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Chapter 14 •It is the most occupied band.

Conduction band
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS • Conduction band is the range of energy
(Prepared By: Ayyappan C, HSST Physics, GHSS Udma, Kasaragod) possessed by the conduction electrons.
• It is the least occupied band.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS Forbidden energy gap
On the basis of conductivity •The energy difference between the
bottom of the conduction band and the
• On the basis of the relative values of top of the valence band is called the
electrical conductivity (σ ) or resistivity (ρ forbidden energy gap.
= 1/σ ), the solids are broadly classified as: Energy band in metals
• Metals: They possess very low resistivity • In certain metals the conduction band is
(or high conductivity). partially filled and the valence band is
partially empty.

• Semiconductors: They have resistivity or

conductivity intermediate to metals and
• Then the electrons in the lower levels of
insulators.
valence band move to its higher levels
making conduction possible.
• In some other metals the valence band
and the conduction band overlap each
• Elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge other.
• Compound semiconductors: • Then the electrons in the valence band
Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe, InP, etc. can easily move to the conduction band
Organic: anthracene, doped
pthalocyanines, etc.
Organic polymers: polypyrrole,
polyaniline, polythiophene, etc.

• Insulators: They have high resistivity (or

low conductivity). •As the temperature increases in a metal
the electrons in the valence band get
enough energy to reach the conduction
ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS band.
• As the number of free electrons increases
• In a solid each electron will have a the number of collisions increases.
different energy level. • So the resistance of a metal increases
• The range of energy possessed by the with temperature.
electrons in a solid is called the energy Energy band in Insulator
band.
• The band gap energy is greater than 3 eV
• No free electrons are available in the
conduction band.

Valence band
• Valence band is the range of energy
possessed by the valence electrons.

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Energy Band in Semi conductors these electrons and some of these

electrons may break–away and holes are
• The energy gap is small (<3 eV ) compared created.
to insulators.

• At absolute zero of temperature there are

no electrons in the conduction band of a
semiconductor.
• As the temperature increases electrons
in the valence band get enough energy to Classification of semiconductors
reach the conduction band. • In general semiconductors can be
• So the resistance of semiconductors classified as intrinsic semiconductors and
decreases with temperature. extrinsic semi conductors.
SEMICONDUCTORS
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
• At low temperatures, semiconductor
behaves as an insulator. • Semiconductor in its pure form are called
• At room temperature some electrons intrinsic semiconductors.
leaves valence band and reaches
conduction band and helps in conduction • In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of
process. free electrons, ne is equal to the number
of holes, nh.
Hole

• The vacancy of electrons (deficiency of

electrons) in valence band is called hole. • Under the action of an electric field, these
• A hole is equivalent to a positive charge. holes move towards negative potential
• In a semiconductor both electrons and giving the hole current, Ih.
holes are charge carriers.
• The total current, I is thus the sum of the
Commonly used semiconductors electron current Ie and the hole current Ih:

• Commonly used semiconductors are Si

and Ge.
Energy band in an intrinsic semiconductor at T = 0
• Every Si or Ge atom tends to share one of
its four valence electrons with each of its
four nearest neighbor atoms, and also to
take share of one electron from each such
neighbor.

Energy band in an intrinsic semiconductor at T > 0

• As the temperature increases, more

thermal energy becomes available to

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• The methods to increase conductivity of • In an n-type semiconductor electrons are

an intrinsic semiconductor are heating the majority charge carriers and holes
and doping. are the minority charge carriers
• Thus, the pentavalent dopant is donating
Doping one extra electron for conduction and
• The process of adding impurities to an hence is known as donor impurity.
intrinsic semiconductor so as to increase
its conductivity is called doping.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
• Doped semiconductors are called
extrinsic semiconductors.
• The semiconductor crystal maintains an
overall charge neutrality as the charge of
additional charge carriers is just equal and
opposite to that of the ionised cores in • As, Sb, P, Bi etc. are examples of
the lattice. pentavalent impurities.
Energy band in extrinsic semiconductor • For n-type semiconductors,
Dopants
• The impurity atoms used for doping are
called dopants. Donor energy level in the energy band diagram
• There are two types of dopants used in
doping the tetravalent Si or Ge:

• Pentavalent (valency 5); like Arsenic (As),

Antimony (Sb), Phosphorous (P), etc

• Trivalent (valency 3); like Indium (In),

Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), etc.

Types of extrinsic semiconductors

• n- type semiconductors
• p-type semiconductors

n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

• When a pentavalent impurity is added to • When a trivalent impurity added to an

an intrinsic semiconductor Ge or Si intrinsic semiconductor Ge or Si crystal,
crystal, an n-type semiconductor is an p-type semiconductor is formed.
formed. • Corresponding to each impurity atom
added a free hole is created in the crystal.
• In a p -type semiconductor holes are the
majority charge carriers and electrons
are the minority charge carriers.

• Corresponding to each impurity atom

added a free electron is created in the
crystal.

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• The trivalent impurity atom which accepts • Due to diffusion, a layer of positive charge
the electron is called an acceptor atom. (or positive space-charge region) is
developed on n-side of the junction and a
layer of negative charge (or negative
space-charge region) is developed on the
p-side of the junction .
Depletion region (Depletion layer)
• The space-charge region on either side of
• The 13thgroup elements like In, B, Al, Ga
the junction together is known as
etc. are examples of trivalent impurities.
depletion region.
• For a p-type semiconductor
• In depletion region there are no free
electrons and holes.
Drift
Acceptor energy level in the energy band • The positive charge on n-side of the
diagram junction and negative charge on p-side of
the junction develops an electric field.
• Due to this field, an electron on p-side of
the junction moves to n-side and a hole
on n- side of the junction moves to p-side.
• The motion of charge carriers due to the
electric field is called drift.
• As the diffusion process continues, drift
current increases.
• This process continues until the diffusion
current equals the drift current.
p-n JUNCTION • In a p-n junction under equilibrium there
is no net current.
• A junction formed when a p-type
Barrier Potential
semiconductor and n-type conductor are
• The potential difference produced due to
brought together is called a p-n junction.
the diffusion of charge carriers across a p-
Formation of a p-n junction n junction is called barrier potential.
• The barrier potential limits further
• Two important processes occur during the diffusion of holes and electrons.
formation of a p-n junction: diffusion and SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE (p-n junction Diode)
drift
• A semiconductor diode is a p-n junction
with metallic contacts provided at the
ends for the application of an external
voltage.
• It is a two terminal device.

Diffusion
Symbol
• The holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (p
→ n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to
p-side (n → p). • The barrier voltage of a Ge diode is 0.2V
and that of a Si diode is 0.7V.

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p-n junction diode under forward bias critical reverse bias voltage, known as
breakdown voltage (Vbr ).
• In forward biasing the p-side is connected In reverse bias
to the positive terminal of the battery and  Height of barrier potential increases
n-side to the negative terminal.  Junction resistance is very high for
current flow
 The reverse current is very low and is
due to minority carriers.
 The width of depletion layer increases.
Forward characteristics of a Diode

Circuit diagram for studying fprward

characteristics

• Due to the applied voltage, electrons from

n-side cross the depletion region and
reach p-side and holes from p-side cross
the junction and reach the n-side.
• This process under forward bias is known Forward characteristics
as minority carrier injection.
• In forward bias • Forward characteristics are the graph
• The height of the barrier potential between voltage and current of a forward
reduces for majority carriers. biased diode.
• The junction offers a very low
resistance to the flow of current.
• The current increases sharply with
forward voltage
• The width of depletion layer
decreases.
p-n junction diode under reverse bias

• In reverse biasing n-side is connected to

positive of the battery and p-side to •After the characteristic voltage, the diode
negative of the battery. current increases significantly
(exponentially), even for a very small
increase in the diode bias voltage.
• This voltage is called the threshold
voltage or cut-in voltage (~0.2V for
germanium diode and ~0.7 V for silicon
diode).
• The barrier height increases and the knee voltage
depletion region widens due to the
change in the electric field. • The forward voltage after which the
• This suppresses the flow of electrons from current through a diode increases linearly
n → p and holes from p → n. with voltage is called knee voltage.
• The current under reverse bias is
essentially voltage independent up to a

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Reverse characteristics of a diode • Device used for rectification is called

Circuit diagram rectifier.

Half wave Rectifier:

• It uses only one diode.

• The diode becomes forward biased only in
the positive half cycle of ac.
• Efficiency is only 40.6%.

Reverse characteristics

Reverse saturation current( Leakage current)

• In the reverse bias of a diode if a voltage Full wave rectifier
less than the breakdown voltage is
applied very small constant current flows • A simple full wave rectifier consists of two
through the diode due to the minority diodes.
charge carriers. This current is called • A centre tapped transformer is used in the
reverse saturation current. circuit.
Breakdown voltage • During the positive half cycle first diode
• The reverse voltage at which the current conducts current and second diode during
increases sharply is called reverse negative half cycle.
breakdown voltage.
• the phenomenon in which reverse current
increases sharply at break down voltage is
called Zener effect.
• The breakdown of the diode at the critical
reverse voltage due to the increased
production of electron-hole pair is called
avalanche breakdown .

Dynamic resistance

• It is the ratio of small change in voltage ΔV

to a small change in current ΔI:

Filters
APPLICATION OF JUNCTION DIODE - RECTIFIER • The circuits used to filter out the ac
• The process of conversion of ac current to ripples from the rectifier output are called
dc current is called rectification. filters.

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• The capacitor input filters use large The unregulated dc voltage (filtered
•
capacitors. output of a rectifier) is connected to the
Zener diode through a series resistance Rs
such that the Zener diode is reverse
biased.
• Any increase/ decrease in the input
voltage results in, increase/ decrease of
the voltage drop across Rs without any
change in voltage across the Zener diode.
• Thus the Zener diode acts as a voltage
regulator.
SPECIAL PURPOSE p-n JUNCTION DIODES Optoelectronic junction devices:
Zener diode • Devices in which conductivity changes
due to photo-excitation
• It is developed by C. Zener Photodiode
• Zener diode is used in the reverse bias, in • A heavily doped p-n junction diode with a
the breakdown region. transparent window.
• Zener diode has a sharp break down • Used as a photo detector.
voltage called Zener voltage. • Operated under reverse bias
• A zener diode is used as a voltage • When light (photons) with energy (hν)
regulator. greater than the energy gap (Eg) of the
• Zener diode is fabricated by heavily semiconductor falls at the junction
doping both p, and n- sides of the electron-hole pairs are generated.
junction. • Due to the reverse bias the electrons
• When the applied reverse bias voltage (V) move to n- region and holes to p-region
reaches the breakdown voltage (Vz) of the giving rise a current in the external circuit.
Zener diode, there is a large change in the • The current increases with intensity of
current. light.
• Zener voltage remains constant, even • A photodiode can be used as a photo
though current through the Zener diode detector to detect optical signals.
varies over a wide range. This property of
the Zener diode is used for regulating
supply voltages so that they are constant.

Symbol

Symbol
Zener diode as a voltage regulator(Stabiliser):

Light emitting diode (LED)

• It is a heavily doped p-n junction in
forward bias.
• The diode is encapsulated with a
transparent cover.

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