (3x)),
3 y 0 = sech(2x) − 2xsech(2x) tanh(2x) + 2xcsch(5x) −
5x 2 csch(5x) coth(5x),
4 y 0 = 24 sinh(4x + 1) cosh(4x + 1) = 12 sinh 2(4x + 1),
5 y 0 = −16csch(2x − 1)coth(2x − 1),
6 y 0 = 2 cosh(2x)csch(3x) − 3 sinh(2x)csch(3x)coth(3x),
 
2x sin(2x)
7 y 0 = (x 2 + 1)sin(2x) + 2 cos(2x) ln(1 + x 2
) ,
1 + x2

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3 3
8 y 0 = 2xe −x − 3x 4 e −x ,
2 +1
9 y 0 = 2x x ln 2,
2x
10 y0 = 2 ,
x +1
sec x tan x + sec2 x
11 y0 =
(sec x + tan x) ln 2
3 +1)
12 y 0 = 3x 2 10(x ln 10,
0
13 y = ln x,

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Exercises

1
14 y0 = √ ,
x2 −4
1
15 y0 = √ ,
4 + x2
1
16 y0 = ,
1 − x2
3
17 y0 = ,
1 − 9x 2
3
18 y0 = 2 .
9x − 1

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Exercises

Exercise 2
Find y 0 in each of the following, using logarithmic differentiation.
(x 2 + 1)3 (x 2 + 4)10
1 y= ,
(x 2 + 2)5 (x 2 + 3)4
(x 3 +1)
2 y = (x 2 + 4) ,
(4 cos x+7)
3 y = (sin x + 3) ,
3 +1)
4 y = (3 sinh x + cos x + 5)(x ,
x2 (2x+1)
5 y = (e + 1) ,
2 2 (x 3 +1)
6 y = x (x + 1) ,
3
(x + 1)3 (2x − 3) 4
7 y= 1 3 .
(1 + 7x) 3 (2x + 3) 2

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Exercises

Solution

y0 6x 20 10 8
1 = + 2 − 2 − 2 ,
y x2+1 x +4 x +2 x +3
y0 2x(x 3 + 1)
2 = 3x 2 ln(x 2 + 4) + ,
y x2 + 4
y0 cos x(4 cos x + 7)
3 = −4 sin x ln(sin x + 3) + ,
y sin x + 3
y0 (x 3 + 1)(3 cosh x − sin x)
4 = 3x 2 ln(3 sinh x + cos x + 5) + ,
y 3 sinh x + cos x + 5
2
y0 2 2x(2x + 1)e x
5 = 2 ln(e x + 1) + ,
y ex2 + 1
y0 2 2x(x 3 + 1)
6 = + 3x 2 ln(x 2 + 1) + ,
y x x2 + 1
y0 3 3 7 3
7 = + − − .
y x + 1 2(2x − 3) 3(1 + 7x) 2x + 3
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Exercises

Exercise 3
Solve the following equations for x
1
1log3 (x 4 ) + log3 (x 3 ) − 2 log3 (x 2 ) = 5.
ex 1
2
x
= .
1+e 3
Solution

1
ln(x 4 ) + ln(x 3 ) − 2 ln(x 2 )
=5 ⇐⇒ ln x 6 = 5 ln 3
ln 3
5
⇐⇒ x = 36 .
ex 1 1
2
x
= ⇐⇒ e x = ⇐⇒ x = − ln 2.
1+e 3 2
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Exercises

Exercise 4
Compute f 0 (x) for the following functions f .
Z x
1 f (x) = sinh3 (t)dt,
1
Z x2
2 f (x) = cosh5 (t)dt,
x
Z cosh x
3
3 f (x) = (1 + t 2 ) 2 dt,
Zsinh x
sechx 1
4 f (x) = (1 + t 3 ) 2 dt,
tanh x
Z (ln x)2
5
5 f (x) = (4 + t 2 ) 2 dt,
ln x
2
Z ex
6 f (x) = (1 + 4t 2 )π dt,
(e x )2

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Exercises

Z e cos x
1
7 f (x) = 3 dt,
e sin x (1 + t 2 ) 2
Z 3x
1
8 f (x) = 5 dt,
2x (4 + t 2 ) 2
Z 53x 3
9 f (x) = (1 + 2t 2 ) 2 dt,
2x
Z4 log3 x
1
10 f (x) = 1 dt,
log2 x (1 + 5t 3 ) 2
Z cosh−1 x
1
11 f (x) = 3 dt,
sinh−1 x (1 + t 2 ) 2
Z 2x 2
t2
12 f (x) = e dt,
Z4x53cos x
2
13 f (x) = e −t dt,
Z4 cosh(x
sin x
2)
−t 3
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Exercises

Solution

1 f 0 (x) = sinh3 (x),

2 f 0 (x) = 2x cosh5 (x 2 ) − cosh5 (x),
3 3
3 f 0 (x) = sinh x(1 + cosh2 x) 2 − cosh x(1 + sinh2 x) 2 =
3
sinh x(1 + cosh2 x) 2 − cosh4 x,
1 1
4 f 0 (x) = −sechxtanhx(1+sech3 x) 2 −(1−tanh2 )(1+tanh3 x) 2 .
ln x 5 1 5
5 f 0 (x) = 2 (4 + ln4 x) 2 − (4 + ln2 x) 2 .
x x
2 2
6 f 0 (x) = 2xe x (1 + 4e 2x )π − 2(e x )2 (1 + 4(e x )4 )π ,

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Exercises

sin xe cos x cos xe sin x

7 f 0 (x) = − 3 − 3 ,
(1 + e 2 cos x ) (1 + e 2 sin x ) 2
2
x
3 ln 3 x
2 ln 2
8 f 0 (x) = 5 − 5 ,
(4 + 32x ) 2 (4 + 22x ) 2
3 3
9 f 0 (x) = 53x .3. ln 5(1 + 2.56x ) 2 − 42x .4. ln 2(1 + 2.44x ) 2 ,
1 1
10 f 0 (x) = 1 − 1 ,
3
x ln 3(1 + 5 log3 x) 2 x ln 2(1 + 5 log32 x) 2
11 f 0 (x) =
1 1
√ 3 − √ 3 ,
x 2 − 1(1 + (cosh−1 )2 (x)) 2 x 2 + 1(1 + (sinh−1 )2 (x)) 2
4 6
12 f 0 (x) = 4xe 4x − 12x 2 e 16x ,,
2 2
13 f 0 (x) = −5 sin xe −25 cos x
− 4 cos xe −16 sin x ,
3 3
(x 2 ) (x 2 )
14 f 0 (x) = 2x sinh(x 2 )e − cosh − 2x cosh(x 2 )e − sinh .
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Exercises

Exercise 5
dy
Compute for each of the following
dx
1 y = ln(x 2 + 1),
1−x
 
2 y = ln , −1 < x < 1,
1+x
3 y = log2 (x),
4 y = log5 (x 3 + 1),
5 y = log10 (3x + 1).
6 y = log10 (x 2 + 4),
7 y = 2e −x ,

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Exercises

2
8 y = ex ,
1 2 2
9 y = (e x − e −x ),
2
1 2 2
10 y = (e x + e −x ),
2
2 2
e x − e −x
11 y = x2 ,
e + e −x 2
2
12 y = x2 ,
e + e −x 2
2
13 y = x3 ,
e − e −x 3
2
14 y = 4 −x 4 ,
e x +e

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

x
15 y = sin−1 ( ),
2
−1 x
16 y = cos ( ), 1
3
−1 x
17 y = tan ( ),
5
−1 x
18 y = cot ( ),
7
−1 x
19 y = sec ( ),
2
−1 x
20 y = csc ( ),
3
21 y = 3 sinh(2x) + 4 cosh(3x),

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

22 y = e x (3 sin(2x) + 4 cos(2x)),
23 y = e −x (4 sin(3x) − 3 cos(3x)),
24 y = 4 sinh(2x) + 3 cosh(2x),
25 y = 3 tanh(2x) − 7coth(2x),
26 y = 3sech(5x) + 4csch(3x),
2
27 y = 10x ,
3 +1)
28 y = 2(x ,
(x 4 +x 2 )
29 y =5 .

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Solution
2x
1 y0 = ,
x2 + 1
1 1 2
2 y0 =− − =− ,
1−x 1+x 1 − x2
1
3 y0 = ,
x ln 2
3x 2
4 y0 = 3 ,
(x + 1) ln 5
3
5 y0 = .
(3x + 1) ln(10)
2x
6 y0 = 2 ,
(x + 4) ln(10)
7 y0 = −2e −x ,

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

2
8 y 0 = 2xe x ,
2 2
9 y 0 = x(e x + e −x ),
2 2
10 y 0 = x(e x − e −x ),
2 2
0 e x + e −x
11 y = x2 ,
e − e −x 2
12 y 0 = −2xsech(x2 ) tanh(x2 ),
13 y 0 = −3x 2 csch(x 3 ) coth(x 3 ),
14 y 0 = −4x 3 sech(x4 ) tanh(x4 ),

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

1
15 y0 = √ ,
4 − x2
1
16 y0 = −√ ,1
9 − x2
5
17 y0 = ,
25 + x 2
7
18 y0 =− ,
49 + x 2
2
19 y0 = √ ,
|x| x 2 − 4
3
20 y0 =− √ ,
|x| x 2 − 9
21 y0 = 6 cosh(2x) + 12 sinh(3x),

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

22 y 0 = e x (−5 sin(2x) + 10 cos(2x)),

23 y 0 = 5e −x (sin(3x) + 3 cos(3x)),
24 y 0 = 8 cosh(2x) + 6 sinh(2x),
25 y 0 = 6sech2 (2x) + 14csch2 (2x),
26 y 0 = −15sech(5x) tanh(5x) − 12csch(3x)coth(3x),
2
27 y 0 = 2x10x ln(10),
3 +1)
28 y 0 = 3x 2 2(x ln 2,
0 4 +x 2 )
29 y = (4x + 2x)5(x
3
ln 5.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Exercise 6
dy
Compute in the following equations
dx
1 x 3 + y 3 = 4xy ,
2 2
2 x 3 + y 3 = 1,
3 y 2 + 3xy + 2x 2 = 1.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Solution
1 3x 2 + 3y 2 y 0 = 4y + 4xy 0 ⇒ y 0 (3y 2 − 4x) = 4y − 3x 2 ,
1 1
2 y 0 = −x − 3 y 3 ,
3 y 0 (3x + 2y ) = −(3y + 4x).

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Exercise 7
Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the following
functions at the given points.
√
x2 y2 2 5
1 + = 1 at (2, ),
9 4 3
x2 y2 3√
2 − = 1 at ( 5, 1).
9 4 2

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Solution
2x yy 0
1 + = 0, then y 0 (2) = − 3√4
5
and the equation of the
9 2 √
2 5
tangent line at (2, ) is
3√
y = − 3√ 4
5
(x − 2) + 2 3 5 = − 3√4
5
x + √65 .
√
0 2 5 3√
2 y = and the equation of the tangent line at ( 5, 1) is
√3 2
2 5
y= x − 4.
3

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Exercise 9
Evaluate the following integrals.
Z
dx
1 √ ,
4 − x 2
Z
dx
2 √ ,
Z 4 + x2
dx
3 √ ,
x2 − 4
Z tan−1 x
e
4 dx,
1 + x2
−1
e sin x
Z
5 √ dx,
Z 1 − x2
6 e sin(2x) cos(2x)dx,

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Z
3
7 x 2 e x dx,

e 2x
Z
8 dx,
1 + e 2x
Z
9 e x cos(1 + 2e x )dx,
Z
10 e 3x sec2 (2 + e 3x )dx,
Z
11 10cos x sin xdx,
−1
4sec x
Z
12 √ dx,
x x 2−1
Z
2
13 x10x +3 dx.

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Solution
Z
dx x
1 √ = sin−1 ( ) + c,
4−x 2 2
Z
dx x
2 √ = sinh−1 ( ) + c,
4 + x2 2
Z
dx x
3 √ = cosh−1 ( ) + c,
2
x −4 2
−1
e tan x
Z Z
t=tan−1 x −1
4 dx = e t dt = e tan x + c,
1 + x2
−1
e sin x
Z Z
t=sin−1 x −1
5 √ dx = e t dt = e sin x + c,
1−x 2
Z Z
sin(2x) t=sin(2x) 1 1
6 e cos(2x)dx = e t dt = e sin(2x) + c,
2 2
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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises
Z Z
3 t=x 3 1 1 3
7 x 2 e x dx = e t dt = e x + c,
3 3
e 2x
Z Z
t=1+e 2x 1 dt 1
8
2x
dx = = ln(1 + e 2x ) + c,
Z 1+e 2 t Z2
x x t=1+2e x 1 1
9 e cos(1+2e )dx = cos(t)dt = sin(1+2e x )+c,
Z 2 Z 2
t=2+e 3x 1
10 e 3x sec2 (2 + e 3x )dx = sec2 (t)dt =
3
1
tan(2 + e 3x ) + c,
Z3
10cos x
Z
cos x t=cos x
11 10 sin xdx = − 10t dt = − + c,
ln 10
−1 −1
4sec x 4sec ln 4x
Z Z
t=sec−1 x
12 √ dx = 4t dt = c,
x x2 − 1 +
2
10x +3
Z Z
x 2 +3 t=x 2 +3 1 t
13 x10 dx = 10 dt = + c.
2 2 ln(10)
Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions
The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Exercise 10
Evaluate each of the following:
√
−1 1 −1 3
1 3 sin ( ) + 2 cos ( ),
2 2
1 1
2 4 tan−1 ( √ ) + 5 cot−1 ( √ ),
3 3
√
3
3 2 sec−1 (−2) + 3 cos−1 (− ),
2
4 cos(2 cos−1 (x)),

5 sin(2 cos−1 (x)).

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Solution
√
−11 −1 3 π π π
1 3 sin ( ) + 2 cos ( )=3 +2 =5 ,
2 2 6 6 6
−1 1 −1 1 π π π
2 4 tan ( √ ) + 5 cot ( √ ) = 4 + 5 = 7 ,
3 3 6 3 3
√
3 2π 5π
3 2 sec−1 (−2) + 3 cos−1 (− )=2 +3 = 3π,
2 3 6
4 cos(2 cos−1 (x)) = 2 cos2 (cos−1 (x)) − 1 = 2x 2 − 1,
√
5 sin(2 cos−1 (x)) = 2x sin(cos−1 (x)) = 2x 1 − x 2 .

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions

The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Exercise 11
Simplify each of the following expressions by eliminating the radical
by using an appropriate trigonometric substitution.
x
1 √ ,
9 − x2
3+x
2 √ ,
16 + x 2
x −2
3 √ ,
x x 2 − 25
1+x
4 √ ,
x 2 + 2x + 2
2 − 2x
5 √ .
x 2 − 2x − 3

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Solution
x x=3 sin θ sin θ
1 √ = ,
9−x 2 | cos θ|
3 + x x=4 tan θ 3 + 4 tan θ
2 √ = ,
16 + x 2 4| sec θ|
x −2 x=5 sec θ 5 sec θ − 2
3 √ = ,
2
x x − 25 5| tan θ|
1+x 1+x x=tan θ−1 tan θ
4 √ =p = ,
2
x + 2x + 2 (x + 1)2 + 1 | sec θ|
2 − 2x 2 − 2x x=2 sec θ+1 1 − 2 sec θ
5 √ =p = .
2
x − 2x − 3 (x − 1)2 − 4 | tan θ|

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Exercise 12
Find the exact value of y in each of the following
1 y = cos−1 (− 12 ),
√
2 y = sin−1 3
2 ,
√
3 y = tan−1 (− 3),
√
4 y = cot−1 (− 33 ),
√
5 y = sec−1 (− 2),
√
6 y = csc−1 (− 2)
7 y = sec−1 (− √23 ),

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

8 y = csc−1 (− √23 ),
9 y = sec−1 (−2),
10 y = csc−1 (−2),
−1
11 y = tan−1 ( √ 3
,
√
12 y = cot−1 (− 3).

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Solution
1 y = cos−1 (− 12 ) = 2π
3 ,
√
2 y = sin−1 = π3 ,2
3
√
3 y = tan−1 (− 3) = 2π
3 ,
√
4 y = cot−1 (− 33 ) = 2π
3 ,
√
5 y = sec−1 (− 2) = 3π
4 ,
√
6 y = csc−1 (− 2) = − π4
7 y = sec−1 (− √23 ) = 5π
6 ,

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

8 y = csc−1 (− √23 ) = − π3 ,
9 y = sec−1 (−2) = 2π
3 ,
10 y= csc (−2) = − π6 ,
−1

−1
11 y= tan−1 ( √ 3
= 5π
6 ,
√
12 y = cot−1 (− 3) = 5π
6 .

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Exercise 13
Prove the following identities
1 sin−1 x + cos−1 x = π2 , ∀x ∈ [−1, 1].
2 tan−1 x + cot−1 x = π2 , ∀x ∈ R
3 tan−1 x + tan−1 ( x1 ) = π2 , x > 0.
4 tan−1 x + tan−1 ( x1 ) = − π2 , x < 0.
5 sec−1 x + csc−1 x = π2 , ∀x ∈ R \ [−1, 1]

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Solution

1 sin−1 0 + cos−1 0 = π2 and the derivative of the function

sin−1 x + cos−1 x is 0 for all x ∈] − 1, 1[. Then
sin−1 x + cos−1 x = π2 , ∀x ∈ [−1, 1].
2 tan−1 0 + cot−1 0 = π2 and the derivative of the function
tan−1 x + cot−1 x is 0 for all x ∈ R. Then
tan−1 x + cot−1 x = π2 , ∀x ∈ R.
3 tan−1 1 + tan−1 (1) = π2 and the derivative of the function
tan−1 x + tan−1 ( x1 ) is 0. Then
tan−1 x + tan−1 ( x1 ) = π2 , x > 0.

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

4 tan−1 (−1) + tan−1 (−1) = − π2 and the derivative of the

function tan−1 x + tan−1 ( x1 ) is 0. Then
tan−1 x + tan−1 ( x1 ) = − π2 , x < 0.
1 1 π π π
5 sec−1 ( √ ) + csc−1 ( √ ) = + = ,
2 2 4 4 2
−1 1 −1 1 π π π
sec (− √ ) + csc (− √ ) = − + π − = and the
2 2 4 4 2
derivative of the function sec−1 x + csc−1 x is 0. Then
sec−1 x + csc−1 x = π2 .

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
The General Exponential and Logarithm Functions
Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

Exercise 14
The Chebyshev polynomials are defined by

Tn (x) = cos(n cos−1 x), x ∈ [−1, 1], n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

1 Prove the recurrence relation for the Chebyshev polynomials

Tn+1 (x) = 2xTn (x) − Tn−1 (x), n ≥ 1.

2 Show that T0 (x) = 1, T1 (x) = x and generate
T2 (x), T3 (x), T4 (x) and T5 (x) using the recurrence relation.

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Exercises

3 Show that for all integers m and n,

1

Tm+n (x) + T|m−n| (x) .
Tn (x)Tm (x) =
2
4 Determine the zeros of Tn (x) and determine where Tn (x) has
its absolute maximum or minimum values for all n ∈ N.

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
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Exercises

Solution

Tn (x) = cos(n cos−1 x), x ∈ [−1, 1], n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

1 Tn+1 (x) + Tn−1 (x) = cos((n + 1) cos−1 x) + cos((n +

1) cos−1 x) = 2 cos(n cos−1 x) cos(cos−1 x) = 2xTn (x). Then

Tn+1 (x) = 2xTn (x) − Tn−1 (x), n ≥ 1.

2 T0 (x) = cos 0 = 1, T1 (x) = cos(cos−1 x) = x,
T2 (x) = 2x 2 − 1, T3 (x) = 4x 3 − 3x, T4 (x) = 8x 4 − 8x 2 + 1
and T5 (x) = 16x 5 − 20x 3 + 5x.

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The Natural Logarithm and the Exponential Functions
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Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital Rule
Exercises

3 Tm+n (x) + T|m−n| (x) = cos((m + n) cos−1 x) + cos((m −

n) cos−1 x) = 2 cos(n cos−1 x) cos(m cos−1 x) = 2Tn (x)Tm (x).
Then
1

Tn (x)Tm (x) = Tm+n (x) + T|m−n| (x) .
2
4 cos(n cos−1 x) = 0 ⇐⇒ n cos−1 x = π2 + kπ, for k ∈ Z. Then
the zeros of Tn are xk = cos( (2k+1)π
2n ), for k = 0, . . . (n − 1).
cos(n cos−1 x) = 1 ⇐⇒ n cos−1 x = 2kπ, for k ∈ Z. Then
the maximum of Tn is reached at the points yk = cos( 2kπ n ),
for k =∈ Z.
cos(n cos−1 x) = −1 ⇐⇒ n cos−1 x = (2k + 1)π, for k ∈ Z.
Then the minimum of Tn is reached at the points
zk = cos( (2k+1)π
n ), for k =∈ Z.

Mongi BLEL The Transcendental Functions