UNIT 3 - POSITIVE EMOTIONAL STATES AND PROCESSES

affect and emotions

affect
affect is a person's immediate physiological response to a stimulus, usually linked to arousal.
nico frijda (1999) - affect involves appraising an event as painful or pleasurable (valence) and experiencing autonomic arousal.

emotions
emotions involve judgments about important things that impact well-being.
emotions arise when we become aware of pleasure or pain and experience arousal.
specific and goal-oriented - always tied to an object or situation.
mood vs. emotion - moods are long-lasting, free-floating, and objectless, while emotions are sharp and situation-specific.

distinguishing the positive and negative

hans selye - stress has survival value but harms the body in excess.
historically, scholars ignored positive emotions, believing they were just hedonic experiences.
recent research shows positive emotions have evolutionary significance.

nature of affect
1. positive affect (pa)

associated with energy, enthusiasm, and excitement.

linked to better learning, creativity, problem-solving, and relationships (isen, daubman & nowiski, 1987).
people high in pa tend to be cheerful, confident, and optimistic.
facilitates approach behavior, encouraging people to seek new experiences and opportunities.
extraversion is linked to positive affect

factors affecting positive affectivity

genetics - twin studies suggest positive affectivity is heritable (clark & watson, 1999).
demographics & environment - research shows demographic factors (age, gender, socioeconomic status) do not strongly predict happiness.
men and women report similar levels of positive affectivity.
social behavior & spirituality - people who engage in social interactions or practice spirituality tend to be happier.
psychopathology - low positive affectivity is linked to social phobia, ptsd, schizophrenia, substance use disorders, and mood disorders.
job & marital satisfaction - people with high positive affectivity tend to have greater job and relationship satisfaction.

enhancing positive affectivity

1. engaging in pleasurable activities - interpersonal relationships and physical activity are strong predictors of happiness.
2. striving toward goals - working towards meaningful goals increases positive emotions.
3. understanding emotional systems - being aware of mood patterns helps in managing emotions effectively.

2. negative affect (na)

associated with distress, anxiety, and nervousness.

contributes to poor mental health and physical complaints.
excessive na can lead to psychological disorders like depression and anxiety.
linked to behavioral inhibition, leading to withdrawal (e.g., avoiding social situations).
neuroticism is strongly linked to negative affect

can we feel positive and negative emotions at the same time?

traditionally seen as opposites, but bradburn (1969) showed they are independent.
watson’s research - negative affect correlates weakly with joviality (-.21), self-assurance (-.14), attentiveness (-.17), showing they are not entirely opposite.
both types of affect can coexist, especially during stressful situations.

positive emotions - expanding the repertoire of pleasure

positive emotions and behavior
alice isen’s research - mild positive emotions make people -
1. more likely to help others.
2. more flexible in thinking.
3. better at problem-solving.
ex - coin experiment - participants who found a coin in a payphone slot were more likely to help someone than those who didn’t.
small positive experiences increase altruistic behavior.
problem-solving and decision making
positive emotions improve reasoning and decision-making.
example - doctor and candy experiment
doctors given a small candy gift performed better at diagnosing liver disease, showing more flexible and cautious thinking.
they considered the correct diagnosis sooner without making rushed decisions.

broaden-and-build theory (fredrickson, 2000)

describes the form and function of a subset of positive emotions, including joy, interest, contentment and love.
propositions of this theory :
1. these positive emotions broaden an individual’s momentary thought–action repertoire: joy sparks the urge to play, interest sparks the urge to explore, contentment
sparks the urge to savour and integrate, and love sparks a recurring cycle of each of these urges within safe, close relationships
2. second key proposition concerns the consequences of these broadened mindsets: by broadening an individual’s momentary thought–action repertoire—whether
through play, exploration or similar activities—positive emotions promote discovery of novel and creative actions, ideas and social bonds, which in turn build that
individual’s personal resources; ranging from physical and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources.

need for a new model

traditional emotion research focused on negative emotions (e.g., fight-or-flight response).

fredrickson’s model explains the social and cognitive benefits of positive emotions.

broaden

positive emotions expand thought-action repertoires, allowing for more creativity and flexibility.
study - emotion and activity choices
participants who watched joyful film clips listed more possible activities than those who watched neutral or negative clips.
those experiencing negative emotions shut down their thinking.
joy increases social bonding and encourages playfulness, which helps -
1. build social and intellectual skills.
2. increase creativity.
3. support brain development.

build

positive emotions help develop long-term psychological resources.

study on creative problem-solving -
participants with higher positive emotions showed greater improvement in problem-solving over five weeks.
better coping strategies increased positive emotions, leading to an upward spiral of well-being.

undoing potential

positive emotions neutralize negative emotions.

 study - stress recovery and emotional film clips
participants who watched joyful or contentment-inducing clips recovered from stress faster than those who watched neutral or sad clips.
suggests positive emotions help offset stress and negativity.

optimal mental health and flourishing

fredrickson & losada (2005) - studied the role of positive emotions in mental health.
research on undergraduates found a 9:2 ratio of positive to negative emotions predicts optimal mental health and flourishing.
emphasizes the importance of daily emotional experiences in well-being.

meaning and measure of happiness

objective vs subjective measures
objective indicators (e.g., income, age, occupation) are weakly related to personal well-being.
diener (1984) emphasized subjective well-being (swb) - life satisfaction + positive emotions.
objective measures state facts but don’t capture how people feel about their lives.
subjective evaluations are important because -
1. different people react differently to the same life circumstances.
2. happiness is a universal life goal (e.g., "pursuit of happiness" in the u.s. declaration of independence).
3. economic and social statistics alone do not fully measure happiness

negative vs positive functioning

ryff & keyes (1995) identified six aspects of psychological well-being -
autonomy - self-directed, independent thinking.
personal growth - continuous learning and development.
self-acceptance - a positive attitude toward oneself.
life purpose - having meaningful goals.
environmental mastery - ability to manage life situations.
positive relationships - forming strong social connections.
national statistics focus on illness and negative aspects but fail to measure positive strengths and well-being.
absence of mental illness ≠ presence of mental health.

what is happiness - two perspectives on happiness

waterman (1990, 1993) classified happiness into two types -

hedonic happiness

hedonism - defines a good life as the pursuit of happiness and pleasure.

subjective well-being (swb) expands this view - it includes life satisfaction, positive emotions, and low negative emotions (diener).

eudaimonic happiness

seligman’s "experience machine" thought experiment -

imagine a machine that keeps you constantly happy.
would you accept it? most people reject it because they want real experiences and earned happiness.
negative emotions are necessary -
fear helps us avoid danger.
struggles help us grow and develop character.
eudaimonic happiness focuses on self-realization and personal growth rather than just pleasure.

what experiences lead to eudaimonic happiness?

waterman - eudaimonic happiness comes from personally expressive activities (engaging in meaningful activities aligned with values).
hedonic enjoyment - relaxing, excitement, happiness.
eudaimonic happiness - activities that bring challenge, competence, effort, and personal growth.
research on college students -
50-66% of personally expressive activities also brought hedonic enjoyment.
hedonic activities - helped people relax and feel good.
eudaimonic activities - created a sense of achievement, meaning, and growth.

other theories
1. emotional state view - instead of identifying happiness with pleasant experience, - identifies it with an agent's emotional condition as a whole called "emotional well being"
- view is nearly opposite of depression or anxiety
2. life satisfaction theories - identify happiness with having a favorable attitude towards ones life - can be filled out in many ways but typically involves some sort of global
judgement - an endorsement or affirmation of one's life as a whole
3. hybrid theories - attempts an irenic solution - identify happiness with both life satisfaction and emotion states

positive affect and a meaningful life

 laura king’s research - explored the link between positive affect and meaningfulness.
positive affect = joy, contentment, love.
meaningfulness = engaging in activities that give life a deeper purpose.
the good life (eudaimonia) suggests - pursuing pleasure alone may distract from a meaningful life.

theoretical approaches to happiness

happiness theories are categorized into three main groups -

1. need and goal satisfaction theories - happiness comes from fulfilling needs and reducing tension.
2. process or activity theories - happiness comes from engaging in enjoyable activities.
3. genetic and personality predisposition theories - happiness is influenced by stable personality traits and genetics.

1. need and goal satisfaction theories

happiness occurs when tensions are reduced and biological and psychological needs are met.
freud’s pleasure principle and maslow’s hierarchy of needs represent this view.
goal theorists - happiness comes from moving toward an ideal state or achieving a valued goal.
michalos (1985) - happiness is inversely related to the gap between reality and desired goals.
higgins (1987) - discrepancies between the ideal self (aspirations) and the ought self (responsibilities) cause negative emotions.
happiness is considered an end goal, meaning it is achieved after needs and goals are fulfilled.

2. activity or process theories

happiness comes from engaging in activities rather than just reaching a goal.
csikszentmihalyi (1975) - people are happiest when they experience flow - a state where challenges match skill levels.
cantor et al. - social participation improves life satisfaction, especially for retirees.
people are happiest when engaged in activities for intrinsic reasons (e.g., fun, curiosity).
goal researchers - having and pursuing meaningful goals increases energy, positive emotions, and a sense of purpose.
both need-based and activity-based theories suggest - happiness increases when people achieve goals or engage in meaningful activities.

3. genetic and personality predisposition theories

happiness has a stable component that is not fully explained by life circumstances.
subjective well-being is influenced by personality traits, meaning some people are naturally happier than others.

momentary vs long-term happiness

diener & larsen (1984) - momentary happiness fluctuates, meaning a happy moment does not mean constant happiness.
long-term patterns emerge when affect is averaged over time.
example - happiness in work situations correlates 0.74 with happiness in recreation.
life satisfaction in social vs. alone situations correlates 0.92, showing stability in emotional responses.

set-point theory

magnus & diener (1991) - life satisfaction is moderately stable over a 4-year period (correlation 0.58).
costa & mccrae (1988) - affective components of swb remained stable over 6 years.
people adapt to life changes and return to their biological "set point" for happiness.
diener et al. - people whose income increased, decreased, or remained the same showed similar long-term swb.
costa et al. - even major life events (e.g., divorce, widowhood, job loss) did not lead to permanent changes in happiness.

genetic influence on happiness

tellegen et al. (1988) - studied identical and fraternal twins.

40% of variability in positive emotions and 55% in negative emotions was explained by genetics.
personality traits influence happiness -
extraversion - strongly positively correlated with happiness.
neuroticism - strongly negatively correlated with happiness.
cognitive factors also matter -
some people focus on positive experiences, while others dwell on negatives.
hope, optimism, and perceived control increase subjective well-being.

PERMA model - well-being theory (seligman)

happiness is not just achievable—it is a natural result of building well-being.
seligman’s five key elements (perma) for a flourishing life -

1. positive emotions

looking at life positively enhances past, present, and future well-being.

benefits -
improves performance at work and studies.
boosts physical health.
strengthens relationships.
inspires creativity and optimism.
why do we have to focus on it?

dwelling on past regrets leads to depression.

worrying about the future leads to anxiety.
recognizing and cultivating positive emotions helps us enjoy the present.

how to enhance positive emotions?

spend time with family, friends, nature.

engage in hobbies, exercise, and mindfulness.
train the mind to see the upside, take risks, and stay optimistic.

2. engagement

being actively involved in work and life leads to fulfillment.

flow state - total immersion and focus in the present moment.

why is it important?

gives a sense of momentum and motivation.

fulfilling personal potential feels rewarding.

how to increase engagement?

identify strengths, talents, and passions.

use mindfulness to stay focused.

3. relationships

humans are social beings - strong relationships improve well-being.

enhance our own well-being by building strong networks of relationships around us, with family, friends, coworkers, neighbours and all the other people in our lives.

why does it matter?

joy is amplified when shared.

social support networks help during struggles.
being part of a community increases belonging and purpose.

how to build better relationships?

maintain healthy relationships (avoid toxic ones).

communicate openly, express gratitude, and make time for loved ones.

4. meaning

dedicating time to something greater than oneself.

could be religious faith, community work, family, a political cause, a charity, a professional or creative goal.

why does meaning matter?

people who belong to a community or have shared goals are happier.

meaningful work provides a sense of purpose.

how to find meaning?

engage in community work, faith, activism, or creative pursuits.

align career choices with personal values and strengths.

5. accomplishment

achieving well-being involves looking back with pride on life’s achievements.

why does it matter?

builds confidence, motivation, and hope for the future.

past successes inspire continued growth.

how to achieve goals?

set clear and tangible goals.

celebrate both big and small successes.
cultivate resilience - failure is a part of progress.

subjective well-being
subjective well-being (swb) refers to a person's cognitive and emotional evaluations of life.
it includes :
positive emotions.
 low negative emotions.
high life satisfaction.
swb is a core concept in positive psychology because it makes life meaningful and fulfilling.

history of subjective well-being

utilitarian perspective

jeremy bentham - a good life is defined by maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain.
utilitarians focused on mental, emotional, and physical pleasure as key to happiness.

early research

4. flügel (1925) - studied moods by asking people to record daily emotional experiences (early experience sampling method).
5. post-world war ii - researchers used large-scale surveys to measure happiness and life satisfaction.
gallup, gurn, cantril - pioneered simple global surveys (e.g., "how happy are you?").
6. diener (2000a) - proposed a national index to track subjective well-being over time.

growth of the field

7. norman bradburn - found that positive and negative emotions are independent, not opposites.
eliminating negative emotions does not automatically increase positive emotions.
8. diener (1984) - reviewed research on happiness and swb.
9. 1999 review - diener, suh, lucas, and smith published an updated review, including cultural differences in swb.

why interest in SWB grew

10. post-materialistic shift - in developed countries, people seek quality of life beyond basic survival and financial security.
11. democratic perspective - swb research respects people's own evaluations of happiness, rather than relying solely on expert opinions.
12. rise of individualism - individualistic cultures emphasize personal happiness and self-perception.
13. scientific progress - better research methods and tools have allowed for more accurate swb measurement.

measuring subjective well-being

early measures

early surveys asked a single question about happiness or life satisfaction.

andrews & withey (1976) - found that simple global questions had some validity.

modern measures

multi-item scales offer greater reliability and validity.

lucas, diener, and suh (1996) - showed that measures of life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect were distinct.
the five-item satisfaction with life scale (swls) is now widely used.

validity concerns

self-report bias - people may report high happiness even if they don’t truly feel it.
sandvik, diener, and seidlitz (1993) - found self-reports correlate with -
expert interviews.
experience sampling data (random reports of feelings).
memories of positive vs. negative events.
family and friend assessments.
smiling frequency.
best practice - use multiple assessment methods (e.g., surveys + real-time reports + external evaluations).

research findings

schwarz & strack - situational factors influence happiness reports (mood at the time of survey affects responses).
diener et al. - people rely on different sources of information for life satisfaction, depending on their culture and personality -
individualistic cultures - base swb on self-esteem.
collectivistic cultures - base swb on social harmony and others' opinions.
optimists vs. pessimists - some people focus on positive aspects, while others focus on problems when judging life satisfaction.
life satisfaction is dynamic - influenced by current mood, beliefs, and memory retrieval.

latest methods for studying SWB

real-time (momentary) assessments

experience sampling method (esm) - participants use devices (e.g., palm-sized computers) to report feelings at random moments.
kahneman (1999) - argued esm is the most accurate measure of subjective well-being since it reduces memory bias.

global SWB reports

reflect how people summarize their overall life satisfaction.

cultural differences -
 in cultures where happiness is highly valued, people focus on positive experiences when judging swb.
in cultures where happiness is less emphasized, people focus more on negative experiences.

demographic correlates of SWB

wilson (1967) - the "happy person" is young, healthy, educated, extroverted, optimistic, religious, married, and has high self-esteem.
however, campbell, converse, & rodgers (1976) found that demographic variables like age, income, and education only slightly affect happiness.
key findings -

14. demographic factors influence happiness, but the effects are small.
15. most people are moderately happy - demographic factors mostly distinguish moderately happy from very happy.
16. income affects happiness, but only to a certain extent.

increasing wealth improves happiness only if basic needs are unmet.

once needs are met, higher income does not significantly boost happiness.

17. age and gender effects -

pleasant affect declines with age, but life satisfaction remains stable.
women report higher positive and negative affect than men, but overall happiness differences are small.

18. health and happiness -

self-reported health correlates strongly with swb.

objective health ratings show a weaker correlation.

marriage and religion

marriage is linked to higher swb, but the effect varies -

men benefit more from marriage than women.
in individualist cultures, unmarried couples living together were happier than married couples, suggesting companionship matters more than social approval.
in collectivist cultures, married individuals were happier than unmarried couples, suggesting social approval plays a bigger role.
religion increases happiness, but effects depend on the type of religiosity.

culture and subjective well-being

self-esteem and extraversion influence happiness less in collectivist cultures than in individualist cultures.
suh (2000) - personality congruence differs by culture -
western cultures emphasize personality consistency across situations.
collectivist cultures prioritize social harmony over individual personality expression.
collectivists base life satisfaction on social approval, while individualists base it on personal emotions.

wealth and happiness

some researchers argue that wealth only increases happiness in poorer nations.
however, diener found that income still has a moderate impact on happiness even after controlling for basic needs.
wealthier nations may be happier due to better human rights, healthcare, and equality, not just material goods.

interventions to subjective well-being

increasing swb is beneficial because happy people -
volunteer more.
have better job performance.
form stronger relationships.

fordyce’s happiness program

strategy - teach people to imitate happy people’s behaviors -

being organized and active.
socializing more.
developing a positive mindset.
results -
significant increases in happiness.
effects lasted for 9-28 months.

seligman’s optimism training

trained children at risk for depression to focus on the bright side of events.
after 2 years, children in the program were less depressed than those in the control group.