DEPARTMENT OF

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Signal Flow Graphs and The Mason’s Gain

Rule

January 27, 2025

© Katsuhiko, O. (2002). Modern control engineering. Pearson

Education International.

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General introduction

A block diagram is useful for graphical representation of control

system dynamics.

They are also used extensively in the analysis and design of

control systems.

The alternative approach to graphical representation of control

system dynamics is the signal flow graph approach.1

1
Often calledOnayanMason
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The signal flow graph approach and the block diagram

approach yield the same information...

...and one is in no sense superior to the other.

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Signal flow graphs

A signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of

simultaneous linear algebraic equations.

When applying the signal flow graph method to analyses of control

systems,...

...we must first transform linear DEs into algebraic equations

in s.

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A signal flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are

connected by directed branches.

Each node represents a system variable, and each branch

connected between two nodes acts as a signal multiplier.

Note that the signal flows in only one direction.

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The direction of signal flow is indicated by an arrow placed on

the branch,...

...and the multiplication factor is indicated along the branch.

The signal flow graph depicts the flow of signals from one
point of a system to another...

...and gives the relationships among the signals.

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A signal flow graph contains essentially the same information

as a block diagram.

If a signal flow graph is used to represent a control system, then a

gain formula, called Mason’s gain formula,...

...may be used to obtain the relationships among system

variables without carrying out reduction of the graph.

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Definitions

Node Is a point representing a variable or signal.

Transmittance Is a real or complex gain between two nodes.

Such gains can be expressed in terms of the TF

between two nodes.

Branch Is a directed line segment joining two nodes. Its

gain is the transmittance.

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Definitions

Input node or source Is a node that has only outgoing

branches. This corresponds to an independent
variable.

Output node or sink Is a node that has only incoming

branches. This corresponds to a dependent
variable.

Mixed node Is a node that has both incoming and outgoing

branches.

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Definitions

Figure 1: Signal flow graph.

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Definitions

Path Is a traversal of connected branches in the

direction of the branch arrows.

If no node is crossed more than once, then the

path is open.

If the path ends at the same node from which it

began and does not cross any other node more
than once, it is closed.

If a path crosses some node more than once but

ends at a different node from which it began, it
is neither open nor closed.

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Definitions

Loop Is a closed path.

Loop gain Is the product of the branch transmittances of a

loop.

Non-touching loops Loops are non-touching if they do not

possess any common nodes.

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Definitions

Forward path Is a path from an input node (source) to an

output node (sink) that does not cross any
nodes more than once.

Forward path gain Is the product of the branch transmittances

of a forward path.

Figure 1 shows nodes and branches, together with

transmittances.

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 DEPARTMENT OF
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Properties of Signal Flow Graphs

1. A branch indicates the functional dependence of one

signal on another.

A signal passes only through in the direction specified by

the arrow of the branch.

2. A node sums the signals of all incoming branches and

transmits this sum to all outgoing branches.

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 DEPARTMENT OF
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Properties of Signal Flow Graphs

3. A mixed node2 , may be treated as an output node (sink)

by adding an outgoing branch of unity transmittance.

See Figure 1. The branch with unity transmittance is directed

from x3 to another node, also denoted by x3 .

Note, however, that we cannot change a mixed node to a

source by this method.

2
which has both
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4. For a given system, a signal flow graph is not unique.

Many different signal flow graphs can be drawn for the

system by writing the system equations differently.

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Signal Flow Graph Algebra

In drawing, we bring the input nodes (sources) to the left and

the output nodes (sinks) to the right.

The independent and dependent variables become the input

nodes (sources) and output nodes (sinks), respectively.

The branch transmittances can be obtained from the

coefficients of the equations.

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To accomplish this, we use the following rules:

1. The value of a node with one incoming branch, as shown in

Figure 2(a), is x2 = ax1 .

2. The total transmittance of cascaded branches is equal to

the product of all the branch transmittances.

Cascaded branches can thus be combined into a single branch

by multiplying the transmittances, as shown in Figure 2(b).

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Figure 2: Signal flow graphs and simplifications.

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3. Parallel branches may be combined by adding the

transmittances, as shown in Figure 2(c).

4. A mixed node may be eliminated, as shown in Figure 3(d).

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Figure 3: Signal flow graphs and simplifications.

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5. A loop may be eliminated, as shown in Figure 3(e). Note

that
x3 = bx2 , x2 = ax1 + cx3

x3 = abx1 + bcx3 (1)

or
ab
x3 = x1 (2)
1 − bc
Equation (1) corresponds to a diagram having a self-loop of
transmittance bc.

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Elimination of the self-loop yields (1), which clearly shows that the
overall transmittance is
ab
l − bc

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 DEPARTMENT OF
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Signal Flow Graph Representation of Linear Systems

The graph can be drawn from the system equations or, with
practice, by inspection of the physical system.

Routine reduction by use of the foregoing rules gives the

relation between an input and output variable.

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Consider a system defined by the following set of equations:

x1 = a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + b1 u1 (3)

x2 = a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + b2 u2 (4)

x3 = a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 (5)

where u1 , and u2 are input variables and x1 , x2 , and x3 are

output variables.

The signal flow graphs are shown in Figure 4 where (a) represents
(3), (b) represents (4), and (c) represents (5); (d) represents the
complete signal flow graph for the system described by (3)-(5)

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Figure 4: Signal flow graphs.

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A signal flow graph for this system (a graphical representation of

these 3 simultaneous equations)...

...indicating the interdependence of the variables, can be

obtained as follows:

First locate the nodes x1 , x2 , and x3 as shown in Figure 4(a).

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Note that aij , is the transmittance between xj , and xi .

Equation (3) states that x1 , is equal to the sum of the 4 signals

a11 x1 , a12 x2 , a13 x3 , and b1 u1 .

Equation (4) states that x2 is equal to the sum of a21 x1 , a22 x2 ,

a23 x3 , and b2 u2 .

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The signal flow graph representing (3), (4), and (5) is then
obtained by combining Figures 4(a), (b), and (c).

In dealing with a signal flow graph, the input nodes (sources)

may be considered one at a time.

The output signal is then equal to the sum of the individual

contributions of each input.

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 DEPARTMENT OF
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The overall gain from an input to an output may be obtained

directly from the signal flow graph by;

▶ inspection,

▶ use of Mason’s formula, or

▶ a reduction of the graph to a simpler form.

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 DEPARTMENT OF
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Signal Flow Graphs of Control Systems

Some signal flow graphs of simple control systems are shown in

Figures 5 to 8.

For simple graphs, the closed-loop TF C (s)/R(s) or

C (s)/N(s) can be obtained easily by inspection.

For complicated signal flow graphs, Mason’s gain formula is

quite useful.

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Figure 5: Signal flow graphs.

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Figure 6: Signal flow graphs.

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Figure 7: Signal flow graphs.

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Figure 8: Signal flow graphs.

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 DEPARTMENT OF
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Mason’s Gain Formula for Signal Flow Graphs

Normally, we wish to determine the relationship between an

input variable and an output variable of the signal flow graph.

The transmittance between an input node and an output

node is the overall gain, or overall transmittance.

Mason’s gain formula, which is applicable to the overall gain,

is given by
1 X
P= Pk △k
△
k

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where
Pk = path gain or transmittance of kth forward path.

△ = determinant of graph.

= 1−(sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of

gain products of all possible combinations of two
non-touching loops) − (sum of gain products of
all possible combinations of three non-touching
loops) + . . ..
P P P
= 1− a La + b,c Lb Lc − d,e,f Ld Le Lf + . . .

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P
a La = sum of all individual loop gains.
P
b,c Lb Lc = sum of gain products of all possible combinations
of two non-touching loops.
P
d,e,f Ld Le Lf = sum of gain products of all possible
combinations of three non-touching loops.

△k = cofactor of the kth forward path determinant of

the graph with the loops touching the kth
forward path removed,...

...that is, the cofactor △k , is obtained from △ by

removing the loops that touch path Pk

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Note that the summations are taken over all possible paths
from input to output.

We shall illustrate the use of Mason’s gain formula by means of

two examples.

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Example 1

Consider the system shown in Figure 9. A signal flow graph for this
system is shown in Figure 10. Let us obtain the closed-loop TF
C (s)/R(s) by use of the Mason’s gain formula.

In this system there is only one forward path between the input
R(s) and the output C (s). The forward path gain is

P1 = G1 G2 G3

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Figure 9: Multiple-loop system.

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Figure 10: Signal flow graph for the system in Figure 9.

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From Figure 10, we see that there are 3 individual loops. The
gains of these loops are;

L1 = G1 G2 H1

L2 = −G2 G3 H2

L3 = −G1 G2 G3

Note that since all 3 loops have a common branch, there are
no non-touching loops.

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Hence, the determinant △ is given by

△ = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 )
= 1 − G1 G2 H1 + G2 G3 H2 + G1 G2 G3

The cofactor △1 of the determinant along the forward path

connecting the input node and output node...

...is obtained from △ by removing the loops that touch this

path.

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Since path P1 touches all three loops, we obtain

△1 = 1
The overall gain between the input R(s) and the output C (s), or
the closed-loop TF, is ∴ given by;

C (s) 1
=P= × P1 △1
R(s) △
G1 G2 G3
=
1 − G1 G2 H1 + G2 G3 H2 + G1 G2 G3

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This is the same as the closed-loop TF obtained by block

diagram reduction.

Mason’s gain formula ∴ gives the overall gain C (s)/R(s)

without a reduction of the graph.

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Example 2

Consider the system shown in Figure 11. Obtain the closed-loop

TF C (s)/R(s) by use of the Mason’s gain formula.

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Figure 11: Signal flow graph for a system.

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