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OCEANOGRAPHY
and
MARINE BIOLOGY

AN ANNUAL REVIEW

Volume 39
OCEANOGRAPHY
and
MARINE BIOLOGY

AN ANNUAL REVIEW

Volume 39

Editors
R.N.Gibson
and
Margaret Barnes

The Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory

Oban, Argyll, Scotland

R.J.A.Atkinson

University Marine Biological Station

Millport, Isle of Cumbrae, Scotland

Founded by Harold Barnes

 First published 2001
by Taylor & Francis
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Taylor & Francis Inc,
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

Taylor & Francis is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004.

© 2001 R.N.Gibson, Margaret Barnes & R.J.A.Atkinson

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.

Every effort has been made to ensure that the advice and information in this book is true
and accurate at the time of going to press. However, neither the publisher, editors nor the
authors can accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that
may be made. In the case of drug administration, any medical procedure or the use of
technical equipment mentioned within this book, you are strongly advised to consult the
manufacturer’s guidelines.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN 0-203-24719-1 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-22896-0 (Adobe eReader Format)

ISBN 0-415-23874-9 (Print Edition)
 CONTENTS

Preface vii

Life-history patterns in serpulimorph polychaetes: ecological

and evolutionary perspectives 1
Elena K.Kupriyanova, Eijiroh Nishi, Harry A.ten Hove & Alexander
V.Rzhavsky

Molluscs as archives of environmental change 103

C.A.Richardson

The evolution of eyes in the Bivalvia 165

Brian Morton

Practical measures of marine biodiversity based on relatedness

of species 207
R.M.Warwick & K.R.Clarke

Functional group ecology in soft-sediment marine benthos:

the role of bioturbation 233
T.H.Pearson

The importance of seagrass beds as a habitat for fishery species 269

Emma L.Jackson, Ashley A.Rowden, Martin J.Attrill, Simon J.Bossey &
Malcolm B.Jones

Selective tidal-stream transport of marine animals 305

Richard B.Forward Jr & Richard A.Tankersley

Territorial damselfishes as determinants of the structure of

benthic communities on coral reefs 355
Daniela M.Ceccarelli, Geoffrey P.Jones & Laurence J.McCook

Author index 391

Systematic index 418

Subject index 431

v
 PREFACE

The thirty-ninth volume of this series contains eight reviews written by an international
array of authors. As usual, the reviews range widely in subject and taxonomic and geographic
coverage. The majority of articles were solicited but the editors always welcome suggestions
from potential authors for topics they consider could form the basis of appropriate
contributions. Because an annual publication schedule necessarily places constraints on the
timetable for submission, evaluation and acceptance of manuscripts, potential contributors
are advised to make contact at an early stage of preparation so that the delay between
submission and publication is minimised.
The editors again gratefully acknowledge the willingness and speed with which authors
complied with the editors’ suggestions, requests and questions and the efficiency of the
copy editor and publishers in ensuring the regular annual appearance of each volume. This
year has seen a further change in the editorial team and it is a pleasure to welcome Dr R.J.A.
Atkinson as a co-editor for the series.

vii
 Oceanography and Marine Biology: an Annual Review 2001, 39, 1–101
© R.N.Gibson, Margaret Barnes and R.J.A.Atkinson, Editors
Taylor & Francis

LIFE-HISTORY PATTERNS IN SERPULIMORPH

POLYCHAETES: ECOLOGICAL AND
EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVES
ELENA K.KUPRIYANOVA1, EIJIROH NISHI 2, HARRY A.TEN HOVE3 &
ALEXANDER V.RZHAVSKY 4
1
School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100,
Adelaide 5001, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
(the corresponding author)
2
Manazuru Marine Laboratory for Science Education, Yokohama National University,
Iwa, Manazuru, Kanagawa 259–0202, Japan
3
Instituut voor Biodiversiteit en Ecosysteem Dynamica/Zoölogisch Museum, Universiteit
van Amsterdam, Mauritskade 61, NL-1090 GT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
4
A.N.Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Leninskij Prospekt 33, Moscow, 117071, Russia

Abstract The paper summarises information on the life history of tubeworms (Serpulidae
and Spirorbidae). Topics reviewed are sexuality patterns, asexual reproduction, gamete
attributes, fecundity, spawning and fertilisation, larval development and morphology, larval
ecology and behaviour (including larval swimming, feeding, photoresponse, and defences),
brooding, settlement and metamorphosis, longevity and mortality. Gonochorism,
simultaneous and sequential hermaphroditism are found in the group, the last pattern being
apparently under-reported. Asexual reproduction commonly leads to the formation of
colonies. The egg size range is 40–200 µm in serpulids and 80–230 µm in spirorbids. The
sperms with spherical and with elongated heads correspond, respectively, to broadcasting
and brooding. Variability of brooding methods in serpulids has been grossly under-reported
and even exceeds that of spirorbids. Development is similar in feeding and non-feeding
larvae and the developmental events are easily reproducible in the laboratory until the onset
of competency, after which larvae require specific cues to proceed with settlement and
metamorphosis. Settlement is affected by both non-specific and substratum-specific cues
(conspecifics, microbial film, other organisms). Initial rapid juvenile growth slows down at
later life stages. The growth rates are affected both by factors acting after the settlement
and those experienced during the larval stage. Maturation is reached at a certain body size
and depends on the factors controlling growth. Longevity varies from several months in
small serpulids and spirorbids to 35 yr in the largest serpulids. Mortality is highest during
the early embryonic and juvenile stages. The egg-size distribution in serpulimorph
polychaetes is bimodal but the modes do not correspond to feeding and non-feeding
development and egg sizes of species with feeding and non-feeding larvae partially overlap.
This pattern may be explained by high interspecific variability in the organic content of
eggs and/or facultative larval feeding of some serpulids. Planktonic development is strongly
correlated with larval feeding, and planktonic lecitotrophy is rare. The potential selective
advantage of larval feeding is in the flexibility of the duration of the competent stage that
increases the possibility to locate suitable substrata. As in other groups, small body size
correlates with simultaneous hermaphroditism, brooding, and non-feeding development.

1
 E.K.KUPRIYANOVA, E.NISHI, H.A.TEN HOVE & A.V.RZHAVSKY

Broader generalisations require better knowledge of the life history of a greater number of
species. Integration of phylogenetic analyses into life-history studies should help to clarify
the direction of life-history transitions in this group and determine whether phylogenetic
constraints can account for the observed life-history patterns.

Introduction

Phylogenetic position and taxonomic problems in the group

The serpulimorph polychaetes constitute a discrete group of sedentary worms, which

secrete calcareous tubes. Traditionally, they constituted the family Serpulidae and have
been divided into three subfamilies: Spirorbinae, Serpulinae and Filograninae (e.g. Fauvel
1927, Rioja 1931). Pillai (1970) elevated the Spirorbinae to family status. Ten Hove (1984)
and Fitzhugh (1989) questioned this division of serpulimorph polychaetes into Serpulidae
(with subfamilies Serpulinae and Filograninae) and Spirorbidae. They suggested, based
on cladistic analyses, that the Spirorbidae are more closely related to the Serpulinae than
to the Filograninae and assigning a rank of family to this group makes the Serpulidae
sensu stricto a paraphyletic group. Smith (1991) also concludes that family rank of the
Spirorbidae is not justified. It is also not clear if Filograninae are monophyletic (ten Hove
1984, Kupriyanova & Jirkov 1997).
Being aware of these phylogenetic considerations, we maintain here the separation of
the serpulimorph polychaetes into the families Serpulidae and Spirorbidae for practical
reasons. First, confusion may exist whether the family Serpulidae includes Spirorbinae
or not, since some authors (e.g. A.Rzhavsky, P.Knight-Jones and E.W.Knight-Jones, pers.
comm.) continue to use family rank for spirorbids. Second, an elaborated taxonomic
system below the family level in the Spirorbidae needs to be revisited if the rank of the
group is to be lowered to subfamily and such a revision is clearly out of scope of the
current review.
A major problem in writing a literature survey of experimental and ecological studies in
serpulimorph polychaetes is their confused taxonomy. For example, many earlier fouling
studies from all over the world mention Hydroides norvegicus. However, this is a strictly
boreal species, extending into deeper waters in the Mediterranean. In (sub)tropical waters
the fouling species is generally H. elegans (Zibrowius 1973, ten Hove 1974), although in
tropical waters a few similar species may also occur incidentally. Frequently used in earlier
experimental studies is “H. uncinatus”, which was shown to be a “dustbin” of about 13
species (Zibrowius 1971). The often quoted work of Sentz-Braconnot (1964) on “Hydroides
norvegica” with an operculum in the shape of a double funnel and “Serpula concharum”
with a single funnel most probably only dealt with the single species Hydroides elegans.
Studies on the regeneration of opercula in H. elegans by Cresp (1964) have shown that if
the peduncle (opercular stalk) is cut proximally, the regenerating operculum will form a
single funnel only; a distal caesura will regenerate the normal double funnel. Even the well
known Pomatoceros triqueter should be regarded with some suspicion: Zibrowius (1968)
demonstrated that the “P. triqueter” of earlier authors contains two valid species, P. triqueter
and P. lamarckii; this was confirmed by electrophoretic studies by Ekaratne et al. (1982).
Most, but maybe not all, of Straughan’s (1972a,b) studies on the ecology of Ficopomatus

2
 LIFE-HISTORY PATTERNS IN SERPULIMORPH POLYCHAETES

were not based upon F. enigmaticus, but on the related tropical form F. uschakovi. “Spirorbis
spirillum” reported in numerous ecological studies more likely refers to Circeis armoricana,
whereas the data on “Spirorbis granulata” may refer to Bushiella (Jugaria) granulatus, B.
(Jugaria) similis, B. (Jugaria) quadrangularis or some other Bushiella species. In many
cases it is still unclear which species were studied.
This review takes advantage of the taxonomic research on the group that has been
conducted in the past few decades. Only the taxonomic names that are currently considered
valid are used in the review. We have compiled an addendum (p. 72) that contains all species
names appearing in the text as well as their correspondence to invalid names or
misidentifications that appear in original publications.

Importance of life-history research in serpulimorph polychaetes

Secretion of calcareous tubes make serpulimorph polychaetes important and troublesome

members of fouling communities (e.g. Mohan & Aruna 1994). Studies of larval development
and settlement therefore have practical importance and constitute a major part of serpulimorph
life-history research. Spirorbid larvae with very short planktonic stage are especially
convenient subjects of settlement studies. Planktotrophic larvae of serpulids, in contrast
with larvae of most polychaetes, can be easily obtained and reared in the laboratory. “Nothing
is easier than the rearing of Serpulids in the laboratory and especially is this the case with
regard to Pomatoceros” (Fuchs 1911, most probably referring to P. lamarckii). Consequently,
serpulids have served as objects of classical descriptive studies of embryology and early
development since the mid-nineteenth century (see review in Segrove 1941). Also, their
larvae have often been used as “typical polychaete larvae” in various recent question-
orientated ecological, ultrastructural, life-history and evolutionary studies. As a result, life
history of serpulimorph polychaetes has been studied very unevenly. Reproduction,
development and settlement of a few common and fouling species are fairly well known but
information on the life history of most species is lacking.
The objective of this paper is to put together available up-to-date information derived
from various studies in order to elucidate the diversity of life-history patterns in this group.
We also consider this information in the light of current hypotheses of life-history evolution
in marine invertebrates and discuss possible evolutionary mechanisms shaping life history
in the group.

Sexuality patterns

Gonochorism and sequential hermaphroditism

The sexes were traditionally considered to be almost exclusively separate in the Serpulidae,
Johnson (1908) for instance lists, with some Spirorbidae, only the genus Salmacina as
hermaphroditic. However, studies on the biology of the most common and commercially
important fouling species eventually revealed protandric hermaphroditism with a very short
intermediate stage in some species (Hydroides elegans: Ranzoli 1962; Pomatoceros triqueter.

3
 E.K.KUPRIYANOVA, E.NISHI, H.A.TEN HOVE & A.V.RZHAVSKY

Føyn & Gjøen 1950, 1954; Ficopomatus uschakovi: Straughan 1968, 1972a,b; F.
enigmaticus: Dixon 1981). Individuals producing both eggs and sperm can be found also in
populations of Galeolaria caespitosa and G. hystrix (Kupriyanova unpubl.), suggesting
sequential hermaphroditism in these species.
Sequential hermaphroditism causes biased sex ratios and difference in size between sexes
(Straughan 1972a, Dixon 1981, Castric-Fey 1984). In Ficopomatus uschakovi about 40%
of worms were males during the peak of the reproductive season (Straughan 1972a). The
male : female sex ratio was 1:5 in Pomatoceros triqueter (Cragg 1939). Although the overall
sex ratio was reported to be 1:1 in both P. triqueter and P. lamarckii, very young worms
were male and old worms were female (Castric-Fey 1984). The male to female ratio of
juvenile Hydroides elegans varied from 1:4 to 3:1 (Qiu & Qian 1998). However, in the
apparently gonochoristic Pomatoleios kraussi the sex ratio was 1:2 in the peak of the
reproductive season and even during other months (Nishi 1996).
There is a growing perception among polychaete biologists that hermaphroditism is
significantly under-reported in the family and that sequential hermaphroditism may be the
rule rather than an exception for serpulids. The difficulty arises from the fact that simple
examination is sufficient to determine simultaneous hermaphroditism but special population-
level studies are required to distinguish between true gonochorism and sequential
hermaphroditism.

Simultaneous hermaphroditism

Simultaneous hermaphroditism is less common in serpulids and it seems to develop as a

result of slower protandrous transition in small species such as Rhodopsis pusilla and species
of the Filograna/Salmacina complex. In Salmacina dysteri colonies, simultaneous
hermaphrodite specimens coexist with male and female specimens (Japan: Nishi & Nishihira
1993, 1994) (Fig. 1B-D). In Salmacina and Filograna, male segments are usually or mainly
in anterior segments and female ones are usually or mainly in posterior ones (UK, Italy,
Salmacina dysteri: Huxley 1855, Vannini 1965). However, Claparède (1870) explicitly states
the reverse for S. aedificatrix from Naples but this trend does not apply for all individuals.
Few segments contained both male and female gametes in S. dysteri (Japan: Nishi & Yamasu
1992b, Nishi & Nishihira 1993). Protandrous S. incrustans retains the capacity to produce
male gametes after emergence of female gametes (Vannini 1950). Spirobranchus polycerus
sensu stricto is also a simultaneous hermaphrodite (Marsden 1992), although the two-horned
sympatric form (var. augeneri, ten Hove 1970), of supposedly the same species, is apparently
gonochoristic.
In contrast to serpulids, all known spirorbids are simultaneous hermaphrodites. Their
anterior abdominal segments contain eggs and the posterior segments contain male gametes
(e.g. Bergan 1953, Potswald 1967a,b, King et al. 1969) (Fig. 1B). However, because sperm
appear to develop faster than oocytes, juvenile worms may function as males before they
can also function as females (Potswald 1981). The number of female and male chaetigerous
segments varied between 2–4 and 6–31, respectively (e.g. Circeis cf. armoricana, Spirorbis
spirorbis, and Bushiella sp.: Bergan 1953; Simplaria potswaldi: Potswald 1967a,b; Spirorbis
spirorbis: King et al. 1969; Neodexiospira brasiliensis: Rzhavsky & Britayev 1984) (Fig.
1). Stagni (1959, 1961) also reported the presence of female germ cells in the achaetigerous
region of Janua pagenstecheri.

4
 LIFE-HISTORY PATTERNS IN SERPULIMORPH POLYCHAETES

Figure 1 Simultaneous hermaphroditism in serpulids and spirorbids. A: Spirorbis spirorbis, schematic

representation of female and male segments (after King et al. 1969 with permission of Cambridge
University Press), e—eggs in female segments, s—sperm in male segments; B: Salmacina dysteri,
histological section, hermaphrodite segment; C: S. dysteri, histological section, female segments; D:
S. dysteri, histological section, male segments (after Nishi & Nishihira 1993). B-D, no scale given in
original publications.

Bergan (1953) found that in most specimens of Circeis cf. armoricana there were one or
two segments where the right (concave) half was female, while the left (convex) half was
male. These segments were situated between the completely female segments and the
completely male ones. Similar lateral asymmetry in sex differentiation was found in one
specimen of Simplaria potswaldi (Potswald 1967b). According to Bergan (1953), with
exception of this asymmetry, spirorbid segments never contain both mature eggs and sperm,
although Potswald (1967b) found two individuals of S. potswaldi that had oocytes and
sperm developing together in the second abdominal segment, between a purely female and
male segment.

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction has been most extensively studied in the genera Filograna and
Salmacina. In these taxa the parental animal divides into two, a process that leads to the

5
 E.K.KUPRIYANOVA, E.NISHI, H.A.TEN HOVE & A.V.RZHAVSKY

Figure 2 Asexual reproduction of Salmacina dysteri (scanning electron

microphotograph). The asexual bud (bu) and parental worm (st) both have extended
branchial crowns (br) (Nishi unpubl.). Scale: 1 mm.

formation of colonies. Before the real separation takes place, the new cephalic region forms
in the middle part of the parental specimen by transformation of abdominal segments into
thoracic ones (morphallaxis) (e.g. Malaquin 1895, 1911, Benham 1927, Faulkner 1929,
Vannini 1950, 1965, Ranzoli 1955, Vannini & Ranzoli 1962, Nishi & Yamasu 1992b, Nishi
& Nishihira 1994) (Fig. 2).
Filogranula gracilis reproduces asexually by transverse fission in the middle of the
abdomen (ten Hove 1979b). Scissiparity results in chains of individuals with the greater
part of each tube growing along the substratum. However, its youngest part is generally free
and erect, causing the mouth to lie at some distance from the substratum. Very thin tubes of
new individuals bud at the mouths of established tubes and descend to the substratum,
where they gradually attain the appearance and dimensions of mature tubes.
In Josephella marenzelleri asexual reproduction leads to a network of branching tubes
(George 1974). The same holds for Rhodopsis pusilla (Ben-Eliahu & ten Hove 1989, Nishi
& Yamasu 1992a). Scissiparity was inferred from a few branching tubes in at least three
species of Spiraserpula. In S. snellii one tube revealed two specimens: a parent and a schizont
closely pressed to its posterior end (Pillai & ten Hove 1994), which proves asexual
reproduction.
Ben-Eliahu & Dafni (1979) give no evidence of asexual reproduction in Filogranella,
but ten Hove (pers. comm.) found three very evidently branching tubes of Filogranella
elatensis from the Seychelles, which is indicative of asexual reproduction.

6
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Vanessa Milberti Godt.

This species is common in woody localities. The caterpillar is very much like that of V. Californica,
and only a few individuals show a distinguishing mark in the shape of a longitudinal, lateral stripe of
sulphur yellow. It feeds on Urtica.

Vanessa Antiopa L.

There is nothing to add in regard to this long and well-known species. The caterpillar feeds here,
as everywhere else, on willows.
The true Vanessæ have about the same geographical distribution as the Graptæ. They also have a
predilection for Urticaceous plants. Only the most northern species is amphigeic.

Europe. California. Atlantic Slope.

V. Antiopa. V. Antiopa. V. Antiopa.
V. Urticæ. V. Milberti. V. Milberti.
V. Polychloros. V. Californica. V. C-album.

There is a balance in favor of the Old World—the beautiful type of V. Io not being represented on
this continent—and also the type of V. Polychloros, containing a few species, as, for instance, V.
Xanthomelas, that make it appear more numerous.

Pyrameis Hubn.

Pyrameis Atalanta L.

Larva feeds on Urtica.

Pyrameis Carye.

This species is by far the most common butterfly in California. The caterpillar is very variable in its
coloration, and is so like that of P. Atalanta, in company with which it is frequently found, that I have
never succeeded in finding any distinguishing characters. It feeds throughout the year on Urtica and
on several malvaceous plants, and has the habit of all its congeners, of hiding itself in a rolled up
leaf.

Pyrameis Cardui L.

This most cosmopolitan of all diurnals, affects here, in its larva state, several malvaceous plants,
and also the genus Gnaphalium, and its relations; but the plant for which it shows the greatest
predilection is Silybum Marianum, a plant which formerly did not exist here, and has only spread
since 1852. It now forms thickets in the neighborhood of San Francisco, as well as near most of our
inland towns, but has never spread to a great distance from settlements. P. Cardui frequents the
same localities, and I found the same species in Australia in the same relation to the same
immigrated plant, Silybum Marianum. I know very well that P. Cardui existed here, as well as in
Australia, before the immigration of this Mediterranean plant; but still, it is a remarkable fact that this
cosmopolitan butterfly, notwithstanding its ability to adapt itself to plants of the most different
families, still clings with such tenacity to a cosmopolitan plant, to whose universal distribution it is
perhaps much indebted for the wide range which it itself attains.
Next to the cosmopolitan character of this plant, P. Cardui owes its great extent probably to its
many generations and certain irregularities in the time of the appearance of the perfect insect; so
that small colonies of the species are not so liable to be destroyed by inclemency of climate or
exceptional atmospheric agencies; for a being that exists at the same time in the four stages of the
egg, larva, chrysalis, and imago, has more chances of escaping cataclysms and deluge than others
that are all at one time in the same stage of existence. The extent of the influence exerted by the
number of generations, and the irregularity of period, can be very clearly recognized by the
circumstance that species with one generation are always the most local; for instance, certain
Meliteæ, Argynnidæ, Theclæ, most of Sphingidæ, etc.; that also the cosmopolitanism develops in
proportion to the number of generations, and attains its maximum in certain Vanessidæ, Danaidæ,
Pyrameis, etc.

Pyrameis Hunteri Fab.

This species seems to have, in California, but one generation. It is not common. I have found it
only in the latter part of the season, and have not yet succeeded in finding the caterpillar. The genus
Pyrameis has the widest range of all the genera of this family. It extends through all latitudes from
the Arctic regions to the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn. On the northern hemispheres it is best
represented in California, which country possesses one peculiar species in addition to all three of
Europe and the Eastern Slope of the United States.

California. Eastern Slope. Europe.

P. Atalanta. P. Atalanta. P. Atalanta.
P. Carye. —— ——
P. Cardui. P. Cardui. P. Cardui.
P. Hunteri. P. Hunteri. ——

Junonia Hubn.

Junonia Cænia Boisd. et Lee.

Several generations. Caterpillar not yet found in California. From this enumeration of California
Vanessidæ we find, 1st. That with the exception of V. Californica, there is not yet found any species
of this group peculiar to our State, for even P. Carye exists as well in Chili as here, and is also said to
have been found in Brazil. This circumstance is more striking since our Argynnidæ and Meliteæ prove
altogether local; none of them being identical with Eastern species, unless a Melitæa, of the type of
Mylitta, should be found identical with a form found in Texas. 2. The genera of this group, north of
the Tropic of Cancer, are essentially amphigeic, the European Arachnia being almost the sole
exception. But, as it were, to compensate this, the tropical amphigeic genus Junonia, wanting in
Europe, extends, on our continent, to high latitudes. 3. As regards the number of specks, the genus
Grapta predominates at the Eastern Slope, Vanessa in Europe, Pyrameis in California, and our own
Junonia is counterbalanced in Europe by our Arachnia.

Fam. Limenitidæ.

Limenitis Fabr.

Limenitis Lorquini Boisd.

Like its congeners in other parts of the world, this species occurs in shady woods, or on the banks
of arroyos. It is peculiar to California and Oregon.

Limenitis Eulalia Doubleday.

 In localities similar to the preceding species. These two species are, as yet, the only ones found in
our State. They represent a peculiar type, forming, in their coloration, a transition from Limenitis to
the South American genus Heterochroa. Neither of these Californians have been found on the
Eastern Slope. L. Eulalia extends to Mexico.
The family Apaturidæ as yet, has not been found in California.

Dr. Trask offered the following article:

Earthquakes in California During the Year 1863.

BY JOHN B. TRASK, M.D.
During the year 1863 we have had but five earthquakes, and as in former years they have been
marked by no serious event, if we except the light degree of fright induced at the time among our
people.
January 25th.—A severe shock was experienced at San Diego at 2h. 20m. m., which lasted five to
eight seconds. There was no undulation in this case, it consisting of a series of sharp jars. It was
preceded by a deep rumbling noise.
February 1st.—A very smart shock at the Mission San Juan, Monterey County, at 4h. 1m. p.m. This
shock was felt at Gilroys at 4h. 15m. This town is twelve miles east of the former. At both places the
shock was marked by the undulatory motion. It was not observed at Monterey, which is nearly twelve
miles west of the Mission.
June——A smart shock at midnight at San Francisco.
August 1st.—Two light shocks at San Francisco, at 10h. 48m. p.m., and at 11h. 6m. p.m., another
shock.
December 19th.—At 2h. 38m. p.m. a smart shock was felt throughout the city; directly afterwards
another and more severe one occurred. The first was a short, sudden jar, while the second was
undulatory. The accuracy of the telegraph operator at Santa Clara has enabled us to form a correct
idea of the course of this shock, and to correct to some extent the popular errors relating to the
direction of the seismic wave. His time was 2h. 44m. 31s., being within 29 seconds of true time,
which would then be 2.45. This gives us only 6½ minutes difference in elapsed time, and gives for
the direction of the wave an east course in place of north and south, as reported, which corresponds
to our measured observations here. I take this opportunity of expressing the thanks of the Academy
to this operator for his accuracy and kindness in furnishing us data in this and other phenomena of
scientific and public interest.

February and March, 1864.

During the present year, 1864, we have had two smart earthquakes at the date of writing this
report.
February 26th.—At San Francisco a light shock at 0h. 40m. m., and another at 2h. 10m. m. These
were reported to me by persons who were up in the south and west parts of the city. At 5h. 47m. a
very smart shock occurred, having three distinct vibrations, which induced many to rise somewhat
earlier than was usual. This earthquake was preceded by a strong electric storm (so called here),
between this city and Visalia; the particulars of which have not as yet all come to hand. It was
followed next day by one of those severe “northers” with which the people of this State are very
familiar. Barometer very low. This fact is mentioned only on account of the unseasonable period at
which the gale occurred.
 This earthquake was felt more severe at San José and Santa Clara than at this place, and occurred
at nearly the same hour.
March 5th.—A severe shock of earthquake at San Francisco at 8h. 49m. m. The first wave had a
north and south direction and continued 1¾ seconds; nearly 1¾ seconds elapsed before the second
shock, which was at 8h. 49m. 3s., and continued 1½ seconds. The second shock was rotatory; the
pendulum swinging north and south from the first shock, began and continued to describe a short
oval or nearly a circle from the effects of the second shock, and continued thus for more than half an
hour, until stopped and brought to rest. Magnetism was not suspended in this earthquake, nor any
other that has occurred since my instrument was suspended. These observations were made at the
height of twenty feet four inches from the ground. The total of time included in the shock was nearly
five seconds. The farthest point south to which I have been able to trace its effects is the Mission San
Juan, and north to Sacramento, a distance inclusive of 177 miles. In an easterly direction we have
not traced it east of Stockton, about 60 miles. It was felt at Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, Gilroys, south of
San Francisco, and at Santa Rosa and Petaluma to the north.
Since the above was in type, advices have been received from Visalia. At that locality the shock
was very smart. The first shock took place at 8h. 45m. m., being four minutes earlier than that at San
Francisco. This gives for the entire distance, north and south (over which the earthquake extended),
257 miles. This extent of latitude, and the almost simultaneous period of time at which it was
observed along the entire line of distance so far as heard from, leads to the conclusion that its
probable centre was south of San Francisco and nearly in the same longitude. From the violence of
its action I feel inclined to the belief that its centre was in the neighborhood of San José, for all
accounts agree in this one point, that more turbulence of the earth’s surface occurred in this region
during its continuance than at any other place yet known. At Visalia the first shock was a mere
tremor, but was followed by an undulatory movement when the second shock occurred, which was
some three or four seconds later. This wave moved in an east and west direction at that place.
 Regular Meeting, March 21st, 1864.
Dr. Trask in the Chair.
Eleven members present.
Messrs. J. G. Kellogg and Jacob Deidesheimer were elected resident members.
Resolutions were passed in memory of the Rev. T. Starr King, late a member of the Academy, and a
copy directed to be forwarded to the family of the deceased.
Donation to the Library: “Descriptions of New Species of Tropical American Birds,” by Geo. N.
Lawrence, extracted from the Annals of the New York Lyceum, by the author.
A discussion was held on the popular error of supposing that thunder and lightning are very rare in
California, several members stating from their experience that both are common in the higher and
more mountainous portions, at all seasons of the year, though rare in the lower regions.
Dr. Behr stated that he had used the root of the Aspidium argutum Kaulf., successfully as an
antidote for tape-worm since the year 1852, and with better results than attend the use of A. filixmas
of Europe.
 Regular Meeting, April 4th, 1864.
President in the Chair.
Present, ten members.
Professor Whitney read a paper by Major Williamson, U. S. Engineer, giving the methods of
determination and results of measurement by barometer of the depression of “Death Valley” below
the level of the sea, made in 1860 by the Cal. and U. S. Boundary Commission. Death Valley was
found to be the “sink” of the Armagoza River, which runs near the boundary, east of Owen’s Lake.
The observations, are sufficient to show that the valley is from one hundred to two hundred feet
lower than the level of the sea.
 Regular Meeting, April 18th, 1864.
Dr. Trask in the Chair.
Present, nine members.
W. S. Brigham and Horace Mann were elected corresponding members, being about to proceed to
the Sandwich Islands to make a thorough scientific exploration, under the auspices of the Boston
Society of Natural History.
The name of Mr. Louis Janin, elected in 1861 but accidentally omitted from the list of members,
was directed to be published in the proceedings.
Donations to the Cabinet: About two hundred specimens of rocks and ores from Humboldt River
District, by Mr. Highton.
Dr. Trask presented the following paper:

Earthquakes in California from 1800 to 1864.

BY JOHN B. TRASK.
As the subject of earthquakes for some years past has engrossed much of the attention of
scientific observers, I have, at the request of several members of the Academy, made out a complete
report upon the occurrence of those phenomena upon this coast, as far as personal observation is
concerned, and also so far only as we have authentic records prior to the occupancy of the present
State of California by the American Government.
The present paper contains, probably, all that can be verified, and places the subject in a form to
which future reference may be made by other observers abroad; thus enabling them and ourselves
also, to bring together the statistical facts which, it may be hoped, will help to form some rational
theory in future years relating to the causal agency of those phenomena, as well as the physical laws
governing their action.
In this paper I have reduced the periods of their occurrence for the thirteen years past to
astronomical time, in all instances where the hour on which the shocks occurred have been known
with certainty, and, without attempting to combat any theory that has been advanced, or the
suggestion of another relating to their origin, their history has been left as a record of facts, which
will become useful when others of like character accompany them. Our record, in this State alone has
reached a little more than one-tenth of the number on which M. Mallet has founded his theory of
their origin, and which were drawn from all parts of the world, and although this may seem a large
proportion for this district of country alone since 1850, it is not to be presumed that a greater
frequency of shocks have occurred here than elsewhere, but that the same attention has not been
bestowed in recording their occurrence in other countries where they are known to be much more
frequent and severe than upon our coast.
It might be asked why, if such unquestionable frequency occurs within the limits of this State we
are not subject to momentary destruction from their effects; the answer to this is found in the
preceding paragraph, from which cause it will be seen that our experience is more apparent than
real, relatively, and farther still, we should find a much greater frequency of shocks, beyond all doubt,
if the instruments for their registry in different parts of the State were more plentiful than at present.
There is no good reason for the supposition that we are in more danger from these phenomena
than upon the Atlantic border, for the reason that we are so far removed from the centers of
immediate and violent volcanic action, that it would require dangerous tension of the imagination to
place California within the range of those physical causes which are so conducive to violent,
repeated, and destructive earthquakes. This State cannot be considered more subject to earthquakes
than it is to volcanoes, relatively, and this is said too in the face of our own records relating to the
former. We need have little fear from these disturbances so long as we are so far removed on either
hand from the great centers, and even from the terminal points of those centers of volcanic
disturbance, from the action of which such disastrous consequences have, and will again follow to
their immediate districts.
A moment’s consideration will convince the most sceptical of the prevailing fallacy relating to this
subject. In the first place, we are situated between two great termini of active volcanic ranges, the
nearest being Colima, 1,200 miles south, the other on the coast of Alaska, more than 1,300 miles to
the north; the distance inclusive between the points being nearly or perhaps quite 2,600 miles, in
which NO active volcanic vents abound, unless we make an exception of Mounts Hood and St. Helen
in Oregon, of which the testimony is somewhat dubious, and the nearest of which is 700 miles. To
the east there are no volcanoes for a distance of 2,500 miles, and to the west for a much greater
distance than in either of the other directions. This, certainly, should be sufficient to palliate the fears
of the timid, in some degree at least, and to silence in part also the sensational articles which appear
from time to time in the press of this and the eastern States, as to California being an oven within
the range of active volcanic action, and a volcanic country.
In preparing this paper I have endeavored to obtain, as far as possible, the most correct
information relating to the history of these phenomena in former years. It is my desire also to correct
some of the misrepresentations and statements current relating to the severity of earthquake shocks
in this country during the earlier periods of its history.
I have at the present time some additional information relating to the great earthquake of 1812,
which did not appear in my first paper on this subject, and which must now be placed on record.
These facts relate more to the phenomena occurring during that year, rather than to the destruction
of the missions, all of which will be found in their proper place below.
From careful inquiry of the early settlers and residents I cannot learn that any more than one
earthquake has occurred which was in any considerable degree of a serious character, and but one
which has caused the destruction of either life or property to any extent.
This earthquake occurred in the month of September, 1812, and destroyed the Mission San Juan
Capistrano, in Los Angeles County, and the Mission Purissima (Viejo) in the County of Santa Barbara.
The following is the history of that event as obtained from the older native inhabitants and foreign
residents on the coast at that time.
The day was clear and uncommonly warm; it being Sunday the people had assembled at San Juan
Capistrano for evening service. About half an hour after the opening of service, an unusual loud, but
distant rushing sound was heard in the atmosphere to the east and also over the water, which
resembled the sound of strong wind, but as it approached no perceptible breeze accompanied it. The
sea was smooth and the air was calm. So distant and loud was this atmospheric sound that several
left the building attracted by its noise.
Immediately following the sound, the first and heaviest shock of the earthquake occurred, which
was sufficiently severe to prostrate the Mission Church of San Capistrano almost in a body, burying in
its ruins the most of those who remained behind, after the first indication of its approach was heard.
The shock was very sudden and almost without warning, save from the rushing sound above
noted, and to the severity of the first shock at that moment is to be attributed the loss of life that
followed.
The number reported to have been killed outright, is variously estimated from thirty to forty-five
(the largest number of persons agree on the smallest number of deaths given), but in the absence of
records such statements should be received with many grains of allowance, where memory alone is
the only means left, and the term of forty-three years has elapsed before the period at which this
account was placed on paper. A considerable number are reported to have been badly injured.
There is a universal agreement on this point with those from whom these facts were derived, viz.:
that the first shock threw down the entire building, and that a large number of persons were in it at
that moment, and under the circumstances it would be most singular if no deaths were caused by
such an event.
It is now nine years since the above facts were published, and in March, 1864, a writer to me
unknown, corroborates this statement relating to that Mission in these words. “The church thrown
down at San Juan Capistrano by an earthquake in 1812, was a well built-affair of stone and cement.
The cupola or short steeple falling over the church completely destroying the building.”
The motion of the earth is described as having lifted vertically, attended by a rotatory movement.
No undulatory motion is described by any one. Dizziness and nausea seized almost every person in
the vicinity.
A heavy, loud, deep rumbling, accompanied the successive shocks that followed, which were five in
number, all having the motion above described, though comparatively light in their effects to the first.
The sounds attending the phenomena came apparently from the South and East.
In the valley of San Inez, to the south and west of Santa Barbara, the church now known as the
“Mission Viejo” (La Purissima), was also completely destroyed. At this locality there were also a
number of lives lost, but what number is as yet very uncertain. The distance between Capistrano and
San Inez is about one hundred and seventy miles. The shock which destroyed this building occurred
about one hour after the former, and the greater portion of the inhabitants had left the building but a
few minutes before it fell, service having closed. The first shock felt here prostrated the building, as
in the preceding case.
A Spanish ship which lay at anchor off San Buenaventura, thirty-eight miles from Santa Barbara,
was much injured by the shock, and leaked to that extent, that it became necessary to beach her,
and remove the most of her cargo.
The writer above quoted corroborates the fact of a ship having been in this vicinity at the time. The
distance of this ship from Santa Barbara is nearly the same as in my original statement but in a
different direction. From the circumstantial details of the writer as to the ship “Charan,” alias,
“Thomas Newland,” I am inclined to the belief that his statements are more entitled to adoption than
my own; I therefore present his statement also and leave the reader to adopt either, so far as
regards the ship and her position. “At the same time a Boston ship the Thomas Newland, known
before as the Charan, commanded by Capt. Isaac Whitmore, was lying off the anchorage not far from
the Gaviota Pass, Santa Barbara County.”
It is an interesting fact, and at the same time somewhat remarkable, that the time which elapsed
between the advent of the shocks at Capistrano and San Inez is widely variant from what we should
look for, when the distance apart and velocity of motion in earthquakes are taken into consideration.
If the velocity of the seismic wave in this earthquake was uniform with those of more recent times, it
should have reached La Purissima in twenty-eight minutes and fifty seconds in lieu of an hour; but all
due allowances must be made for a question of time in an event of this nature, and also for errors in
memory of persons after the lapse of so many years.
The effect of this earthquake on the sea, in the Bay of Santa Barbara, is described as follows: “The
sea was observed to recede from the shore during the continuance of the shocks, and left the latter
dry for a considerable distance, when it returned in five or six heavy rollers, which overflowed the
plain on which Santa Barbara is built. The inhabitants saw the recession of the sea, and being aware
of the danger on its return, fled to the adjoining hills near the town to escape the probable deluge.”
 The sea on its return flowed inland a little more than half a mile, and reached the lower part of the
town, doing but little damage, destroying only three small adobe buildings.
Here again I take the liberty of quoting the late writer above noticed, in corroboration of its effects
upon the sea. “The sea was seen to retire all at once, and to return in an immense wave, which
came roaring and plunging back, over the beach. This wave penetrated the low lands and gulches a
mile from the shore, forming one of the most terrific sights possible to conceive.”
Very little damage was done to the houses in town from the effects of the shocks, while the
Mission at San Inez was prostrated almost instantly. There is no evidence that I can find, that this
earthquake was felt in San Luis Obispo, though such has been the report.
In addition to my former paper I will now add some information relating to this and other
earthquakes, touching more particularly a series continuing through a long period for such
phenomena, but preceding the great event of September of that year.
So far as the archives of the old missions assist us, it is found that from the foundation of the first
mission in 1769, up to the year 1800, a period of thirty-one years, not an entry was made of these
phenomena. In the latter year an earthquake is recorded as occurring at San Juan Bautista, on the
eleventh of October. On the eighteenth of the same month, at supper time another shock was felt,
and another still at about eleven o’clock on the same night. From the records of the Presidio of San
Francisco, we are able to glean the fact, that between the twenty-first of June and seventeenth of
July, 1808, there occurred twenty-one shocks of earthquakes at this post.
I will here correct the popular error relating to this earthquake or series of earthquakes during that
year. It is generally stated that this was contemporaneous with the earthquake which destroyed San
Juan Capistrano and La Purissima; by reference to the dates it will be seen that the destruction of
those missions did not occur until four years later.
The above are the only records of these phenomena that have as yet made their appearance in the
archives of the province during the existence of the Mexican Government; and, from the fact that
these archives are all in our possession, there is no hazard in stating that they constitute all, of which
we have any positive knowledge. As they stand, they are a sufficient rebuke to the mendacity of
sensational itemizers of the public press; they will find in those records, no basis on which to indite
column articles of such doleful prophecies as the public of late have been surfeited with.
During a period of thirty-nine years the records of the country exhibit the fact, that there were but
twenty-three days on which earthquakes occurred and were deemed worthy of record. If we
compare these figures with those recorded from 1850 to the close of 1863, we shall find much more
ground for prophecy during the latter period than for the eighty-two years of which records were
kept on this coast previous to that time.
From the above extracts from the archives we are left to infer one of two facts; either that
earthquakes were entirely unknown during the intervals of the record dates, or that they were of so
trivial a character as not to merit the notice of the early padres during this time; the latter is the
probability, for we can scarcely conceive that nothing of this nature had taken place. If, however,
such be the fact, it cannot be looked upon in any other light than a manifest anomaly in the history
of this or any other country.
It appears from all the testimony on the subject, that in May, 1812, the south part of the State was
frequently agitated with shocks of greater or less severity, and their continuance was literally
incessant for about four and one-half months. Their frequency was not less than one each day or
two; four days seldom elapsing without a shock. As many as thirty shocks occurred in a single day on
more than one occasion. So frequent were they, that the inhabitants abandoned their houses for the
greater part of this period, and lived under trees, etc., and slept out of doors at Santa Barbara.
This period of time seems analogous in some respects to the year 1852, and was one of very
marked severity on this coast, as was also the latter year; it was analogous to other periods of
subterranean disturbance in other parts of the earth since the historic era began, and there is no
good reason why we may not look for the recurrence of similar events in future time. But we must
not lay too much stress on the destruction of the two mission churches in 1812, to guide us in an
estimate of the force of this earthquake, for the construction of those buildings had but little relation
to similar structures of modern date, either in strength or material.
From 1812 to 1850, the archives are silent on this subject. In the latter year our record began and
has continued with little interruption to 1863, a period of thirteen years. Within that period there are
but few earthquakes occurring north of the thirty-ninth parallel which have escaped notice and have
not been made matter of record.

1850.

During this year the following earthquakes were recorded:

March 12th.—A light shock was felt in San José.

May 13th.—A light shock in San Francisco. An eruption of Mauna Loa, S. I., and shock same
day.
June 28th.—A light shock in San Francisco.
August 4th.—A smart shock was felt in Stockton and Sacramento.
September 14th.—Smart shock at San Francisco and San José. Total number recorded in
1850, five.

1851.

May 15th.—Three severe shocks in San Francisco. During this earthquake windows were
broken and buildings severely shaken. A large amount of merchandize was thrown
down in a store on California Street. The shipping in the harbor rolled heavily. An
eruption of Mauna Loa and shock in the Sandwich Islands same day.
May 17th.—A light shock in San Francisco.
May 28th.—A light shock on the Salinas.
June 13th.—A smart shock at San Francisco. This was felt at San Luis Obispo and San
Fernando.
December 2d.—A shock at Downieville.
December 31st.—A smart shock at Downieville. Total recorded in 1851, six.

1852.

From the beginning of this year until the middle of its last quarter, no disturbances of the coast
was noted until the month of November. In this month the southern portion of the State was violently
disturbed.

November 26th.—The number of shocks on this day at San Simeon was eleven, and at Los
Angeles and San Gabriel the same number. Nearly or quite the same number was also
observed by parties having in charge a Government train in transit from Fort Yuma to
San Diego.
 This earthquake or the series was experienced over the entire country, east and south of Luis
Obispo to San Diego and the Colorado River, covering a line of country about three hundred miles in
extent.
From subsequent accounts we learn that it also reached as far as Guaymas, in the province of
Sonora, Mexico.
For a period of six days subsequent to the twenty-sixth of November, the whole of this region to
the Colorado, was convulsed, with slight intermissions. During this time a mud volcano opened on
the Colorado Desert, and another south of the river; one of these was visited by a portion of the
United States command under Col. Hientzelman.

December 17th.—Two smart shocks at San Luis Obispo, which fractured the walls of two
adobe buildings, and threw down a part of the wall of a house belonging to, and
occupied by Don Jesus Pico and family.

During the months of November and December, the southern particularly, and middle portions of
California were much disturbed; shocks were experienced in those sections for sixty-five days, with
variable intermissions; they were noticed as far north as the thirty-seventh parallel, but generally
light in their nature. The latest date of this series was to the fifth of January, 1853, on the valley of
the San Joaquin.
The period of time inclusive between the sixteenth of November (the date of the terrible
earthquake at Banda Neira in the Moluccas), and the twenty-sixth of January, 1853, must be
regarded as one of the most remarkable and portentious periods of the earth’s history during modern
times. For in that period a greater proportion of the earth’s surface was convulsed by subterranean
forces than has been known for many scores of years, in the same length of time.
The area most severely affected by these phenomena is included between the parallels of forty
degrees south latitude and thirty-seven degrees north latitude, and extending from one hundred and
twenty degrees east to the forty-fifth degree west longitude, being nearly equal to three-fifths of the
equatorial, and a little more than one-half the polar circumference of the earth.
At this time the coast of eastern Asia, the Islands of the South Indian Ocean, Singapore, the fated
Moluccas, the east coast of China, the north, east, and south coasts of Australia, the coast of
California, Mexico (west coast,) South America, with portions of the Atlantic coast of the United
States south of the thirty-fourth parallel, north latitude, shared in the general disturbance which
prevailed on our own shores during this time. With the twenty-sixth of January ceased the vibrations
on this coast at that time, but we have positive intelligence that they continued much later on the
east coast of China and Australia, in which countries they did not cease until the month of February.
With these facts before us we cannot but believe the period included one of the most turbulent in the
earth’s career during modern times.

1853.

Jan. 2d.—A shock of earthquake was felt in Mariposa; this was observed in San Francisco,
Bodega, and at Shasta City.
Jan. 5th.—A shock at Corte Madeira.
Feb. 14th.—A light shock at San Luis Obispo.
March 1st.—A smart shock at San Francisco, which was felt at San Luis Obispo and Santa
Barbara.
April 24th.—A light shock at Humboldt Bay.
 April 25th.—Three shocks in quick succession at Weaverville, Trinity County.
June 2d.—Two smart shocks on the plains of the San Joaquin.
July 12th.—A light shock at Yreka, Siskiyou County.
Sept. 3d.—Four shocks on the Salinas and San Joaquin Plains.
Oct. 23d.—Three heavy shocks at Humboldt Bay.
Oct. 25th.—A light shock at Humboldt Bay.
Nov. 16th.—A light shock at San José.
Nov. 21st.—A shock at San Francisco.
Dec. 11th.—A light shock at San Francisco and Mission Dolores.
Dec. 23d.—A light shock at Shasta.

Total in 1853, 15.

1854.

Jan. 3d.—Two smart shocks in Mariposa, felt also in Shasta.

March 2d.—A light shock at San Francisco.
March 20th.—A shock at Stockton.
April 29th.—A light shock at Santa Barbara.
May 23d.—A shock at Crescent City.
May 31st.—An earthquake at Santa Barbara at 5h. 10m. In this earthquake there were three
distinct waves. The first was accompanied by profound rumbling; the second shock was
preceded by a loud, rushing noise like the approach of a strong wind. About four or five
seconds elapsed between each shock. The sea was much disturbed, and a heavy surf
swell came in soon after the second shock passed. This surf-wave rolled inland some
thirty feet beyond the old wreck at the embarcadero. I saw the effect of this wave in
July following. The inhabitants were much frightened and left their beds for the open
air. Very little damage was sustained.
June 26th.—Two light shocks in Placer County.
July 10th.—One shock at Georgetown.
July 14th.—A shock at Georgetown.
Sept. 14th.—A light shock at Nevada.
Oct. 21st.—A light shock at Monterey.
Oct. 26th.—A smart shock at San Francisco, near midnight. It was felt at Benicia. This shock
was followed by a swell in the bay, as vessels at the wharfs swayed heavily on their
hawsers.

Total in 1854, 12.

1855.

The following is the record of earthquakes for this year, in the State of California, with the date and
hour of the day at which they were observed:
 Jan. 13th, 18h. 30m.—A smart shock occurred at San Benito and San Miguel. It was felt at
San Luis Obispo.
Jan. 24th, 22h.—A heavy shock of earthquake was felt at Downieville, which lasted seven
seconds.

This earthquake was quite severe at Gibsonville on the north, at Forrest City, Minnesota, in Sierra
County, and at Orleans Flat, Eureka, in Nevada County, at Georgetown and Nashville in El Dorado
County on the south, and at Keystone Ranch, in Yuba County, on the west. The entire distance north
and south affected was ninety-four miles, and in a westerly line, thirty miles. The shock was
preceded by a deep rumbling, and the rushing sound of wind in the distance. It shook buildings
severely. A large pinnacle of rocks on the summit of the Downieville Buttes was thrown down, and
some of the large fragments reached the south branch of the North Yuba, at the base of the
mountain.

Feb 5th, 22h.—A light shock was felt at Wolf Creek and the north-east part of Nevada
County.
April 7th, 18h.—A light shock was felt at Gibb’s Ferry, Trinity County, and was experienced as
far north as Callahan’s Ranch, at the head of Scott’s Valley, Siskiyou County.
June 25th, 14h.—A smart shock was felt at Santa Barbara, and extended northward as far
as the valley of Santa Maria. This shock was cotemporaneous with one that occurred in
Switzerland.
July 10th, 9h. 30m.—A light shock was felt in Georgetown, El Dorado County, which lasted
about four seconds.
July 10th, 20h. 15m.—A severe shock at Los Angeles, which did considerable damage.

There were four distinct shocks during the earthquake, with a period of about two or three
seconds elapsing between each vibration. During their continuance the ground opened in several
places, in fissures of one or two inches, the marks of which remained for several days afterwards.
There were some twenty-six buildings in the city more or less injured, which I personally examined,
and among them the church, the west wall of which was split from top to bottom in two places, the
fissures being from one to two and a half inches in breadth, running entirely through. The east wall
split at a slight angle from the perpendicular, and had but one fissure. The walls of the Star Hotel
were split in several places, and on the west side there appears to have been a decided horizontal
motion, as the wall was displaced on that side horizontally to the depth of about one inch, and some
eight or nine feet in length. The amount of displacement decreased from the west end of the building
towards the center. It is a fact worthy of note, that none of the thin adobe walls of the buildings
suffered injury, while most of the thick-walled buildings were injured to a greater or less extent.
During the earthquake, many articles were thrown down; those that were standing on shelves
against the east end of the buildings were thrown westward on to the floor, and those on the
opposite end of the buildings were thrown back in an inclined position against the walls. These
features were noticed in the drug stores of Doctors Winston and Hope, situated on the main street,
and a short distance west of the church.
The meteorological condition of the atmosphere was rather unusual, and is described as follows:
The day was unusually warm and sultry, attended with a little rain, (the latter very unusual) and a
sudden change of temperature to unpleasant coldness. At Point San Juan there was observed
considerable commotion in the water, attended with a strong rushing sound, and two unusually heavy
surf swells, immediately following the last shock.
 This shock was felt distinctly at the saw-mill, some eight miles east of San Bernardino, about
seventy miles east of Los Angeles, and at Santa Barbara, about one hundred miles in a westerly
direction.

Aug 12th, 9h. 30m.—A light shock of an earthquake was felt at Georgetown, which lasted
about three seconds. The vibration apparently came from the north. Between this date
and the tenth July there were four other light shocks, the dates of which are not
recorded.
Oct. 21st, 19h. 45m.—A smart shock of an earthquake was felt in San Francisco. The
buildings situated over the water were violently shaken. There was much commotion in
the water of the harbor a few minutes preceding the shock, which caused several
vessels to heave heavily at their hawsers and cables.
Oct 27th, 15h.—A light shock was felt in the valley of Clear Lake. On the same day a shock
was felt at Downieville, which lasted about five seconds. At Goodyear’s Bar it was more
severe than at the preceding locality.
Dec. 5th, 11h. 20m.—The shock of an earthquake was felt at Humboldt Bay, which lasted
about three seconds. There were two vibrations, the last being the most severe.
Dec. 11th, 4h.—A shock was felt in San Francisco and at the Mission Dolores; at the latter
place it is represented as being quite severe.

The whole number of which I have a record for 1855, amounts to twelve only; but there may be
others which have escaped my notice on account of absence from the city.
The following table will show the number of shocks for each year, and each month of the year, for
six years from 1850 to 1855, inclusive.

1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 No. for

each month
in six years.
January, — — — 2 1 2 5
February, — — — 1 — 1 2
March, 1 — — 1 2 — 4
April, — — — 2 1 1 4
May, 1 3 — — 2 — 6
June, 1 1 — 1 1 1 5
July, — — — 1 2 1 3
August, 1 — — — — 1 2
September, 1 — — 1 1 — 3
October, — — — 2 2 2 6
November, — — 11 2 — — 13
December, — 2 1 2 — 2 8
Total each year, 5 6 12 14 12 11 = 59

From the above it will be seen that of the total number of shocks in six years in this State, forty-
eight have occurred during the spring, summer, and autumn months, and eleven during the winter
months.
Of the total number noted, twenty-seven have occurred from San Luis Obispo south, and of the
thirty-two remaining, nine have been felt in San Francisco at the same time they were observed at
San Luis Obispo, while the remaining twenty-three were felt at San Francisco and north of that point.
 Notwithstanding we have had, what may, perhaps, be considered a frequency in the recurrence of
these phenomena, still there are but a very few of the total number that would merit a moment’s
consideration south of the twenty-fifth parallel of north latitude, for there they would be regarded as
minor affairs entirely.
From all the facts in our possession relating to the phenomena on our coast, it appears that the
greatest preponderance in action and severity of effects, is exerted, for the most part, south of Point
Conception, for, from this place, east, south and north, to near the Colorado, the most conclusive
evidence exists of very recent volcanic action having been exerted on rather an extensive scale, and
is also still persistent in several localities within the area named, though in a minor degree.
It would be interesting to examine the changes of level that have evidently taken place in this
State within the last five years; but as more extended observations would greatly assist us in forming
conclusions on this subject, I will defer that portion until a future day.

1856.

At the close of 1855, I presented to the Academy a statement of the occurrence of earthquakes in
this State for that year and a term of years preceding.
During the year just passed, I have kept a careful record of these phenomena, which have been
noticed in this city, and other parts of the State, and which will be found below, with their date, and
the hour of the day on which they took place; they comprise all that have occurred, with perhaps two
exceptions, the dates for which were so obscure as to render it impossible to determine with
accuracy the precise period of their occurrence. So far as I am informed, those shocks that have
taken place in this State during the past year have not been marked with more severity than has
been usual in years preceding, frequently amounting to a slight tremor, and at other times to more
distinct movements; three only have possessed sufficient intensity as to command general attention
during the busy hours of day.
Very few have been noticed by persons who were standing upon the earth at the period of their
occurrence. By far the greater proportion were observed in high situations from the ground, and in
the more retired parts of the city, or on the alluvial covering of the country to the west and south.
The total number for the past year is sixteen, and of this number thirteen were observed between
sunset and sunrise.
By reference to the statistics below, it will be seen that even mountain districts, where during the
day there is much less of turmoil and noise arising from business than in the populous city, that of all
those noticed, none have been of sufficient intensity to attract the attention of the inhabitants during
the hours of daylight. These facts, though few in themselves, are of importance, to disabuse the
public mind in relation to the danger to be apprehended from the occurrence of these phenomena.
The character which we sustain both at home and abroad, as being in constant danger of being
swallowed up by these occurrences, and that our country is but a bed of latent volcanoes ready to
burst forth at any moment, spreading devastation over the land, is one of the greatest fallacies that
ever obtained possession of the human brain. Our State is as primitive as Massachusetts or New
Hampshire, and the dangers that surround us from the sources above mentioned, are equally great
as in the States just named.
We should remember that when speaking of California as a State, that we include a line of territory
equaling that of the seaboard lying between Cape Hatteras on the south and the British Possessions
on the north, and including eleven of the seaboard States of the Union; and when we place our
comparative estimates on this basis in matters of this character, it will become at once evident that
the danger of annihilation from the causes under consideration, are not of that magnitude which at
first sight would appear.
 Along the coast of Mexico and Central America, to the south of California from all the records that
are obtainable here there appears to have been a much greater exemption from those phenomena
than has been usual in former years; this seems to have been the fact, also, throughout the Pacific,
Oceanic, and most of the Continental Islands along the coast of China, while to the north and north-
west, beyond the fifty-fifth parallel, both volcanic and earthquake phenomena appear to have been
greater than usual. This has been observable, for the most part, in the neighborhood of the Aleutian
Archipelago, along the north-east coast of Japan, and in the British and Russian Possessions of North
America on the Pacific, and islands of the Ochotsk Sea.
It would be interesting to know more of the predominance of these phenomena in those regions,
and such information could be easily obtained from the commanders of the whaling fleet, if the
proper measures were adopted to secure it.
Below will be found some interesting matter upon this subject, which took place during the past
year near the Straits of Ourinach.
The earthquakes which have occurred in this State during 1856, and the period of their occurrence,
is as follows:

January 2d, 10h. 15m.—This morning, a smart shock of an earthquake was felt in San
Francisco. The motion of the earth was undulatory, and came apparently from the
northward. A pendulum indicated a motion of about five and a half inches.
January 21st, 16h.—Quite a smart shock occurred; it was quite sharp in the south-west part
of the city.
January 28th, 3h.—At the town of Petaluma, Sonoma County, a shock of an earthquake
occurred. It was sufficiently heavy to awake persons from their sleep.
January 29th, 0h. 45m.—A slight shock was felt in San Francisco. It was observed also at
the Mission Dolores. There were three distinct tremors, with short intervals elapsing
between. The motion was apparently from the westward.
February 15th, 5h. 25m.—A severe shock of an earthquake was felt in San Francisco, the
duration of which was about eight seconds. Persons sleeping were aroused, and many
persons left their beds and sought the street. There were two distinct shocks, the
second very light and scarcely perceptible. The motion was undulatory and vertical, and
at the end of the first shock a very strong, profound jar, with which it ceased.

The upper part of a building on Battery Street, for seventy feet in length, was thrown down, the
whole of which was above the cornice, very thin, and the mortar with which it was constructed had
not become hardened, being easily removed by the fingers—it more resembled wet sand than a firm
mortar.
There appears to have been but little difference in the sensation of persons situated either in upper
or basement stories.
It was preceded by a deep, heavy rumbling, and the motion apparently came from the north-west.
A distinct shock was felt at eight minutes past two o’clock the same morning, by persons who were
awake and up at the time.
The rotatory movement was shown in the fact that small square bottles and boxes that stood upon
a line, were moved from their position horizontally, describing an arc of thirty degrees and upwards,
as shown by the dust upon the shelves on which they stood.
The first wave came with a force sufficient to project small articles three or four feet on the floor,
from shelves on which they were placed; they were apparently all thrown in the same direction.
Several clocks were stopped at precisely 5 hours 25 minutes.
 All the cracks in walls and ceilings had a direction nearly north-west and south-east, and most of
them had the appearance of having been produced at the moment of elevation.
The earthquake was felt heavily at Monterey, at five hours twenty minutes; it was also felt at
Bodega, but no time is given.
The vessels on the coast, and ranging from San Pedro on the south to Southern Oregon, and at
distances varying from eight to one hundred miles from land, did not experience any shock. They
were twenty-two in number.
Up to the present date the most northern point of which we have any record of its having been
felt, is at Santa Rosa, which is fifty-three miles north of San Francisco, and at Monterey, ninety miles
south of the latter place; to the east of this city we have no record beyond Stockton. This would give
for its length one hundred and forty-three miles, and its breadth sixty-six miles.
Inquiry was made through the State line Telegraph at El Dorado, Nevada, Downieville, Placerville,
Marysville, Sacramento, Stockton, and San José; it was not felt in any of the localities named,
excepting the two last, and at Stockton it was quite light.
If the time as given at Monterey was the same as at this city (San Francisco), the velocity of the
earth-wave must have been much slower than that of the great earthquake at Simoda.

March 24th, 22h. 20m.—A slight shock was felt at Canal Gulch, Siskiyou County, also at
Yreka. The motion is described as being horizontal.
March 31st, 13h. 25m.—A light shock was felt in San Francisco. It consisted of three light
but distinct tremors.
April 6th, 23h. 30m.—A smart shock was felt at Los Angeles and the Monte, people were
aroused from their beds.
May 10th, 21h. 10m.—A light shock was felt in San Francisco. The shock was accompanied
by a loud report, like the discharge of a cannon; people mistook it for the signal gun of
the mail steamer. This was felt at Monterey, and in Contra Costa County.
May 2d, 0h. 10m.—A severe shock was felt at Los Angeles. It caused much trembling among
the buildings, and considerable alarm among the people, many leaving their beds. The
shock was preceded by two loud reports like the blasting of rock; it apparently came
from the north-west; no damage was done.
August 2d, 5h. 20m.—A light shock was felt in San Francisco. It was sufficiently strong to
awaken persons in bed; it was evidently more severe in Stockton.
August 27th, 21h. 15m.—An earthquake was felt at Mission San Juan, Monterey County.
There were two distinct shocks with short intervals elapsing, the second being the
heaviest. The motion is described as undulatory and coming from the west. It was felt
at Monterey and at Santa Cruz.
September 6th, 3h.—A smart shock felt at Santa Cruz. It created considerable consternation
and many persons left their beds.
September 20th, 23h. 30m.—A very severe shock was felt in different parts of San Diego
County, and at that town. At Santa Isabel the ceilings of the dwellings were shaken
down; the cattle stampeded and ran bellowing in all directions, and the Indians seemed
equally terrified. The walls of the adobe buildings were many of them cracked. The
motion is described as oscillatory. A light shock occurred on the following Monday
morning.
November 12th, 4h.—A smart shock occurred at Humboldt Bay. Another shock was reported
but no date given.
 From the record before us it will be seen that of fifteen, the total number of earthquakes recorded
during 1856, seven have been felt in San Francisco in common with other parts of the State; seven
have occurred south of this locality that were not observed here, and four north of it. Of the seven
shocks noticed here five only were not observed in any adjacent district, and may be considered as
strictly local. The periods of the year at which the shocks have occurred, are as follows: During the
winter months, five; during the autumn, three; during the spring and summer, six. None have taken
place between the vernal and autumnal equinoxes.
We have records of considerable and violent volcanic phenomena throughout the northern seas,
and islands both to the east and west of Alaska. The Russian frigate Dwina, while lying at Shuam
Shu, brings intelligence of the outburst of a volcano in that vicinity about the twenty-second of June,
and on the twenty-fifth of the same month passed through fields of floating pumice; the latitude by
observation being fifty degrees fifty-three minutes, and longitude one hundred and fifty-eight degrees
thirty-two minutes east, per chronometer.
An interesting account of a submarine volcano was reported by the Captain of the bark Alice
Frazer, in latitude fifty-four degrees thirty-six minutes, longitude one hundred and thirty-five degrees
west, which is as follows: A portion of the whaling fleet, four in number, were running through the
Straits of Ourinack, on the twenty-sixth of July last; while passing the straits a submarine volcano
burst out, sending a column of water several hundred feet upward; immediately following this,
immense masses of lava were projected into the air, and the sea for miles and for days afterward,
was covered with floating fragments of pumice. The ships Scotland and Enterprise were nearer the
volcano than the ships Frazer and Wm. Thomson; on the decks of the two former considerable
pumice, lava, and ashes fell. There were seven vessels in the straits at the time of the occurrence,
three of which names I could not learn.
The outburst was accompanied with violent shocks of earthquake. It is the opinion of Captain
Newell, of the Alice Frazer, that considerable shoaling has been the result of this submarine action.

On the Direction and Velocity of the Earthquake in California, January 9, 1857—By Dr. John B.
Trask.

The earthquake which occurred in various parts of this State, on the morning of the ninth January
last excited at the time considerable attention. This arose from two causes. First, from the varied
reports that appeared on the following day through the press of the city, detailing its occurrence in
remote mountain towns, and for which there was no foundation. Secondly, from the great extent
over which the commotion was felt, as was subsequently proved.
Immediately following the occurrence of the phenomenon, letters were addressed to all the
principal towns between Mariposa and Downieville, east of the valleys, for the purpose of learning
how far the shocks may have extended eastward of this city. These letters were forwarded by the
Pacific Express Company to their agents, and through them answers were returned in every case but
two through the same source. From the facts thus obtained, it was found that in no locality east of
the foothills, was any shock felt on that day or night.
Another report, equally unfounded, reached us on the arrival of the steamer from the southern
coast, to the effect that several houses had been demolished in San Diego from its violence, while
the facts in the case are that the steamer left that port twenty-four hours before the shock occurred
there.
This earthquake, or more properly speaking the series of shocks that began on the night of the
eighth in this city, and which continued in the south part of the State during the following day and
night of the ninth, was probably the most extensive of any on record on this portion of the Pacific
coast, excepting, perhaps, that of the wave of the Simoda earthquake in December, 1854. The linear
distance over which we are able to trace its course, amounts to six hundred and two miles, and its
breadth, so far as now ascertained, is two hundred and ninety miles. It has all the appearance of
having been the terminal movement of some more violent commotion at a distance from our coast.
From the best evidence obtainable at present, it seems to have had its origin to the west and
traveled in an easterly direction. This is conclusively proved from the fact that it was felt earlier at
San Francisco than at any other locality east of this city within the State. We have no record as yet of
its occurrence along the coast of Mexico or of Oregon.
I have been able to determine with considerable accuracy the period of time at which the shock
between eight and nine o’clock on the morning of the ninth took place, at four localities east of the
City of San Francisco, in this State; as the shock at that hour seems to have been more generally
noticed than those which either preceded or followed it here or elsewhere, though at this city it was
much less marked than the shocks at 1h. 33m., 4h. 15m., and 7h., these three latter occurring at
those hours of the morning when most persons are sleeping. The shock at 7h., produced a circular
motion in the pendulum, the diameter of which was about five inches. The oscillations of the
pendulum in all the others were in an easterly and westerly direction.
The precise period of time at which the shock took place at San Francisco, between eight and nine
o’clock, is determined by the stopping of a time-piece belonging to J. W. Tucker, whose rate of error
was three seconds fast. The time at San Diego was furnished by Mr. Cassidy, of the army, and that of
the Tejon Reserve is by persons at that post. To private gentlemen at Sacramento and Stockton we
are indebted for the time at those places. The accompanying table of latitudes and longitudes of
localities named, gives the hour at which the shock took place at each; the difference or elapsed
time, from which the velocity was deduced, are the mean times corrected for the places named, the
time as given above being taken as the standard at San Francisco.
It is proper to state that three minutes four seconds, was the greatest error in time found, and the
least was twenty-two seconds:

Locality. Lat. Lon. Time of shock. Elapsed Time. Velocity.

°´ °´ h. m. s. m. s. miles.
San Francisco 37 48 122 25 8 13 30 0 00 00
Sacramento 38 32 121 23 8 20 00 7 30 66
Stockton 37 52 121 34 8 23 00 9 30 65
Tejon 35 00 118 46 8 45 00 32 30 60
San Diego 32 42 117 13 8 50 00 36 30 70

The velocity is given in miles per minute, and by dividing the sum of the same by their number, it
will be found that the movement of the wave at that time averages a fraction over 6.2 miles per
minute.
The results obtained from the above data approximate closely the deductions of Prof. Bache on the
wave which reached our shores and resulting from the earthquake at Simoda on the twenty-third
December, 1854, and which will be found in a paper read by that gentleman at the meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, during the early part of last year.
From the facts before us, there can be but little doubt of the direction of the commotion, and that
it proceeded from the west, or a little south of that point. The motion of the earth, as described at
the different localities at which it was felt, with the motion of the pendulum—which was slightly south
of a west line—leads to that conclusion. Time is an important element in aiding us to form correct
conclusions regarding these phenomena, and it is to be hoped that our friends in different parts of
the State, in reporting the same, will be precise in this particular. Of the incidents attending the
shocks, many and varied reports have reached us; it seems to have acted with greater violence in the
vicinity of the Tejon Reserve and upper Tulare County than at any other place. It is most remarkable
that so small an amount of intensity of force was manifested when the area over which it extended is
taken into consideration.
The effects were felt in San Francisco several hours before they are reported to have been
observed at any other place north or south. They began here at twenty minutes past eleven, on the
night of the eighth, and continued till thirteen minutes past eight the following morning—six shocks
occurring in the interval; while to the south, the first shock noticed at the Tejon, was at six hours
thirty minutes, on the ninth. In Los Angeles they continued at long intervals through the day until
twenty-three hours thirty minutes of the same date. I have learned from persons who were present
in Los Angeles at this time, and also at the shock of the fourteenth July, 1855, that the severity of the
latter exceeded that of the ninth January last past.

1857.

During the past year there has been rather a frequency in the occurrence of the phenomena of
earthquakes; and, with the exception of two, there have been none that were particularly remarkable
either for extent of surface affected or severity of action. In one, that of the ninth of January, the
greatest extent of surface, and greatest intensity of action was manifest. Its principal force seems to
have been expended in the more southerly portions of our State, and in the immediate vicinity of
those volcanic (?) vents found at different localities upon the Colorado Desert. It is manifest,
however, that this shock and those which preceded it on the night of the eighth, had their origin to
the west of our coast, as the times of occurrence of the shock at different localities most fully prove.
This matter was fully discussed in my previous paper, “On the direction and velocity of the
earthquake of January 9th, 1857,” read before this Society March 30th, which will be found in their
proceedings.
The other shock of greatest extent, on the second of September, extended over an area of about
two hundred miles, but was marked by no particular severity or injury, except that of fright to those
who experienced it.
The whole number that can be authenticated as occurring during 1857, amounts to seventeen,
being greater than the number recorded in 1853 and 1856; and it would seem probable from our
records that this number is the maximum to which we shall probably be subjected in this State.
From the Sandwich Islands we have no news of earthquakes save one, which is here inserted: “A
very severe shock of earthquake was felt at Kawaihae, Hawaii, on the twenty-fourth of February, the
most severe that the residents there have had for many years.”
The arrival of the whaling fleet from the Northern seas brings no intelligence of the occurrence of
these phenomena, as was the case of the preceding year; hence, the presumption is, that
subterranean action has not been violent in those distant regions during the year just passed.
On the coast of Mexico, and inclusive between the twenty-fifth and thirty-second parallels, we have
received intelligence of the occurrence of one earthquake, which appears to have been felt on both
shores of the Gulf of California for a distance of nearly two hundred miles, both north and south. We
have no records south of that point.
The shocks which we can authenticate within the limits of our own State, are as follows:

January 9th.—This shock was felt from Sacramento to the southern boundary of the State. It
was preceded by three smart shocks the night and morning previous. At Santa Barbara
water was thrown over the surface from a shoal well, seven feet deep, the water in
which was less than three feet in depth.
January 18th, 9h.—A light shock at Martinez and Benicia.
January 20th, 8h. 30m.—A smart shock was felt at Santa Cruz and Mission San Juan.
 January 21st, 23h.—On the evening of this day a smart shock was felt at Mariposa. The
wave and sound seemed to travel from north-west to south-east. It was accompanied
with a report like that of a distant gun.
February 5th, 7h.—A smart shock was felt in San Francisco, which shook the buildings that
are situated on made-ground very severely, while those situated on firmer bottoms
were affected. This shock was felt at Oakland and Stockton, but was not felt at San
José or Sacramento, as reported at the time.
March 14th, 15h.—A severe shock was felt at Santa Barbara and Montecito. It was
momentary in duration, attended with a loud report.
March 23d, 12h. 27m.—A light shock in San Francisco.
May 3d, 22h.—A smart shock at Los Angeles and the Monte.
May 23d.—A light shock at Los Angeles; a report also that a severe shock had been felt at
Fort Tejon.
June 14th.—A shock was felt at Humboldt Bay. On the same day several severe shocks were
experienced at the Penal Island (Carmen), Gulf of California, and which extended
almost ninety miles north and south of the island.
August 8th, 11h.—A smart shock was felt at Rabbit Creek, Sierra County.
August 29.—A severe shock at the Tejon Reserve. No time is given.
September 2d, 19h. 45m.—A light shock at San Francisco. This shock was felt at
Sacramento, Marysville, Nevada, San Juan, Downieville, and Camptonville.
September 14th, 2 p.m.—A light shock in San Francisco.
October 19th, 18h. 30m.—A severe shock of an earthquake in San Francisco.
October 20th, 12h. 8m., 12h. 35m., and 13h. 15m.—Three other shocks occurred; the last
was equally severe with that of January 9th, at 8 a.m. People were much frightened, and
left their beds. The shock was felt at San José, but not at Oakland.
November 8th, 8h. 45m.—A shock at San Francisco, which was felt at Oakland and Bodega.
December 23d, 7h.—A light shock at San Francisco.

Of the whole number which have occurred during the year, two only have been felt at San
Francisco that were not experienced at other localities, and four others have occurred which have
been felt in common at other portions of the State—thus making about one-third of the whole
number that were in common here and elsewhere.
Eight of the aggregate have occurred between the summer and winter solstices.
Seven have occurred during the spring and summer months, and ten during the winter and
autumn.
Eight have occurred between the vernal and autumnal equinoxes.

1858.

During the past year we have had occasion to note the occurrence of eight shocks of earthquake in
this State. This number is one-half less than that in 1857, and one-third less the number in 1856. The
shocks, with one exception, have been unmarked by anything like violence, being little else than
mere vibrations or tremors, not noticeable by the great majority of the people. They are as follows:

February 10th.—A smart shock at Kanaka Flat, Sierra County. No time noted.
 February 15th, 4h. 20m.—A light shock in San Francisco. Was observed in the County of San
Mateo ten miles south of the city.
August 19th, 22h. 10m.—A light shock in San Francisco. The motion was east to west, and
was undulatory.
September 2d.—A smart shock at Santa Barbara, no time given.
September 3d, 0h. 40m.—A smart shock in San José. This shock was felt at Santa Cruz,
twenty-five miles west, and was evidently more marked in strength at that locality. No
damage.
September 12th, 19h. 40m.—A smart shock at San Francisco. The motion was from north to
south. There were two vibrations with undulatory movements lasting about fifteen
seconds.
September 26th, 1h. 26m.—A light shock at San Francisco.
November 26th, 0h. 24m.—A heavy shock at San Francisco. This shock was by far the
heaviest during the year, it awoke most people from slumber and created no little
alarm; persons left their beds and sought cooler situations with less attire than is
usually worn. The iron pillars in the second story of the custom house have separated
from the ceiling above about half an inch, and are supposed to have settled from the
effects of the shock; I much doubt the alleged cause of this displacement, as the pillars
below present no indication of similar disturbance. This shock was felt at Oakland ten
miles east of the city, but was not felt at Stockton, Sacramento, nor Marysville. It was
evidently confined to an area of ten or twelve miles.

1859.

January 25th, 20h. 20m.—A heavy shock of earthquake was felt in Trinity and Shasta
counties. It was felt at Weaverville, Shasta, and Horsetown.
April 4th, 13h.—Quite a severe shock was felt at San José. There were several vibrations,
apparently from north to south.
August 10th, 22h. 35m.—A smart shock was felt in this city (San Francisco).
September 26th, 6h. 10m.—A smart shock at San Francisco.
October 5th, 13h. 18m.—A very smart shock at San Francisco.
November 27th, 19h. 15m.—A light shock at San Francisco.
December 1st, 0h. 50m.—A smart shock at San Francisco. Felt at Oakland and Benicia.
December 1st, 14h. 10m.—Several successive shocks were felt at San Bernardino; several of
them were quite heavy, causing much alarm. No damage was done.

Whole number of shocks during this year was eight.

1860.

During the year last past this portion of the Pacific coast has been but little disturbed by
earthquakes. There have been but three during this period that can be well authenticated, and one,
viz.: December 21st, whose character is somewhat doubtful.
The shocks that have occurred are as follows:
 March 27th.—A severe shock was experienced at Los Angeles and vicinity, which was not
productive of any damage to person or property. No time is given in the account.
March 15th, 11h.—A violent shock was experienced at Sacramento; the wave passed
through the counties of Placer, Nevada, El Dorado and Plumas. At Iowa Hill the church
bells were rung, also at Sacramento. At the latter place and at Forest City, clocks, in
many of the buildings, were stopped. This earthquake extended to the eastern base of
the Sierra Nevada. At Carson City it occurred at 10h. 45m. and very violent; goods were
shaken off the shelves in many of the stores, and a general panic and stampede
prevailed.
November 12th.—A smart shock was felt at Humboldt Bay and its vicinity, but no damage
was done.
December 21st, 6h. 30m.—At San Francisco a series of light vibrations of the earth occurred,
which continued with but two remissions for the space of half an hour. These vibrations
were not perceptible to persons in the building otherwise than by mercurial column,
which was equal to seven inches of the barometer, and was the mercury gauge of an
air pump that had remained stationary at twenty-four inches for the space of four
hours. At this time the column in the gauge began to show much disturbance by
oscillating up and down in a very rapid manner without any apparent cause; the stop
screws (Faraday’s) were all tried at the moment and found perfectly tight as they had
remained for hours previous.

The oscillations were watched carefully by Mr. J. Roach and myself for half an hour, at which time
they ceased. The maximum of the mercury column was a fraction over an inch, which was attained
through vibrations of one-fourth to one-eighth of an inch rapidly repeated and continuous, and as
gradually, through a series of lighter vibrations, the displacement would diminish and the column
subside to its former level; this was three times repeated, the column at no time being at rest. The
period of time occupied by the column in reaching its maximum of disturbance each time was from
eight to twelve minutes. There was no apparent cause for this disturbance, unless it be attributable
to a series of light vibrations of the earth occurring in a vertical direction, and to that cause I am
disposed to assign it.
The passing of carriages on the street did not affect these vibrations of the column, for they
continued in the same manner when those vehicles were not passing. While the oscillations were
going on, I took a sledge and struck some half a dozen blows on an anvil block in the workshop,
which did not make any perceptible difference in the movements of the column; after it had come to
rest, the same experiment was repeated, but the column did not in any manner react to the
concussion thus produced.

1861.

During 1861 there has been but one earthquake recorded in the State.

July 4th, 16h. 11m.—A severe shock of earthquake occurred at San Francisco. It consisted
of three distinct waves following each other in very rapid succession. Its effects to the
east of the city in the San Ramon Valley were more severe. Near the house of Mr.
Larabie it opened a large fissure in the earth. In the vicinity of Mr. Porter’s it opened a
new spring of water, and a small running stream was also caused near Mr. Hunt’s. For
several days after, light shocks were repeated at intervals.

1862.
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