MODULE 1: Structure of Globalization  Can execute million of stock transaction between cities

in seconds through high-frequency trading.

• The Structures of Globalization
• Defining Globalization International Trading System

Globalization: A process of interaction and integration The Silk Road

among the people, companies, and government of different (Oldest known international trade route)
nations. (Driven by international trade, investment, and  Silk Road is not truly global; it had no ocean routes
information technology) that could reach the American continents.
|
MANFRED STEGER: “globalization as a process” Galleon Trade
“Age of Globalization”: Marked the first continuous trade
Expansion: both the creation of new social networks that connects Asian countries to America in general, by
and the multiplication of existing connections DENNIS FLYNN & ARTURO GIRALDEZ.
 (Increasing the quantity of global interactions)  The Galleon Trade was established, connecting Manila
Intensification: refers to the expansion, stretching and (Philippines) and Acapulco (Mexico)
acceleration of these networks. |
 (Enhancing the quality, reach, and speed of these Age of mercantilism
interactions) (A system of global trade with multiple restrictions)
 aimed to increase their income and accumulate
“Globalization processes do not occur merely at an monetary reserves (wealth stored in the form of gold,
objective, material level but they also involve the subjective silver, or other valuable assets).
plane of human consciousness.” – Manfred Steger |
Meaning: Globalization changes our awareness and ideas— Gold Trade
how we see ourselves, other cultures, and the connections Adoption of the gold standard (Open trade system)
between people and nations.  Currency values were fixed based on gold reserves.
 To end isolationist policies of the mercantilist era.
Globalization vs Globalism |
WWI
Globalization: represents the many processes that allow for Many countries abandoned the gold standard as gold
the expansion and intensification of global connections. reserves were depleted to fund military efforts.
Globalism: widespread belief among powerful people that |
the global integration of economic markets is beneficial for The Great Depression
everyone, since it spreads freedom and democracy across (The worst and longest economic crisis in the Western)
the  Economists blamed the gold standard for limiting
world. money supply, and reducing demand.
|
ARJUN APPADURI: “there are multiple globalizations.” Economic Recovery
1. Ethnoscape: The global movement of people. The U.S. recovered by abandoning the gold standard, as
2. Technoscape: The spread of technology and noted by economic historian BARRY EICHENGREEN.
innovation. |
3. Mediascape: The global flow of information, media, and Introduction of Fiat Currencies
culture. Fiat currencies replaced gold-backed systems. (These
4. Financescape: The circulation of money and financial currencies derive their value from their relative worth to
systems across the globe. other countries’ currencies.)
5. Ideoscape: The spread of political ideas and ideologies.  Governments gained flexibility to manage economies by
controlling the money supply.
MODULE 2 & 3: The Globalization of World Economics
Bretton Wood System
 International Trading Systems
 The Bretton Woods System JOHN MAYNARD KEYNES: The ideas of British Economist
who assumed three things.
Economic Globalization: a growing connection of world 1. Economic crises occur when money is not actively
economies through increased international trade, circulating, or being used, not just when there's a lack
investment, and the fast spread of technology. of money.
2. Governments should inject money into the economy
IMF (International Monetary Fund): a global financial during slowdowns to stimulate markets. (To encourage
institution that promotes international economic cooperation, people and businesses to spend more too)
financial stability, and sustainable economic growth. 3. Increased commodity prices lead to higher earnings for
companies, enabling them to hire more workers.
“Economic globalization means the world is trading, Meaning: (Higher prices -> companies earn more
investing, and connecting faster than ever before.” money -> companies will expand, make more products,
and hire more workers -> creates more job opportunity
 Increased speed and frequency in trading and boost economy.
Financial Institute Created: Origins of the Crisis: The crisis can be traced back to the
1. International Bank for Reconstruction and 1980s when the United States began removing banking and
Development (IBRD) or World Bank: Funds postwar investment restrictions, allowing for riskier financial practices.
reconstruction projects.
2. International Monetary Fund (IMF): Acts as a global Faulty Assumptions: Financial experts incorrectly believed
lender of last resort to prevent credit crises. that, even though many borrowers (individuals and families)
would struggle to repay, the majority would not default on
Post-Bretton Woods Development: General Agreement on loans.
Tariffs and Trade (GATT) created in 1947 to reduce tariffs
and remove barriers to free trade. Global Impact: The crisis spread globally because many of
the investors were foreign governments, corporations, and
Legacy: individuals. The loss of money affected their countries,
 Both the World Bank and IMF remain essential players spreading the crisis further.
in economic globalization today.
 GATT laid the foundation for modern free trade Challenges in Debt-Ridden Countries: Countries like
agreements. Spain and Greece, heavily in debt, faced severe economic
difficulties. Greece was forced by Germany and the IMF to
The Globalization of World Economics cut public and social spending, worsening the situation.

 Neoliberalism and Its Discontents Impact on Growth and Employment: The cuts in
 The Global Financial Crisis and the Challenge to government spending led to slowed economic growth and
Neoliberalism high unemployment, causing long-term struggles for these
 Economic Globalization Today countries.

Neoliberalism and Its Discontents Political Unrest in Europe: The ongoing economic crisis
led to significant political upheaval in Europe.
Keynesianism: economy works best when money is actively
circulating. Economic Globalization Today
1. Crises happen when spending stops, not just because
there’s no money. Integration of the World: The world has become highly
2. Governments should spend more during slowdowns to interconnected. Regardless of one's opinion on the
boost the economy. Washington Consensus, international trade remains
3. As prices rise, companies earn more, hire more essential for countries to grow and develop in the
workers, and grow the economy. modern world. Exports, not just local selling, are key drivers
of economic growth today.
Challenge: In the 1970s, an oil crisis (OAPEC embargo) and
stock market crashes caused stagflation (stagnation + Impact of Increased Exports: Over recent decades, the
inflation) increase in exports has contributed to a significant rise in
global growth rates. Economic globalization has fueled
Neoliberalism: markets work best with minimal government this surge.
interference. (Washington Consensus)
1. Reduce government spending to lower national debt. Uneven Benefits: While globalization has led to substantial
2. Privatize public services (e.g., water, power, transport) growth, it is an uneven process. Some countries,
to let the free market provide better results. corporations, and individuals benefit far more than
3. Belief that government intervention distorts the others. Transnational corporations (TNCs), rather than
economy. governments, have been the primary beneficiaries of global
commerce.
Economists like FRIEDRICH HAYEK AND MILTON
FRIEDMAN, along with political leaders like RONALD
REAGAN and MARGARET THATCHER, promoted MODULE 4: History of Global Politics: Creating an
neoliberalism for its straightforward, "household budget" International Order
logic.
 History of Global Politics: Creating an International
Result: Neoliberalism replaced Keynesianism as a dominant Order
economic approach, focusing on free markets over  The Attributes of Today's Global System
government intervention.  The Interstate System
 Internationalism
The Global Financial Crisis and the Challenge to
Neoliberalism Politics
 Activities related to the governance of a country or area,
Strain on Neoliberalism: It faced significant challenges especially debates or conflicts among individuals or
during the 2007-2008 global financial crisis, which became parties seeking or holding power.
the most severe economic downturn since the Great  Involves government activities concerning political
Depression. relations between countries.
 The academic study of government and the state.
International Relations: the study of political, military, and Nation-State:
diplomatic engagements between two or more states.
 A sovereign state with one dominant national group
Internationalization vs. Globalization (e.g., France, Germany before immigration).
 True nation-states are rare today as most states contain
 Internationalization refers to the deepening multiple national groups. Examples: Iceland, Japan.
interactions between states and is a key part of
globalization, particularly in political terms. The Interstate System
 Internationalization is not the same as globalization
but is a major aspect of it. The Treaty of Westphalia (1648):
 Origin of Sovereignty: The Treaty of Westphalia
The Attributes of Today's Global System established the modern concept of sovereignty—the
idea that states have ultimate authority over their own
World politics today is characterized by four key attributes: territory and affairs.
1. Independent Countries (States): Countries govern  End of the Thirty Years' War: The treaty ended the
themselves and have sovereignty. Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), a conflict that involved
2. Diplomatic Interactions: Countries interact through major European powers.
diplomacy to engage in global relations.  Signatories: The Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France,
3. International Organizations: Organizations like the Sweden, and the Dutch Republic were the main parties
United Nations (UN) facilitate and support interactions involved in the treaty.
between states.  Stability for Europe: The Treaty of Westphalia
4. Autonomy of International Organizations: Beyond provided political stability and laid the groundwork for
facilitating meetings, international organizations take on the modern system of nation-states.
lives of their own, influencing global affairs.
Challenges to the Treaty of Westphalia:
Nation vs. State:
 Napoleon Bonaparte: Napoleon challenged the
 A nation-state consists of two terms that are not Westphalian system by spreading the principles of the
interchangeable. French Revolution—liberty, fraternity, and equality
 Nation refers to a group of people with shared —across Europe. This undermined the traditional power
characteristics (social origin, language, traditions), while structures of monarchies, nobility, and religion.
a state is a political entity with defined governance and  Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815): Napoleon's military
authority. campaigns spread throughout much of Europe and
 Some states consist of multiple nations, while some significantly impacted the political landscape. He was
nations exist within multiple states. (Ex. Scotland is a ultimately defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.
nation within the United Kingdom (a state), and Korea is
a divided nation with North and South Korea as
separate states.)
The Concert of Europe System (1815-1914):
Theories of State Origin:
 Great Power Alliance: The Concert of Europe was an
 Divine Right Theory alliance of major powers—United Kingdom, Austria,
 Necessity or Force Theory Russia, and Prussia—formed after Napoleon's defeat to
 Paternalistic Theory maintain peace and stability in Europe.
 Social Contract Theory  Restoration of Monarchies: The alliance sought to
 No single theory is universally accepted, but all restore the pre-revolutionary order of monarchies,
contribute elements to understanding state formation hereditary privileges, and religious authority.
and development.  Metternich System: Austrian diplomat Klemens von
Metternich played a key role in shaping this system,
Four Attributes of a State: which aimed to prevent the spread of revolutionary
ideas and maintain a balance of power in Europe.
1. Authority over a population.
2. Governance of a specific territory. Internationalism: The Liberal and the Socialist Perspectives
3. A government structure that creates and enforces rules.
4. Sovereignty, meaning internal and external authority Internationalism: refers to a system of heightened
over its territory. interaction between sovereign states, with a focus on
cooperation and unity. It is divided into two broad categories:
Nation: 1. Liberal Internationalism (countries working together
for peace and democracy)
 A group of people united by common characteristics like 2. Socialist Internationalism (countries joining forces to
social origin, language, customs, and traditions. fight for fairness and equality for all people.)
 May or may not be independent of external control.
 Described as an "imagined community" (BENEDICT Liberal Internationalism
ANDERSON) that shares culture, history, and language.
IMMANUEL KANT (18th century): A key thinker in liberal essentially disappeared, and liberal internationalism re-
internationalism, Kant envisioned a global system of emerged with the United Nations at the center of global
cooperation. He believed that the lack of a world governance.
government would lead to chaos and that states should
give up some freedoms to create a global government. Conclusion: Internationalism is an essential part of
globalization, where global interactions are intensified due to
JEREMY BENTHAM (18th century): A British philosopher the increasing interdependence of states. Both liberal and
who coined the term “international” in 1780. Bentham socialist internationalism have shaped the global political
advocated for creating international law to govern inter- landscape, influencing the formation of institutions like
state relations and believed global legislation should aim for the League of Nations and the United Nations.
the happiness of all nations.
MODULE 5: The United Nations and Contemporary
GIUSEPPE MAZZINI (19th century): An Italian patriot who Global Governance
reconciled nationalism with liberal internationalism. He
advocated for a republican government without  Global Governance
monarchies and a system of free, unified nation-states that  International Organization
would cooperate globally.  The United Nations
 Challenges of the UN
WOODROW WILSON (20th century): A prominent
internationalist who believed in nationalism as a prerequisite Global Governance: refers to the various processes and
for internationalism. He promoted self-determination for systems through which countries and international
nations and became a key advocate for the creation of organizations cooperate to create an international order and
the League of Nations to prevent further wars. He was address global issues.
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919 for his efforts.  Involves political cooperation among states and
transnational actors.
The League of Nations and WWII  Aimed at negotiating solutions to problems that affect
more than one country or region.
 U.S. Participation: The United States was unable to  Does not involve a single world government but relies
join the League of Nations due to opposition from the on collective efforts to manage global challenges.
Senate. Goal: To maintain order, promote peace, and address
issues like climate change, health, security, and economic
 Failure to Prevent WWII: Despite its establishment, the inequality on a global scale.
League was unable to prevent the outbreak of WWII,
with the Axis Powers (Hitler’s Germany, Mussolini’s International Organizations (IOs): refer to groups made up
Italy, and Hirohito’s Japan) and the Allied Powers (U.S., of member states, which cooperate on specific issues at the
UK, France, etc.). global level. They are not just collections of state interests
but can operate independently and influence global affairs.
 Key Organizations: The World Health Organization
(WHO) and the International Labor Organization (ILO) Types of International Organizations:
were among those formed after WWI as part of the
broader international cooperation effort. 1. Inter-governmental Organizations (IGOs): Composed
of member states, such as the United Nations.
Socialist Internationalism 2. International Non-governmental Organizations
(NGOs): Organizations that operate across countries
KARL MARX: A major critic of nationalism, Marx focused on but are not affiliated with any government.
economic equality rather than dividing the world into nations. 3. Multinational Enterprises (MNEs): Corporations
He emphasized the division between the capitalist class operating in multiple countries.
(owners of production) and the proletariat class (workers).
Powers of International Organizations:
The Socialist International (SI): Established in 1889, it was
an organization of European socialist and labor parties. It 1. Power of Classification: IOs can create standards,
campaigned for worker rights, including the 8-hour such as the UN High Commissioner for Refugees
workday, and played a role in establishing Labor Day (May defining who qualifies as a refugee.
1) and International Women’s Day. 2. Power to Fix Meanings: IOs define key terms like
"security" or "development" and shape global
VLADIMIR LENIN and the Comintern: In 1919, Lenin understanding of these concepts (e.g., the UN defining
established the Communist International (Comintern) to security beyond military threats to include environmental
spread communist ideology. The Soviet Union later joined risks).
the Allied Powers in WWII and dissolved the Comintern to 3. Power to Diffuse Norms: IOs spread accepted codes
appease its allies. Under JOSEPH STALIN, it was re- of conduct, influencing global behavior and establishing
established as the Communist Information Bureau norms that govern international interactions.
(Cominform).
The United Nations (UN):
Decline of Socialist Internationalism: With the collapse of
the Soviet Union in 1991, communist internationalism
Creation: The UN was formed after World War II, replacing Medium: a person's voice
the League of Nations, with the goal of preventing future Media: technologies of mass communication.
global wars.
Three Types Media:
Five Active Organs of the UN:
1. Print media – books, magazines, and newspapers
1. General Assembly (GA): The main deliberative body 2. Broadcast media – radio, film, and television
with 193 member-states. Important decisions require a 3. Digital media – internet and mobile mass communication.
two-thirds majority. It elects the GA President annually. In internet media, there are e-mail, internet sites, social
2. Security Council (SC): The most powerful organ, media, and internet-based video and audio.
consisting of five permanent members (China, France,
Russia, UK, US) and 10 rotating members elected for MARSHALL MCLUHAN: "the medium is the message."
two-year terms. how media, as a form of communication, reshape the
3. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC): society.
Coordinates policies on social, economic, and Positive Effects: expand the reach of communication.
environmental issues, with 54 members elected for Negative Effects: amputate and limit human senses.
three-year terms. It focuses on sustainable
development. The Global Village and Cultural Imperialism
4. International Court of Justice (ICJ): Settles legal
disputes between states and provides advisory opinions “Global Village” It means the perception of the world would
on international law. be the same.
5. Secretariat: Manages the day-to-day operations of the Homogenize Culture: would create a form of cultural
UN, led by the Secretary-General and supported by imperialism whereby American values and culture would
international staff. overwhelm all others. (The world was being Americanized)
Additional Body: The Trusteeship Council was also part of HERBERT SCHILLER: but this process also led
the original setup, but it is no longer active. to the spread of "American" capitalist values like
Challenges of the United Nations (UN): consumerism.
JOHN TOMLINSON: cultural globalization is really a cover
 Security Issues: The UN faces significant challenges in for
maintaining global security, particularly when military “Western cultural imperialism” as it promotes ‘homogenized”,
intervention is required. Westernized consumer culture.
 State Sovereignty: The UN must balance its ‘Cultural Imperialism’ is a process by which one country
interventions with respect for state sovereignty, often dominates other countries’ media consumption and
making it difficult to take decisive action. consequently, dominates their values and ideologies.
 Security Council Power: The UN Security Council,
responsible for authorizing military interventions, can be Critiques of Cultural Imperialism
hampered by the veto power of the five permanent
members (China, France, Russia, UK, and US). 1. “Media messages are not just made by producers;
they are also consumed by audiences.”
Examples of Challenges: 2. The cultural imperialism thesis has been belied by the
renewed strength of regional trends in the globalization
1. Kosovo War (late 1990s): NATO's intervention without process. (Ex. Asian culture Expound/spread worldwide
full Security Council authorization. through the globalization of media.)
2. Civil War in Syria: Difficulties in taking effective action
due to disagreements among Security Council Social Media and the Creation of Cyber Ghettoes
members.
3. 2001 War in Iraq: The invasion was controversial, with Social Media: A digital platform where people connect,
significant opposition from some Security Council share information, and exchange ideas within virtual
members. communities.
 Globalization > Cultural Homogenization > Diverse
MODULE 6: PLERIMINARY EXAM cultures become increasingly similar (due to widespread
sharing of cultural symbols, customs, ideas, and values.
MODULE 7& 8: Media and Globalization
“Social Media” can be a form of communication to have a
• Media and Its Function democratized access.
• The Global Village and Cultural Positive Effects: enabled users to be consumers and
Imperialism producers of information simultaneously
• Critiques of Cultural Imperialism Negative Effects: “Splinternet” or “Cyberbalkanization” can
• Social Media and the Creation of Cyber lead to disinformation, global separation and government
Ghettoes control.
Cyberghetto: is a term used to describe both a
Media and Its Function marginalized online community and a particular fashion
style.
JUKE LULE: "a means of conveying something such as a
channel of communication." "Cyber" internet/digital space
"Ghetto" marginalized urban areas  Tibetan Buddhists following the Dalai Lama, who
established sanctuaries.
 Cyberghetto is an online space where a specific social  Buddhist monasteries for prayer and meditation, often
group feels excluded or marginalized. in remote areas.
 Rizalistas on Mount Banahaw, creating a secluded
MODULE 9: The Globalization of Religion community.
 Mormons in Utah, and Israel’s establishment as a
 Religion, Globalism and its Realities nation for believers in one God.

Religion shapes people's lives by providing moral direction, Each group finds unique ways to cultivate their faith and
a sense of purpose, and community support. Here’s how it protect their beliefs from outside influences.
plays a key role:
The reality of religion's role in modern society is complex,
1. Moral Compass: Religion often provides clear guidelines especially in its interaction with globalization. Here are the
on what’s right or wrong, encouraging people to make key points:
choices they believe are aligned with divine values.
1. Religious Revival, Not Decline: Sociologist PETER
2.Purpose and Identity: Beyond everyday roles like BERGER notes that the world today is "furiously
nationality or job titles, religion offers a deeper sense of religious," with rising fervor across major faiths like
belonging and identity, connecting individuals to something Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism.
bigger than themselves.
2. Religion and Governance: Religion influences modern
3.Lifestyle Choices: Many religions include lifestyle republics, often shaping their political and legal foundations.
practices, like dietary or dress codes, that reinforce a For example, Malaysia's constitution designates Islam as the
person's commitment to their beliefs, giving daily life a state religion, and Ayatollah Khomeini emphasized Islamic
spiritual rhythm. rule as a superior, spiritually grounded form of government.

4. Balance with Global Values: Religion sometimes 3. Secular Themes and Religious Adaptation: Many
contrasts with globalism, prioritizing spiritual and moral religious movements integrate secular themes to stay
values over material success, which can challenge people to relevant. For instance, Indonesia’s Muslim group Nahdlatul
balance faith with modern life. Ulama includes subjects like science, democracy, and
modern banking in its curriculum alongside religious studies.
5. Community Connection: Being part of a religious group
provides a support system, offering comfort and a sense of 4. Religion as Policy Influence: Religion sometimes
shared values, especially during tough times. emerges as a result of political shifts, like the Church of
England, which was established when King Henry VIII broke
Overall, religion gives people a framework to live by, adding from Catholicism to consolidate his power.
meaning, direction, and a supportive community to their
lives. 5. Religion in American Society: In the U.S., religion and
law historically worked together to shape a secular society,
Religious Person is often someone who values simplicity as observed by ALEXIS DE TOCQUEVILLE. Americans
over material wealth, aiming to live a virtuous life that aligns often practice religion out of a sense of both spiritual and
with spiritual ideals. worldly benefit.

1. Less Focus on Wealth: A religious person tends to 6. Catalyst for Social Change: JOSE CASANOVA
prioritize spiritual fulfillment over material success, highlights religion’s role in major social and political
embracing simplicity over luxury. movements, from independence struggles and civil rights to
women’s suffrage, often serving as both a rallying force and
2. Moral Living: Their primary goal is to lead a life free from a source of resistance.
sin, aspiring to be virtuous with the hope of attaining peace
in the afterlife. Religion thus plays an active, evolving role in shaping both
individual lives and broader societal structures worldwide.
3. Aspiring for Sanctity: Many religious people aim to live
saintly lives, avoiding political power or ambitions, which they Religion's relationship with globalization is complex and
may see as a sign of human weakness. multifaceted, involving both opposition and adaptation:

4. Spreading Faith: They are often dedicated to sharing 1. Opposition and Opportunity: Many religious movements
their beliefs and values with others, sometimes globally, as oppose globalization's materialism, but major faiths like
seen in various religious groups. Christianity and Islam view it as a way to spread their
influence.
Religious groups, especially those with distinct beliefs,
sometimes seek isolated spaces to practice their faith 2. Moral Guidance: Religion offers moral codes that
without external interference. Examples include: address societal and personal challenges, providing
communities with a shared identity rather than hindering
globalization.
3. Adaptation to Modern Tools: Even fundamentalist
groups critical of globalization's values use modern
communication and organizational tools to further their
religious missions.

4. Global Critiques: Religious organizations such as the

World Council of Churches, the Catholic Church, and the Countries in regions respond to globalization by adjusting
Lutheran World Federation have condemned globalization's their economic and political strategies to benefit from the
negative impacts, like economic inequality and opportunity’s globalization brings while also mitigating its
environmental disregard. risks. Here’s a closer look at some specific responses:
5. Partnerships and Dialogue: While wary, some religions 1. Economic Approaches
engage cautiously with global institutions. For instance, in
1998, the World Bank began collaborating with religious Workforce and Manufacturing: Countries like China attract
leaders to address global poverty. global businesses by offering a large, affordable workforce,
turning themselves into hubs for manufacturing and trade
6. Historical Context: Historically, religion has been with other global economies, such as the U.S. and Japan.
intertwined with global expansion and power, from the
Jesuits supporting Spanish colonization to Max Weber’s view Financial Hubs: Small, strategically located countries like
of Protestant work ethics as a factor in capitalism's rise. Singapore and Switzerland have transformed themselves
into financial and banking centers, providing services like
7. Enduring Relevance: Despite secularization theories wealth management, investments, and banking for
suggesting modernization erodes religion, religions remain international clients.
adaptable and resilient, influencing global culture and
politics. Globalists must therefore recognize religion’s lasting Port Development: Singapore, in particular, has invested
significance in society. heavily in developing its port facilities, establishing a world-
class transit hub that facilitates the movement of goods from
In summary, while religion often critiques globalization, it regions such as Africa, Europe, and the Middle East to the
also adapts, influencing and being influenced by global Asia-Pacific.
forces.
2. Political Approaches
MODULE 10: A World of Regions
Military Defense and Security Alliances: Countries join
 Region, regionalism and regionalization organizations like NATO (for Western nations) and the
Warsaw Pact (for Soviet-affiliated countries) to protect
Regions are essentially groups of neighboring countries that regional security interests and cope with military threats,
work together to manage shared goals, whether in policy, especially during conflicts like the Cold War.
trade, or social areas. Here’s the gist of how regionalization
and regionalism differ but connect: Resource Management and Trade Leverage:
Organizations like OPEC enable oil-producing countries to
Regionalization: focuses on building economic ties within a regulate the production and sale of oil, increasing their
region. This is when neighboring countries concentrate on leverage over global oil prices and ensuring stable revenue.
trade, financial exchanges, and business connections to
strengthen their economies together. Non-Alignment and Sovereignty: The Non-Aligned
Movement (NAM) was formed by countries aiming to resist
Regionalism: is about broader political cooperation. It’s the the pressures of major political blocs, particularly during the
process of countries in a region teaming up on various Cold War, to promote peace, cooperation, and national
policies and challenges—this could relate to shared sovereignty.
identities, cultural values, environmental efforts, or public
health issues. 3. Response to Economic Crises
Regions are Created, Not Born: These regions don’t Economic challenges, such as the 1996 Thai economic
naturally exist; they’re shaped by people and leaders who crisis, often encourage countries to unite for mutual benefit.
define what the region represents and works toward. This For example, the ASEAN countries, along with China, Japan,
means regionalism isn’t static but constantly evolving as new and South Korea, collaborated to stabilize Thailand’s
issues and goals emerge. economy, strengthening regional unity and economic
resilience.
In short, while regionalization is about economic flow,
regionalism brings in the human aspect of collaboration, 4. Non-State Regionalism and Social Movements
making regions feel less like lines on a map and more like
communities with shared goals and values. Non-state actors, such as NGOs and community
organizations, focus on issues like environmental protection,
human rights, and economic equality. Examples include:
 Centers of Higher Learning and Culture: Educational and
Rainforest Foundation: Protects indigenous peoples and cultural hubs such as Harvard in Boston and English-
forests in South America. speaking universities in Australia shape intellectual trends.

Regional Interfaith Youth Networks: Promotes peace and 4. Challenges Facing Global Cities
development.
Migrant Forum in Asia: Advocates for migrant workers’ Inequality and Gentrification: Global cities often exhibit
rights. stark inequalities, with high living costs pushing poorer
residents to the outskirts. This phenomenon is visible in
5. Contemporary Challenges cities from Manila to Paris, where marginalized groups live in
less accessible, under-resourced areas.
Regionalism faces challenges such as the resurgence of
nationalism, disagreements within regional organizations like Environmental Sustainability: Despite cities consuming
ASEAN, and differing global perspectives on democracy’s vast energy, some (like NYC) demonstrate lower carbon
role. Some countries, like Singapore, China, and Russia, footprints due to public transit systems, whereas sprawling
view democracy as a potential obstacle to economic cities like L.A. heavily rely on cars.
projects, preferring streamlined decision-making over lengthy
public debate. Threat of Violence and Terrorism: As symbols of
globalization, global cities can become targets for attacks, as
Through these combined economic and political strategies, seen with 9/11 in NYC.
countries in various regions navigate globalization, striving
for balance between benefiting from international Energy Consumption and Pollution: Dense populations
opportunities and preserving their autonomy and regional lead to high energy use. Innovative solutions, like vertical
stability. farms, are being explored to address sustainability.

MODULE 11: The Global City 5. Impact on the Poor and Middle Class

Gentrification Effects: As affluent newcomers increase

1. Spatial Nature of Globalization property values, low-income families are displaced, a pattern
evident in places like New York and Australia, where
Globalization is seen as spatial: because it requires aboriginal communities move away from economic hubs.
physical locations for interactions and operations. For Thinning Middle Class: Global cities offer high-income
example, major city developments drive out poorer opportunities but also intensify wealth disparities, creating
communities as wealthier residents move into city centers. environments that are desirable for some but restrictive for
Specific places fuel globalization: (e.g., Hollywood for others.
movies and L.A. as a cultural hub), enabling cities to become
engines of global reach.
1. What Makes a City Global?
 It occurs in physical spaces  Economy
 based in places  Human Resources
 Quality of life
SASKIA SASSEN: Popularized the term “global city” Her  Environment
criteria were primarily economic  Governance

2. Attributes of Global Cities 2. How do Global Cities Serve as Engines of

Globalization?
Economic power (stock exchanges in NYC, London, Tokyo)
Cultural and intellectual influence (e.g., Los Angeles for By attracting international talent, fostering economic and
film, San Francisco for tech) cultural exchanges, and housing influential institutions,
Centers of trade and finance (e.g., Shanghai’s port, global cities become focal points for global flows of capital,
Melbourne’s livability) ideas, and labor.

3. Indicators of Globality MODULE 12: MIDTERM EXAMINATION

Economic Power and Competitiveness: Major cities often MODULE 13 & 14: Global Demography
host influential corporations and high-purchasing-power
residents, making cities like Singapore and NYC competitive  The “Perils” of Overpopulation
and attractive to global talent.  Women and Reproductive Rights
 The Feminist Perspective
Political Influence: Cities like Washington, D.C., hold  Population Growth and Food Security
authority, while others host major organizations (e.g., EU in
Brussels, ASEAN in Jakarta) affecting international affairs. The “Perils” of Overpopulation

Demography: Study of population size, composition, and

distribution; influenced by births, deaths, and migration.
 Reproductive Rights Supporters: Argue that for population
 Natality: Birth rate (live births per 1,000 people). control and economic development goals to be achieved,
 Mortality: Death rate (number of deaths in a women must have control over their reproductive choices.
population).
 Fertility: Natural ability to produce offspring; fertility Motivation Behind Reproductive Health Laws: Growing
rate measures it. economies often introduce or strengthen reproductive health
laws, driven by concerns over maternal health.
Family Size Differences:
Opponents: Some regard reproductive rights as a cover for
 Urban Families: Smaller (1-2 children), both parents abortion. Conservative views exist in developing regions,
working. such as Christian groups in Poland, Croatia, and Muslim
 Rural Families: Larger, with children helping in countries, as well as Catholic-majority nations.
agricultural tasks.
UN Women’s Position: Reproductive rights are considered
Population Growth Factors: Higher growth in agriculture- fundamental to women's human rights.
based countries; urban migration also contributes.
The Feminist Perspective
THOMAS MALTHUS (1798): Warned of population
exceeding food supply. Opposition to Population Control: Feminists argue against
coercive population control measures, as they believe they
PAUL EHRLICH (1960s): Revived Malthus’ theory, do not empower women but rather use a punitive approach
advocated for population control. alongside benefits.

Proposed Solutions: Radical methods like chemical Criticism of Population-Control Arguments: They reject
castration, taxing extra children, monetary incentives for the idea that poverty and environmental degradation are
sterilization. caused by overpopulation, emphasizing the lack of evidence
supporting this claim.
Consequences:
Population Growth and Food Security
 Resource Crisis: Leads to poverty, hunger, political
instability. Global Population:
 Global Population Control Programs: E.g., China’s  Current Population: 7.4 billion.
one-child policy, sterilization in India and Vietnam.  Projected for 2050: 9.5 billion; for 2100: 11.2 billion.
 Stabilization is predicted by 2050 at 9 billion, but
Reproductive Health Advocacy: feeding this population is a significant challenge.

 Promote access to contraceptives and women’s FAO’s Warning:

choice.  To address population growth, food production needs to
 Political Influences: Extreme policies (forced increase by 70%.
sterilization, government-controlled birth rates).  Cereal production should rise from 2.1 billion to 3 billion
tons, and meat production should rise from 200 million
Conclusion: Overpopulation challenges resources, to 470 million tons annually.
stability, and ethics in global policies.
Primary Causes of Hunger: Economic inaccessibility of
healthy diets is a major contributor to food insecurity.
BETSY HARTMANN: It’s The Economy, Not the Babies!
 Criticized governments for using population control as FAO Recommendations:
a substitute for social justice.
 Advocated for reforms such as land distribution,  Increase investment in agriculture, develop long-term
employment creation, and access to education and policies to fight poverty, and focus on research and
healthcare instead of focusing on population control. development.
 Promote comprehensive social service programs,
Population Growth in the 1960s: Contributed to economic including food assistance, health services, and
development by encouraging technological innovation and education, particularly for the poor.
expanding human ingenuity.
The Green Revolution: Introduced high-yield crops like rice MODULE 15: Global Migration
and cereals, significantly boosting agricultural production,  About Migrants and Anti-immigrants
especially in developing countries.  Benefits And Detriments for the Sending Countries.
Global Food Security: Contrary to Malthus’ predictions,  The Problems of Human Trafficking and Integration
global grain production increased by over 250% from 1950-
1984, preventing widespread famine. Types of Migration

Women and Reproductive Rights 1. Internal Migration: Movement of people within the
same country.
2. International Migration: Movement across country In 2014, remittances totaled $580 billion. Key senders: India
borders. ($70 billion), China ($62 billion), Philippines ($28 billion),
Mexico ($25 billion).
Types of International Migration
1. Immigrants ADB Findings: Remittances help reduce household poverty
2. Workers/Laborers but don't rebalance national growth.
3. Illegal Migrants Brain Drain: Migration of qualified personnel impacts long-
4. Migrants (General term) term development.
5. Refugees/Asylum-seekers
Countries Affected: Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia lost one-
About Migrants: 247 million people live outside their home third of their college graduates.
countries. (90% move for economic reasons) + (10% are
refugees or asylum-seekers) Governments rely on migrant labor for economic growth
despite this loss.
Top 3 regions of origin:
1. Latin America (18%) Human Trafficking & Integration
2. Eastern Europe & Central Asia (16%)
3. Middle East & North Africa (14%) Human Trafficking:
 Third largest criminal activity globally (FBI).
Top 5 countries of origin: India, Mexico, China, Philippines  40.3 million victims of forced labor (ILO, 2016).
(6th), Afghanistan.  Profitable, $150 billion in earnings in 2020.
 Affects millions, with victims forced into sexual
Top destinations: Western countries, Middle East, US. exploitation, labor, servitude, and organ removal
(UNODC, 2024).
Migration patterns:
 50% move from developing to developed nations. Integration of Migrants:
 Migrants contribute 40-80% of the workforce in
destination countries.  Successful integration benefits migrants and host
societies.
Migrant Contribution to Destination Countries (2015)  Challenges: Migrants often face barriers in accessing
housing, healthcare, and education.
1. US: $2 trillion (11% of GDP)  Language, culture, and religious differences can create
2. Germany: $550 billion (17% of GDP) tensions between migrants and citizens.
3. UK: $390 billion (14% of GDP)
4. Australia: $330 billion (25% of GDP) Conclusion
5. Canada: $320 billion (21% of GDP)
 Global Migration: Like globalization, it is uneven and
Remittances (2000-2022): produces different responses.
 Richer states (e.g., Japan, Germany) benefit from
 Surged by 650%, from USD 128 billion to USD 831 migrant labor due to aging populations.
billion.  Philippines: Continues sending labor due to the need
 Exceeded foreign direct investment in boosting GDP of for remittances.
developing nations.  Xenophobia and nationalism in receiving countries,
 281 million international migrants globally; 117 million and dependency in sending countries, will remain
displaced by end of 2022. ongoing issues.

Anti-Immigrant Sentiments MODULE 16: Environmental Crisis and Sustainable

Development
Arguments: Governments should control legal immigration
and stop illegal entry. (Ex. Pres. Donald Trump (US) and UK  The World’s Leading Environmental Problems
Prime Minister Theresa May reversed pro-immigration  Man-made Pollution
policies)  Catching Up and Climate Change
 Combating Global Warming
Syria/Iraq Refugee Crisis: Influx has raised concerns but
did not severely harm economies. The World’s Leading Environmental Problems
Germany: Refugees from the Middle East bolstered the
economy by providing needed labor. 1. Industrial and Transportation Pollution: Toxic
substances, plastic pollution, oil spills, acid rain, and
Benefits & Detriments for Sending Countries waste dumping severely damage natural ecosystems.

Remittances: Remittances change the economic and social 2. Climate Change: Changes in global weather patterns,
standing of migrant families, doubling their purchasing rising ocean and land temperatures, and sea level rise
power. are causing significant environmental shifts, including
flash floods, extreme storms, and desertification.
3. Overpopulation: Increasing population demands Economic Development vs. Environmental Protection:
greater resources, leading to environmental strain.
The Development Dilemma: Governments believe
4. Resource Depletion: Non-renewable resources like industrialization and urbanization are necessary for
fossil fuels, minerals, and fresh water are being economic growth and a robust middle class, which may
exhausted. increase pollution and resource depletion.

5. Waste Disposal Issues: Excessive waste, especially in Provision for the Poor: Development must include job
landfills and oceans, along with nuclear waste dumping, opportunities, public transport, and affordable food, but often
poses serious environmental risks. relies on toxic agricultural practices (e.g., pesticides and
fertilizers).
6. Biodiversity Loss: Destruction of ecosystems and the
extinction of species due to human activities and habitat Pollution from Developed Countries: United States
loss. remains the worst polluter in history, while countries like
China, India, and Indonesia prioritize rapid industrialization,
7. Deforestation: Deforestation reduces oxygen levels contributing to environmental degradation.
and increases carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
contributing to ocean acidification. Climate Change and Global Warming Overview:

8. Ozone Depletion: The ozone layer is being damaged Global Warming: Resulting from the accumulation of carbon
by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), exposing the Earth to dioxide, air pollutants, and other gases, global warming
harmful ultraviolet rays. transcends national borders and contributes to worldwide
ecological problems.
9. Fossil Fuel Combustion: Burning coal, oil, and gas Greenhouse Effect: Pollutants trap the sun's radiation,
releases sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), warming the earth's surface. This effect causes:
which combine with water vapor to form sulfuric and  Heat waves
nitric acids, causing acid rain.  Long droughts
 Heavier rainfall
10. Water Pollution: Industrial waste and community  Stronger hurricanes and typhoons
pollution contaminate water bodies, affecting both
aquatic life and human populations. Combating Global Warming Efforts:

11. Urban Sprawl: The unchecked growth of urban areas  Kyoto Protocol (1997): 192 countries signed to reduce
leads to the destruction of farmlands and increased greenhouse gases.
traffic congestion.  Paris Agreement (2015): A climate treaty with 195
countries to set voluntary emission reduction targets.
12. Health Risks: Pollution and waste affect public health,  Social Movements: Successful in pressuring
leading to disease outbreaks and other risks. governments to regulate global warming.
 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: 17
13. Genetically Modified Foods: Changes in food systems interconnected goals aiming for peace, prosperity, and
through genetic modifications raise concerns about environmental sustainability by 2030.
sustainability and food security.
MODULE 17: The Global Filipino
Man-made Pollution
The Global Filipino and Sources of National Income:
Human Contribution to Environmental Problems: Human
activities, such as industrial emissions, waste from Global Filipino: Becoming a Global Filipino involves
transportation, and deforestation, worsen natural engaging in the world stage while embracing the values and
environmental issues. (Ex. Riyadh is one of the most traditions of the Philippines. Filipino professionals, especially
polluted cities due to sandstorms combined with traffic engineers and architects, have made significant
exhaust and industrial waste.) contributions abroad, particularly in the Middle East.

Mining Pollution: Coal, copper, and gold mining waste The Middle East has been a hub for Filipinos since the
contaminate rivers and oceans, harming sea life and the 1970s, where they have played key roles in industries like
food chain (e.g., mercury in tuna). design, construction, and engineering.

Impact on the Poor: The poor are more severely impacted Sources of National Income:
due to limited access to healthcare, clean living conditions,
and healthy food. 1. Migrant Labor: Remittances from overseas Filipino
workers (OFWs) contribute significantly to the Philippine
In Metropolitan Manila, 37% of the population lives in economy.
slums, which suffer from poor waste management, 2. Business Process Outsourcing (BPO): The
hazardous locations, and increased pollution exposure. Philippines serves as a major BPO hub, providing
services to foreign clients.
3. Exports: Exports, including rice, continue to be a major
source of income.
4. Tourism: Tourism contributed around $6.05 billion by
2016, making it a significant income source.
5. Informal Economy: The Philippines has active regional
and global connections, including trade in illegal goods,
which influences its economy.

Cultural Influence and Globalization:

 While strong nationalist sentiments exist, Filipinos

remain positive towards Western culture, with 92%
being pro-American, as well as embracing influences
from Japan, Korea, and Mexico.

 The Filipino diaspora helps preserve and spread Filipino

culture while also adopting practices from their host
countries.

Conclusion: Migrant Filipinos play a crucial role in the

national economy, contributing to GDP through remittances
and investments. Their experiences abroad help develop
skills that can benefit future generations when they return.
The global Filipino experience highlights the intersection of
cultural pride and global engagement, contributing to the
Philippines' potential to become a global leader.