HOA 1 (REVIEWER)

Pre-Historic Architecture

Pre-Historic Period

• Known as the age of stones and monuments

• Structures of archaeological interest but with little architectural value:

o Monoliths / Menhirs

o Dolmens / Cromlech

o Burial Mounds / Tumuli

o Lake Dwellings

Monoliths & Menhirs

• Monoliths: Single, large upright stones

• Menhirs: A type of monolith, known in Western France

• Derived from "maen" (stone) + "hir" (high/long)

• Other names: Standing stone, orthostat, lith, masseba/matseva

• Found singly or in groups

• Uneven and squared shape, tapering towards the top

Carnac Stones (Brittany, France)

• Largest megalithic site in the world

• Three major groups of stone alignments:

1. Ménec Alignment

▪ 11 rows of menhirs (1,165m long, 100m wide)

▪ Largest stones (4m high) at western end, smaller (0.6m) along the length

2. Kermario Alignment

▪ 1,029 stones, arranged in 10 columns (1,300m long)

▪ Stone circle at the east end

3. Kerlescan Alignment
 ▪ 555 stones, arranged in 13 lines (800m long)

▪ Stone circle with 39 stones at the extreme west

Dolmens & Cromlech

• Dolmens (Table Stone)

o Two or more upright stones supporting a horizontal slab

o Single-chamber megalithic structure

• Cromlech (Bent Stone)

o Similar to dolmen, but arranged in a circle or concentric circles

Examples

1. Poulnabrone Dolmen (Ireland)

o Single-chamber dolmen

o Used as a funerary/burial site

o Unofficial public observatory

2. Brownshill Dolmen (Ireland)

o Heaviest capstone in Europe

o Largest dolmen in Europe

o Built by farmers

3. Korean Dolmen (Goindol)

o Largest concentration of dolmens in the world (35,000 dolmens)

o UNESCO World Heritage Site (Gochang, Hwasun, Gangwa)

4. Stonehenge (England)

o Most famous cromlech in the world

o Built in several stages; 100 upright circular stones

o UNESCO World Heritage Site (1986)

o Functions:

▪ Burial site
 ▪ Ceremonial/religious pilgrimage site

▪ Astronomical calendar (equinox, solstice, eclipse)

o Key elements:

▪ Bluestones

▪ Sarsen Stones

▪ Trilithons

▪ Lintels

▪ Open End

5. Avebury Neolithic Henge (England)

o 3 stone circles

o Largest stone circles in the world

o UNESCO World Heritage Site (1986)

ANCIENT NEAR-EAST ARCHITECTURE

I. MESOPOTAMIA (ANCIENT NEAR-EAST)

• Known as Mesopotamia (Greek: "Between Rivers")

• Located between Tigris & Euphrates Rivers (Fertile Crescent)

• Considered the "Cradle of Civilization"

• Present-day Iraq

• Comprised of multiple empires:

o Sumer

o Babylon

o Assyria

o Persia

• First known civilization to develop permanent settlements

II. GEOGRAPHICAL INFLUENCE

• Mesopotamia, Assyria, Babylonia:

o No natural stone deposits → Used sun-dried bricks

o Lack of timber → Imported wood from Lebanon

o Limited use of fired bricks, covered with bitumen

• Persia:

o Good stone deposits and abundant wood

o Used timber and limestone

III. CITY-STATES IN MESOPOTAMIA

• Uruk – First largest city (~80,000 people)

• Akkad – Center of Akkadian Empire (Sargon)

• Assur – First city of the Assyrian Empire

• Babylon – Capital of the Babylonian Empire (Hammurabi, Nebuchadnezzar)

• Nimrud – Capital of Assyria under King Ashurnasirpal II

• Nineveh – Greatest city under Sennacherib & Ashurbanipal

• Persepolis – Capital of Persian Empire (Cyrus the Great, Darius I, Xerxes)

IV. SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION (4000 BCE)

• First city-state in Mesopotamia

• Major cities: Ur, Uruk, Umma, Kish, Lagash

• King Sargon of Akkadian Empire conquered all Sumerian city-states (2350 BCE)

A. SUMERIAN CONTRIBUTIONS & INVENTIONS

• Wheel

• First writing system (Cuneiform)

• Maps

• Sails for navigation

• Epic of Gilgamesh (First literature)

 • Mathematical system (based on 60) – 60 minutes, 60 seconds

• First columns, arches, and roofed structures

B. SUMERIAN RELIGION

• Polytheistic

• Main gods:

o Enlil – Supreme god, God of air

o Ishtar – Goddess of fertility & life

o An – God of heaven

o Enki – God of water & underworld

o Shamash – God of sun and law

C. SUMERIAN SOCIAL STRUCTURE

1. Nobility (Kings, Priests)

2. Free Clients (Artists, Philosophers)

3. Commoners (Merchants, Farmers)

4. Slaves (Criminals, Servitude)

D. SUMERIAN ARCHITECTURE

• Main building material: Mud bricks

• Thick walls for structural support

• Buttresses and recesses for aesthetic relief

• Irregular street layout

• No canalization

E. SUMERIAN TEMPLES

• Principal architectural monuments

• Example: Oval Temple (Khafaje) (2600 BCE)

o Named for its oval-shaped walls

o Raised platform structure

V. ZIGGURATS

• Religious structures dedicated to gods

• Step-temples with diminishing storeys, culminating in a summit shrine

• Decorated walls (buttresses, recesses, mosaics)

Types of Ziggurats

1. Archaic Ziggurat – One flat rectangular mound (Ex: White Temple, Uruk)

2. Two or More Storey Ziggurat – Several tiers (Ex: Ziggurat of Ur)

3. Seven Storey Ziggurat – Dedicated to planets (Ex: Temple of Birs, Nimrud)

VI. BABYLONIAN EMPIRE (1792 BCE)

• King Hammurabi – Established Old Babylonian Empire

• Famous for "Code of Hammurabi" (One of the earliest legal codes)

• Neo-Babylonian Empire (625 BCE) – Peak under Nebuchadnezzar II

A. ISHTAR GATE

• Double walls of Babylon

• Faced with blue glazed bricks

• Ornamented with lions, bulls, dragons

B. PALACE OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR

• Covered 900 ft × 600 ft

• Hanging Gardens of Babylon

o One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

o Built for Queen Amytis

C. TOWER OF BABEL

• Located at the end of the Procession Street

VII. ASSYRIAN EMPIRE (1350 BCE)

• Known for military strength & cruelty

• Temples lost importance; Palaces became dominant

 • Sculptures & carvings depicted war and violence

A. ASSYRIAN PALACES

• Raised on brick platforms

• Glazed ornaments and buttressed walls

• Guardian figures (Lamassu – human-headed bulls/lions)

B. CITY OF KHORSABAD

• Planned capital of Sargon II

• Double-walled city with seven gates

• Contained only palaces, temples, administrative buildings

C. PALACE OF SARGON II (Khorsabad)

• Three main sections:

1. Seraglio – King's residence, reception court

2. Harem – Private family apartments

3. Khan – Service chambers

VIII. PERSIAN EMPIRE (560 BCE)

• Founded by Cyrus the Great

• Also known as The Achaemenid Empire

• Darius the Great centralized the empire

• Xerxes the Great – Failed to invade Greece

A. PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE

• Persargadae – First world’s majestic garden, earliest water cisterns

• Persepolis – New Persian capital

o Propylea (Gateway of Xerxes)

o Apadana (Royal Central Hall / Hall of Hundred Columns)

o Drainage system

• Tomb of Darius (Naksh-i Rustam) – Rock-cut tomb

EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

I. INTRODUCTION

• Egypt: The Land of Pharaohs

• Civilization began around 2686 BC

• Developed along the Nile River (4,000 miles long, longest river in the world)

• Nile River = Driving force of Egypt → Allowed permanent settlements

• Nile Delta → River splits into several channels before reaching the Mediterranean

II. GEOGRAPHICAL INFLUENCE

• Upper Egypt (Ta-Shemau) - Land of Reeds

• Lower Egypt (Ta-Mehu) - Land of Papyrus

• Two Kingdoms united in 3000 BC → Combined crown called Pschent

• Menes (King Narmer) → Unified Upper & Lower Egypt, founded Memphis

• Construction Materials Used:

o Stones

o Sun-dried mud bricks

o Palm, acacia, sycamore wood

o Reeds and fibers

III. EGYPTIAN RELIGION & BELIEFS

• Pharaoh = Supreme ruler, considered divine

• Polytheistic Religion (Many gods)

• Main Gods:

o Amun-Ra – Chief god

o Osiris – God of death

o Isis – Wife of Osiris

o Horus – Sky god, son of Osiris

 o Set – God of chaos and evil

o Anubis – Jackal-headed god of death

o Ra – Sun god

• Belief in Afterlife → Led to elaborate tomb architecture

IV. CHRONOLOGY OF ANCIENT EGYPT

1. Old Kingdom (2850-2052 BC)

o Hieroglyphic writing & calendar developed

o Sun worship as official religion

o Step Pyramid of Djozer

o Great Pyramid of Giza (King Khufu)

2. Middle Kingdom (2052-1570 BC)

o Pyramid construction with mud bricks

o Temple of Karnak

3. New Kingdom (1570-715 BC)

o Egypt's greatest expansion

o Construction of Luxor, Karnak, Abu Simbel

o Temple of Hatshepsut

4. Late Period (715-332 BC)

o Macedonian Ptolemaic rule

o Religious construction sponsored by Ptolemaic kings

V. TYPES OF EGYPTIAN TOMBS

1. Mastaba – Rectangular mud-brick tomb with flat roof

2. Pyramid – Royal tombs for pharaohs

o Step Pyramid (Djozer, Saqqara)

o True Pyramid (Giza Pyramids)

3. Rock-cut Tombs (Valley of the Kings)

VI. PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT

• Two Types:

o Step Pyramid – Evolved from Mastaba (Ex: Step Pyramid of Djozer)

o True Pyramid – Smooth-sided (Ex: Great Pyramid of Giza)

• Great Pyramids of Giza:

1. Pyramid of Cheops (Khufu) – Largest, one of the Seven Wonders

2. Pyramid of Chefren (Khafre) – 2nd tallest, oriented to celestial bodies

3. Pyramid of Mykerinus (Menkaure) – Smallest

VII. MAJOR EGYPTIAN TEMPLES

1. Temple of Amun, Karnak – Largest temple complex, built for Theban gods

2. Temple of Luxor – Dedicated to Amun, Mut, Khonsu

3. Temple of Abu Simbel – Rock-cut temple with colossal statues of Ramesses II

4. Temple of Hatshepsut – Three-level terraces, first female Pharaoh

VIII. CHARACTERISTICS OF EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE

1. Monumentality – Large-scale structures dedicated to rulers & gods

2. Massiveness – Solid, thick walls with heavy stonework

3. Simplicity – Rectangular forms, axial symmetry

Architectural Features:

• Post & Lintel System – Used in temples and palaces

• Axial Planning – Structures aligned along a central axis

• Battered Walls – Sloped for stability

• Hieroglyphics & Bas Relief – Engraved walls with stories & deities

• Columns Inspired by Nature:

o Papyrus Capital

o Palm Capital
 o Lotus Bud Capital

o Bell Capital

o Osiride Pillars

IX. THE SPHINX

• Guardian of tombs and temples

• Most famous: Great Sphinx of Giza (Face of Pharaoh Khafre)

• Celestial significance – Believed to channel divine energy

X. CONCLUSION

• Egyptian architecture reflects their religion, beliefs, and power

• Built monumental tombs, temples, and structures for rulers

• First to use corbelled vaults (Red Pyramid, Sneferu)

• Architecture remained consistent for 3000+ years due to strong religious traditions

GREEK ARCHITECTURE

I. INTRODUCTION

• Greek architecture is one of the most influential architectural styles in history.

• Developed between 900 BC - 146 BC.

• Focused on harmony, proportion, and order.

• Utilized columns, temples, theatres, and public spaces.

II. GREEK CITY-STATES

• Greece was not a unified nation but composed of city-states.

• Major city-states:

o Athens – Cultural and intellectual hub.

o Sparta – Military-focused city.

o Olympia – Religious and sporting center.

o Thebes – Influential political power.

 o Corinth – Wealthy trade city.

o Argos – Known for sculpture and art.

III. PERIODS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

1. Minoan Age (2000-1400 BC)

o Earliest Mediterranean civilization, centered in Crete.

o Palace of Knossos – Complex layout, advanced plumbing.

o Famous for frescoes, friezes, and throne rooms.

2. Mycenaean Age (1100-600 BC)

o First advanced civilization in mainland Greece.

o Known for fortified citadels, corbelled arches, and cyclopean walls.

o Lion Gate, Treasury of Atreus, Megaron.

3. Dark Age (600-750 BC)

o Decline in architecture and cultural advancements.

4. Archaic Period (750-500 BC)

o Emergence of Doric and Ionic orders.

o Development of early temples.

5. Classical Period (500-336 BC)

o Golden Age of Greece – Peak of architectural innovation.

o Major temples and theaters constructed.

o Parthenon, Erechtheion, Temple of Zeus.

6. Hellenistic Period (336-146 BC)

o More decorative and elaborate designs.

o Introduction of the Corinthian order.

o Larger temples, theaters, and public spaces.

IV. THREE GREEK ORDERS

1. Doric Order
 o Oldest and simplest.

o Plain capital, no base, fluted shaft.

o Example: Parthenon, Temple of Hephaestus.

2. Ionic Order

o More decorative than Doric.

o Scroll-like volutes on the capital, slender fluted shaft.

o Example: Temple of Athena Nike, Erechtheion.

3. Corinthian Order

o Most decorative and elaborate.

o Capital adorned with acanthus leaves.

o Example: Temple of Olympian Zeus.

V. TYPES OF GREEK TEMPLES

• Classified by number of columns and layout:

1. Distyle In Antis – Two columns between side walls.

2. Amphi-Prostyle – Four columns in front and rear.

3. Peripteral – Single row of columns around the temple.

4. Dipteral – Double row of columns around the temple.

5. Tholos – Circular temple with surrounding columns.

VI. MAJOR GREEK TEMPLES

1. Parthenon (Athens) – Dedicated to Athena, designed by Ictinus & Callicrates.

2. Temple of Olympian Zeus (Athens) – Largest temple, Corinthian order.

3. Temple of Hephaestus (Athens) – Best-preserved Doric temple.

4. Erechtheion (Athens) – Famous for Porch of the Maidens (Caryatids).

5. Temple of Athena Nike (Athens) – Ionic temple symbolizing victory.

VII. ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS

• Sacred hilltop in Athens housing major temples.

 • Includes:

o Parthenon – Centerpiece temple for Athena.

o Erechtheion – Multi-purpose temple with Caryatid Porch.

o Temple of Athena Nike – Small Ionic temple.

o Propylaea – Monumental gateway.

VIII. GREEK THEATERS

• Open-air, semicircular structures.

• Built into hillsides for natural acoustics.

• Key parts:

1. Orchestra – Circular performance area.

2. Skene – Stage backdrop.

3. Theatron – Seating area for spectators.

• Famous Theaters:

o Theater of Dionysus (Athens) – First known theater.

o Theater of Epidaurus – Best-preserved, known for acoustics.

IX. OTHER GREEK STRUCTURES

1. Agora – Central marketplace & political assembly area.

2. Stoa – Covered walkway used for shops and meetings.

3. Bouleuterion – Council and meeting hall.

4. Prytaneion – Senate house, housed sacred flame of Hestia.

5. Odeon – Music and poetry performance venue.

6. Stadium – Footrace and sports arena.

7. Hippodrome – Horse and chariot racing track.

8. Gymnasium – Training facility for athletes.

9. Palaestra – Wrestling school.

X. GREEK OLYMPICS

• First Olympic Games: 776 BC in Olympia.

• Held in honor of Zeus.

• Events: Footrace, wrestling, chariot racing, javelin throw.

• Winners received an Olive Wreath (Kotinos).

• Modern Olympics revived in Athens, 1896.

XI. LEGACY OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE

• Influenced Roman and modern architecture.

• Used in government buildings, museums, banks, and monuments worldwide.

• Example: U.S. Capitol, British Museum, Lincoln Memorial.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

I. INTRODUCTION

• Roman architecture is a manifestation of thoughts from prehistory to the Byzantine

period.

• Romans were great warriors, conquerors, and builders.

• Heavily influenced by Etruscans and Greeks.

• Developed new construction techniques such as arches, vaults, and domes.

II. TIMELINE OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

• 1500 BC – Etruscans begin to emerge in Italy.

• 535 BC – Etruscans and Carthaginians attack Greek colonies.

• 510 BC – Lucius Tarquinius Superbus expelled, Roman Republic begins.

• 390 BC – Rome sacked by the Gauls (Celts).

• 146 BC – Rome destroys Carthage, Macedonia becomes a Roman province.

• 60 BC – First Triumvirate formed (Pompey, Caesar, Crassus).

 • 45 BC – Julius Caesar becomes dictator.

• 44 BC – Caesar assassinated.

• 27 BC – Octavian becomes Augustus, first Roman emperor.

• 312 AD – Roman Empire reunited; Christianity tolerated.

• 330 AD – Constantinople founded, empire splits into East and West.

III. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

• Vastness and Magnificence

• Ostentation and Ornateness

• Influence of Greek architecture but adapted for practicality.

• Key innovations:

o Arches (Semi-circular)

o Vaults (Barrel and Groin)

o Domes (Pantheon)

• Use of concrete allowed massive structures.

• Columnar and trabeated systems from Greek influence.

IV. ROMAN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

A. The Arch

• Key parts:

o Abutment

o Keystone

o Intrados (inner curve)

o Extrados (outer curve)

o Spring line

o Haunch

o Spandrel

o Voussoir
 • Used in:

o Aqueducts

o Bridges

o Triumphal Arches

B. Vaults and Domes

• Barrel Vault – Simple tunnel-like structure.

• Groin Vault – Intersection of two barrel vaults.

• Dome – Rotated arch, used in Pantheon.

V. MAJOR ROMAN STRUCTURES

A. Temples

• Pantheon (Rome) – Best preserved ancient Roman temple, built by Hadrian.

• Temple of Jupiter – Dedicated to the king of gods.

• Temple of Vesta – Circular temple, home of the Vestal Virgins.

B. Theatres and Amphitheaters

• Theatre of Marcellus – Large open-air Roman theatre.

• Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheatre) – Built for gladiatorial combat and public spectacles.

o Capacity: 50,000-80,000 spectators.

o Sections by hierarchy:

1. Podium – Senators

2. Maenianum Primum – Aristocrats

3. Maenianum Secundum – Middle-class

4. Maenianum Secundum in Legneis – Poor citizens/women

• Circus Maximus – Chariot racing arena, largest in Rome.

C. Public Baths (Thermae)

• Used for social, political, and leisure purposes.

• Thermae of Caracalla – One of the most luxurious public baths.

 • Parts of a Roman Bath:

o Caldarium – Hot bath

o Tepidarium – Warm bath

o Frigidarium – Cold bath

o Natatio – Swimming pool

o Palaestra – Exercise area

D. Aqueducts

• Used gravity to transport water.

• Pont du Gard – Best-preserved Roman aqueduct.

• Aqueduct of Segovia – Two-story arcade, still functioning today.

• Aqua Appia (312 BC) – First Roman aqueduct.

E. Triumphal Arches

• Arch of Titus – Commemorates victory over Jerusalem.

• Arch of Constantine – Celebrates Constantine’s victory at Milvian Bridge.

• Arch of Septimius Severus – Celebrates victory over the Parthians.

F. Forums

• Forum Romanum – Central marketplace and political hub.

• Trajan’s Forum – Largest imperial forum, contained Trajan’s Column.

G. Basilicas

• Served as marketplaces and law courts.

• Basilica Ulpia (Trajan’s Basilica) – Largest basilica in Rome.

• Basilica Aemilia – Known for its decorative friezes.

H. Roman Villas and Palaces

• Palace of Diocletian – Imperial residence in Split, Croatia.

• Domus Aurea (Nero’s Golden House) – Lavish palace of Emperor Nero.

I. Infrastructure
 • Cloaca Maxima – Rome’s first sewage system.

• Via Appia – Oldest Roman road.

• Insulae – Multi-storey apartment buildings for lower-class citizens.

VI. LEGACY OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

• Still influences modern architecture (government buildings, museums, sports arenas).

• Engineering advancements (arches, vaults, domes) used in bridges, tunnels, and

skyscrapers.

• Adopted in Renaissance and Neoclassical architecture (U.S. Capitol, Pantheon in Paris,

British Museum).

REVIEWER: EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE

1. Introduction to Early Christian Architecture

• Development occurred after Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity.

• Transitioned from secret worship to public religious structures.

• Influenced by Roman architectural styles, such as basilicas and thermal baths.

2. Emperor Constantine

• First Roman emperor to convert to Christianity.

• Defeated Maxentius in the Battle of Milvian Bridge (312 AD).

• Adopted the Chi-Rho symbol, signifying Christ.

• Issued the Edict of Milan (313 AD), legalizing Christianity.

3. Christianity Before Constantine

• Considered illegal; worship was done in secret.

• Christians were persecuted for their beliefs.

• Underground places, such as catacombs, were used for worship.

4. Timeline of Christianity

• 29 AD – Beginning of Christianity.
 • 286 AD – Roman Empire divided into Eastern and Western empires.

• 313 AD – Christianity legalized by Constantine.

• 330 AD – Constantinople established as the new capital.

5. Architectural Influence of Christianity

• Churches needed spaces for large congregations and processions.

• Adapted the Roman basilica form for Christian worship.

• Included features such as the nave, altar, apse, transept, and narthex.

6. Basilica Church Plan

Key Parts of a Basilica Church:

1. Altar – Sacred space for mass celebrations.

2. Transept – Cross-shaped extension.

3. Apse – Semicircular area at the church's end.

4. Nave – Central space for the congregation.

5. Side Aisles – Walkways flanking the nave.

6. Narthex – Entryway for the congregation.

7. Atrium – Open-air courtyard.

8. Gatehouse – Main entrance.

9. Campanile – Bell tower.

10. Chapel – Smaller worship area.

7. Important Early Christian Structures

Old St. Peter’s Basilica

• Built by Constantine over the supposed tomb of St. Peter.

• Adapted the Roman basilica layout.

• Wooden roof with clerestory windows for light.

• Replaced in the 16th century by the New St. Peter’s Basilica.

Saint Costanza Church

• Built as a mausoleum for Constantine’s daughter.

• Centralized plan with a domed roof.

• Barrel vaults used for the ambulatory.

Church of the Nativity

• Originally built in 327 AD by Constantine and his mother, Helena.

• Marks the traditional birthplace of Jesus.

• Rebuilt by Emperor Justinian.

Church of the Holy Sepulchre

• Houses two of Christianity’s holiest sites:

o Calvary (Golgotha) – Site of Jesus’ crucifixion.

o Jesus’ tomb – Where he was buried and resurrected.

• Built over a rocky hillside to enclose these sites within the church.

Baptistery of Constantine

• Established by Pope Sixtus III in 440 AD.

• The only baptistery in Rome at the time.

• Octagonal shape symbolizing rebirth.

8. Summary of Early Christian Architecture

• Transformed Roman structures into Christian places of worship.

• Focused on accommodating large congregations.

• Basilica form became the primary church layout.

• Key structures still influence modern Christian architecture.

BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE

1. Byzantine Empire

• The Roman Empire was divided into Western Roman Empire (Rome, Latin-speaking) and
Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium/Constantinople, Greek-speaking).

• Roman Catholic Church led by the Pope (Western).

• Orthodox Church led by the Patriarch (Eastern).

• Constantinople was founded by Emperor Constantine the Great (272–337 AD) and was
designated as Nova Roma ("New Rome").

• Strategic location between Europe and Asia; excellent harbor (Golden Horn).

2. Characteristics of Byzantine Architecture

• Continuation of Roman and Greek architectural styles with new influences.

• Basilican and Centralized Plans used in churches.

• Use of Mosaic Art for decoration.

• Iconostasis (Icons) – Religious images painted on wood, used in churches and homes.

• Pendentives and Domes – Innovation to support large domes on square bases.

• Ornamentation – Detailed decorations including the endless knot (symbolizing

eternity).

• Greek and Latin Cross Plans used in structures.

• Light Symbolism – Windows and mosaics created the illusion of floating domes.

3. Byzantine Architectural Materials

• Brick and Plaster used for construction.

• Lime Concrete continued from Roman times.

• Marble used for ornamentation.

• Tesserae Mosaics – Small colored tiles set on plaster to form intricate religious images.

4. Byzantine Church Plans

• Greek Cross Plan – Four equal arms forming a central dome.

 • Increased Geometric Complexity in church designs.

• Pendentives – Curved triangular structures supporting domes.

• Squinches – Used as an alternative to transition from square to dome.

5. Important Byzantine Structures

Hagia Sophia (Istanbul, Turkey)

• Originally built by Constantine (326 AD).

• Rebuilt by Emperor Justinian (537 AD) after destruction.

• Designed by architects Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles.

• Innovative Features:

o Massed geometric forms and grouping of small domes around a central dome.

o First use of Pendentives to support the dome.

o Atrium, Narthex, Nave, Apse, Baptistery included in the layout.

o Windows around the dome make it appear floating.

• Converted into a mosque in 1435, later a museum in 1935.

Basilica of San Vitale (Ravenna, Italy)

• Combines Roman and Byzantine elements (dome, polygonal apse, mosaics).

• Famous for its Byzantine mosaics.

• Plan includes:

o Narthex, Ambulatory, Exedrae, Nave, Sanctuary, Apse.

Saint Mark’s Basilica (Venice, Italy)

• Best example of Italo-Byzantine architecture.

• Roman Catholic Cathedral of Venice.

• Opulent design with gold-ground mosaics as a symbol of Venetian wealth and power.

6. Fall of the Byzantine Empire (1453 AD)

• Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Mehmed II, captured Constantinople on May 29, 1453.

• End of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of the Islamic Empire.
 • Constantinople became the capital of the Ottoman Empire.

• Marked the end of the Middle Ages.

7. Summary of Byzantine Architecture

• Adapted Roman and Greek influences while innovating new structural techniques.

• Domes, mosaics, and iconostasis became defining elements.

• Pendentives revolutionized church architecture.

• Hagia Sophia remains one of the greatest achievements of Byzantine architecture.