1.

Enlist and Explain the Components of Data

Communication (4 Marks)
Components of Data Communication

A data communication system facilitates the transfer of data between two or more devices
using a transmission medium. The five essential components are:

1. Message – The actual information being communicated (text, images, audio, video,
etc.).
2. Sender – The device (computer, mobile phone, etc.) that originates the message.
3. Receiver – The destination device that receives the message.
4. Transmission Medium – The physical or wireless medium used for data transfer.
5. Protocol – A set of rules governing communication between sender and receiver.

📖 Reference: Page 5, Chapter 1, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

2. Enlist the Characteristics of Data Communication (3

Marks)
1. Delivery – Data must reach the correct destination.
2. Accuracy – The message should be error-free.
3. Timeliness – Data must arrive without excessive delay.
4. Jitter – Variation in data packet arrival time should be minimal.

📖 Reference: Page 4, Chapter 1, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

3. Define Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex Mode of

Data Flow (3 Marks)
Mode Description Example
Simplex Data flows in one direction only. TV broadcast
Half- Data flows in both directions, but only one device can transmit
Walkie-talkie
Duplex at a time.
Full- Telephone
Data flows in both directions simultaneously.
Duplex call

📖 Reference: Page 7, Chapter 1, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

4. Explain Basic Network Topology and List its
Advantages (4 Marks)
Topology Description Advantages
Each device has a dedicated link to every
Mesh High reliability and security
other device.
Star All devices connect to a central hub. Easy to manage, robust
A single communication line shared by all
Bus Cost-effective, simple design
devices.
No data collisions, predictable
Ring Devices are connected in a circular path.
performance

📖 Reference: Pages 9-12, Chapter 1, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

5. Define the Key Elements of Protocols (3 Marks)

1. Syntax – Defines the structure, format, and encoding of data.
2. Semantics – Defines the meaning and control of data transmission.
3. Timing – Ensures synchronization and flow control between sender and receiver.

📖 Reference: Page 20, Chapter 1, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

6. Describe the Functions of Each Layer of OSI Model (6

Marks)
Layer Function
Physical Transfers raw bits over a medium (cables, signals, modems).
Data Link Error detection, MAC addressing, and framing.
Network Logical addressing (IP) and routing.
Transport Reliable/unreliable data delivery (TCP/UDP).
Session Manages and synchronizes communication sessions.
Presentation Ensures data formatting, encryption, and compression.
Application Provides user interfaces and networking applications (HTTP, FTP, SMTP).

📖 Reference: Chapter 2, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

7. Describe the Functions of Each Layer of TCP/IP Model
(6 Marks)
Layer Function
Network Interface Handles data transmission over the physical medium (Ethernet, Wi-Fi).
Internet Routes packets using IP addressing (IP, ICMP, ARP).
Transport Ensures reliability and flow control (TCP, UDP).
Application Provides services like web browsing, email (HTTP, FTP, SMTP).

📖 Reference: Chapter 2, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

8. Explain Multiplexing with its Types (4 Marks)

Multiplexing allows multiple signals to share a single communication channel.

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) – Assigns different frequency bands to

different signals (used in radio broadcasting).
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) – Assigns specific time slots to each signal
(used in telephone networks).
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) – Used in fiber optics to transmit
multiple signals simultaneously using different wavelengths.

📖 Reference: Chapter 6, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

9. Explain Repeater, Hub, Switch, Router, and Gateway (4

Marks)
Device Function
Repeater Amplifies weak signals to extend network range.
Hub Broadcasts data to all connected devices, leading to collisions.
Switch Filters and forwards data to specific devices, reducing collisions.
Router Directs data between different networks using IP addresses.
Gateway Converts data between different network protocols (e.g., email servers, VoIP).

📖 Reference: Page 456, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

10. Differentiate UTP and STP Cable (4 Marks)

 Feature UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
Shielding No shielding Has shielding to reduce interference
Cost Cheaper More expensive
Usage Common in LANs Used in high-interference environments
Performance More prone to noise Less interference

📖 Reference: Chapter 7, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

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I'll now fully elaborate on all the remaining questions from the CON PT1 Question Bank
(2023-2024) based on Data Communications and Networking by Behrouz A. Forouzan.
Each answer is structured according to the marks allocated in the question bank and will
include relevant diagrams, explanations, and examples where applicable.

11. Define the Following Signal Propagation Methods: (3

Marks)
Signal propagation is the way electromagnetic waves travel from a transmitter to a receiver.

1. Ground Propagation

• Definition: The radio waves travel along the surface of the Earth.
• Frequency Range: Up to 2 MHz (Low-frequency waves).
• Examples: AM radio, submarine communication.

2. Sky Propagation

• Definition: The radio waves travel up to the ionosphere and reflect back to Earth.
• Frequency Range: 2 MHz - 30 MHz (High-frequency waves).
• Examples: Shortwave radio, military communication.
3. Line-of-Sight Propagation

• Definition: The radio waves travel in a straight line directly from sender to receiver.
• Frequency Range: Above 30 MHz (Very High Frequency and above).
• Examples: Satellite communication, microwave links, Wi-Fi.

📖 Reference: Chapter 7, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

12. Explain the Following Guided Transmission Media in

Detail (4 Marks)
Guided transmission media use physical cables to transmit data.

1. Coaxial Cable

• Structure: Copper core, insulating layer, shielding, and outer cover.

• Advantages: Better shielding than twisted pair, supports high bandwidth.
• Uses: Cable TV, broadband internet.

2. Twisted Pair Cable

• Types: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP).
• Advantages: Cheap, flexible, widely used in LANs.
• Uses: Ethernet networks, telephone lines.

3. Fiber Optic Cable

• Structure: Glass or plastic core, cladding, protective coating.

• Advantages: Highest speed, no electromagnetic interference, long-distance
transmission.
• Uses: Internet backbone, undersea cables.

📖 Reference: Chapter 7, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

13. Explain the Following Unguided Transmission Media

in Detail (4 Marks)
Unguided transmission media use wireless signals for communication.

1. Radio Waves

• Frequency Range: 3 kHz - 1 GHz

• Advantages: Can travel long distances, penetrate walls.
 • Uses: AM/FM radio, television, Wi-Fi.

2. Microwaves

• Frequency Range: 1 GHz - 300 GHz

• Advantages: Higher bandwidth than radio waves, directional transmission.
• Uses: Satellite communication, cellular networks.

3. Infrared

• Frequency Range: 300 GHz - 400 THz

• Advantages: High-speed, secure communication.
• Uses: Remote controls, short-range communication.

📖 Reference: Chapter 7, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

14. Explain Circuit Switching Network (6 Marks)

Circuit switching is a dedicated path communication system used in telephone networks.

Working of Circuit Switching:

1. A dedicated communication path is established between the sender and receiver

before data transfer.
2. The entire data transmission occurs over the same path.
3. After communication ends, the circuit is released.

Advantages:

✅ Reliable – No delay in transmission.

✅ Continuous connection – Best for real-time communication (voice calls).

Disadvantages:

❌ Wastes resources – The circuit remains reserved even during silence.

❌ Slow setup – Connection establishment takes time.

📖 Reference: Chapter 8, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

15. Explain Packet Switching Network (6 Marks)

Packet switching divides data into packets that travel independently through the network.
Types of Packet Switching:

1. Datagram Packet Switching – Each packet takes a different route (like the internet).
2. Virtual Circuit Switching – A logical path is pre-established before transmission.

Advantages:

✅ Efficient resource usage – No dedicated connection needed.

✅ Fault tolerance – Packets can be rerouted if a link fails.

Disadvantages:

❌ Delay – Packet queuing may cause lag.

❌ Complexity – Requires protocols like TCP/IP for reordering.

📖 Reference: Chapter 8, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

16. Define Single Bit Error and Burst Error with an

Example (3 Marks)
Errors occur when transmitted data is altered during transmission.

1. Single Bit Error

• Definition: A single bit in a data unit is changed from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0.

• Example:
o Sent: 10110101
o Received: 10100101 (one bit flipped).

2. Burst Error

• Definition: Two or more bits in a data unit are changed.

• Example:
o Sent: 10110101
o Received: 10001101 (three bits flipped).

📖 Reference: Chapter 10, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

17. Explain Hamming Distance Error Correction Method

with an Example (4 Marks)
Hamming Distance measures the number of bits that differ between two binary strings.
Error Detection using Hamming Code:

1. Parity bits are added to detect errors.

2. The receiver checks for bit mismatches to detect and correct errors.

Example:

Two codewords:

• 1001101
• 1010101

Hamming Distance = 3 (three bit positions differ).

📖 Reference: Chapter 10, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

18. Explain Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC) with an

Example (4 Marks)
CRC is an error-detection method using binary division.

Steps of CRC Calculation:

1. Sender appends a redundant CRC code.

2. Receiver performs the same division; if remainder is zero, no error occurred.

Example:

• Data: 110101
• CRC Polynomial: 1011
• Using modulo-2 division, remainder is computed.

📖 Reference: Chapter 10, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

19. Define Framing and Its Types in Data Link Layer (4

Marks)
Framing is the process of breaking data into smaller manageable units for transmission
over a network. Each frame contains data, sender/receiver addresses, and error control
information.

Types of Framing:
 1. Character-Oriented Framing
o Uses special characters (like SOH, STX, ETX) to indicate the start and end of
a frame.
o Example: Used in old serial communication protocols.
2. Bit-Oriented Framing
o Uses special bit patterns instead of characters to mark the start and end of a
frame.
o Example: High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) uses flag 01111110 to
mark frame boundaries.

📖 Reference: Chapter 11, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

20. Explain the Simplest Protocol in Data Link Layer (4

Marks)
The Simplest Protocol is a basic unidirectional data transmission method without error or
flow control.

Working:

1. The sender transmits one frame at a time without waiting for acknowledgment.
2. The receiver simply accepts the frames without confirming receipt.

Advantages:

✅ Fast and simple as no waiting time is involved.

✅ Used when the network is error-free (e.g., fiber-optic cables).

Disadvantages:

❌ No error control – If a frame is lost, it is not retransmitted.

❌ No flow control – The sender may send frames faster than the receiver can process.

📖 Reference: Chapter 11, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

21. Explain the Stop and Wait Protocol (4 Marks)

The Stop-and-Wait Protocol is a flow control method where the sender sends one frame at
a time and waits for acknowledgment before sending the next frame.

Working:

1. The sender transmits a frame and waits for acknowledgment (ACK).

 2. The receiver sends ACK upon receiving the frame.
3. The sender transmits the next frame after receiving ACK.

Advantages:

✅ Prevents overloading the receiver.

✅ Simple and easy to implement.

Disadvantages:

❌ Slow transmission – The sender waits for ACK before sending the next frame.
❌ Inefficient when the propagation delay is high (satellite communication).

📖 Reference: Chapter 11, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

22. Explain the Stop and Wait ARQ Protocol (6 Marks)

Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) is a reliable error-control protocol
based on Stop-and-Wait but with added error detection and retransmission.

Working:

1. The sender transmits a frame and waits for acknowledgment (ACK).

2. If an error occurs, the receiver sends a Negative Acknowledgment (NAK) or the
ACK is lost.
3. The sender resends the frame until correct acknowledgment is received.

Advantages:

✅ Ensures error-free communication.

✅ Simple and widely used.

Disadvantages:

❌ Slow due to retransmission.

❌ Wastes network bandwidth.

📖 Reference: Chapter 11, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

23. Explain the Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol in Sliding

Window Protocols (6 Marks)
Go-Back-N ARQ is a Sliding Window Protocol used for reliable transmission. It allows
the sender to send multiple frames before waiting for acknowledgment but requires
retransmission of all unacknowledged frames if an error occurs.

Working:

1. The sender sends multiple frames (Window Size = N) without waiting for ACK.
2. If an error occurs in any frame, the receiver discards that frame and all subsequent
frames.
3. The sender retransmits all frames from the error onwards.

Advantages:

✅ More efficient than Stop-and-Wait.

✅ Suitable for long-distance transmission.

Disadvantages:

❌ Wastes bandwidth – Retransmits all frames after an error, even if some were correct.

📖 Reference: Chapter 11, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

24. Explain the Selective ARQ Protocol in Sliding Window

Protocols (6 Marks)
Selective Repeat ARQ is an improved version of Go-Back-N where only the erroneous
frames are retransmitted, not the entire window.

Working:

1. The sender sends multiple frames before waiting for ACK.

2. If an error occurs in a frame, only that frame is retransmitted.
3. The receiver stores correct frames and assembles them in order.

Advantages:

✅ Efficient – Only the corrupt frame is retransmitted.

✅ Better bandwidth utilization than Go-Back-N.

Disadvantages:

❌ Complex as the receiver must store out-of-order frames.

📖 Reference: Chapter 11, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

25. Define and Draw the Three Types of Frames in HDLC
(3 Marks)
High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented protocol that uses three types of
frames:

1. Information Frames (I-Frames)

• Used for data transmission.

• Contains sequence numbers for flow control.

2. Supervisory Frames (S-Frames)

• Used for error and flow control.

• Can acknowledge received data or request retransmission.

3. Unnumbered Frames (U-Frames)

• Used for control messages, establishing or terminating a connection.

📖 Reference: Chapter 11, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

26. Describe the Phases of Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) (4

Marks)
PPP is a widely used protocol for dial-up connections and VPNs.

Phases of PPP Communication:

1. Link Establishment – Devices negotiate and establish a connection.

2. Authentication (Optional) – The sender verifies itself (using PAP/CHAP).
3. Network Layer Protocol – Data packets are exchanged.
4. Termination – The connection is closed.

📖 Reference: Chapter 11, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

27. Compare Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA Random

Access Protocol (3 Marks)
ALOHA is a random access protocol used in wireless networks where devices transmit
data without prior coordination.

Feature Pure ALOHA Slotted ALOHA

Time Division No time synchronization Divides time into slots
Any station can transmit Stations can transmit only at the start of a
Transmission
anytime time slot
Collision
High Lower than Pure ALOHA
Probability
Efficiency 18% 37%
Example Early satellite networks Modern wireless networks

📖 Reference: Chapter 12, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

28. Describe the Steps Involved in Implementing Token

Passing as a Multiple Access Method (6 Marks)
Token Passing is a controlled access protocol where devices pass a token to regulate data
transmission, preventing collisions.

Steps of Token Passing:

1. Token Circulation – A small control frame (token) circulates in the network.

2. Data Transmission – A station that receives the token can send data.
3. Token Release – After sending data, the station releases the token.
4. Error Handling – If a station detects an idle token, it regenerates the token.

Advantages:

✅ Collision-free – Only one station transmits at a time.

✅ Efficient for large networks (e.g., Token Ring LAN).

Disadvantages:

❌ Delay – A device must wait for the token.

❌ Single failure – If the token is lost, the network stops functioning.

📖 Reference: Chapter 12, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

29. Describe How Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

Works (6 Marks)
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) is a random access method used to avoid
collisions in a shared communication medium.

Steps in CSMA:

1. Carrier Sensing – A station listens to the channel before transmitting.

2. If the channel is free → The station transmits data.
3. If the channel is busy → The station waits and retries after a short delay.

Types of CSMA:

1. 1-Persistent CSMA – Transmits immediately if the channel is idle.

2. Non-Persistent CSMA – Waits for a random time before retransmitting.
3. p-Persistent CSMA – Used in time-slotted networks with a probability-based
transmission.

📖 Reference: Chapter 12, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

30. Describe How Carrier Sense Multiple Access with

Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Works (6 Marks)
CSMA/CD is an enhanced version of CSMA that detects and resolves collisions in wired
networks (like Ethernet).

Steps in CSMA/CD:

1. Carrier Sensing – The station listens to the medium.

2. If the channel is free → The station transmits.
3. Collision Detection – If two stations transmit simultaneously, a collision occurs.
4. Collision Handling – The stations stop transmission and send a jam signal.
5. Backoff Algorithm – The stations wait for a random time before retransmitting.

Example:

Used in wired Ethernet LANs (IEEE 802.3 standard).

📖 Reference: Chapter 12, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan

31. Describe How Carrier Sense Multiple Access with

Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Works (6 Marks)
CSMA/CA is used in wireless networks (like Wi-Fi) to prevent collisions since collision
detection is not possible in a wireless medium.
Steps in CSMA/CA:

1. Carrier Sensing – A station listens before transmitting.

2. If the channel is idle → It waits for a random backoff time before sending data.
3. Collision Avoidance – If the station detects ongoing transmission, it waits.
4. ACK Mechanism – The receiver sends an acknowledgment (ACK) after receiving
the frame.

Example:

Used in Wi-Fi networks (IEEE 802.11 standard).

📖 Reference: Chapter 12, Data Communications and Networking, Forouzan