Name: Nean Class: 91 Date: 2/&/1

Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

Learning Objectives

Core:

(a) Define an element, a compound and a mixture

(b) State the types of particles present in elements and compounds
(c) State the names, the chemical symbols of elements and the chemical formulae of compounds
(d) List examples of elements, compounds and mixtures
(e) Describe the differences between elements, compounds and mixtures and between metals and
non-metals

A. Elements

1. An element is a substance that cannot be broken dou into _ simpler substances by

any means.

2. To tell that a given name iS an element: the name can be found in the Periodic Table such as

potassium, magnesium, aluminium, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, iodine, neon, copper, etc.
diamond, and are elements but the

names cannot be found in Periodic Table.

3. To tell that a given chemical formula is of an element: the formula must contain only
of symbol such as Na, Mg, O2, H2, P4, Ceo.
4. Of the naturally-occurring elements, 11 are gases, such as chlorine and oxygen, two are

liquids - mexcurn _and bromine, while the remaining are solids at room temperature.

Chlorine
magnesium mercury
solid element - liquld element gaseous element

Page 1 1
A1. Classification of Elements

1. Elements can be classified as metals or non-metals, depending on the physical properties.

2. Physical properties of metals and non-metals:

Metals Non-metals

appearance solid
appearance

Soli d at room temperature Usually gases or liquids at room temperature

melting and boiling point melting and boiling point

conductors of heat and electricity conductors of heat and electricity

Metallic and non-metallic elements are separated by a 'staircase' in the Periodic Table.

Metals: elements to the left of the 'staircase'

Non-metals: elements to the of the 'staircase'

Non-metal
a case
metal (separate met o and

B
27

Bi Po
Fr

Page 1 2
A2. What are Elements Made Of?

1. Elements are made of either or morales

Atoms of Elements Metals and

Metals_ are elements that made of atoms. All atoms are of the
2. _Grovo Vill and the
same type.
For example, copper is an element made of only copper atoms.
Neon is an element made up of only neon atoms.

Molecules of Elements

3. A Moleaales is a group of two or more atoms chemically joined together.

be considered
4. Elements such as most of the _non - metals are made up of molecules. To

as elements, the atoms that make up the molecules must be of the Rame Kind

Elements

Molecules
Atoms

Noble gases Metals Most of the non-metals

Page 1 3
B. Compounds

1. A compound is a substance made up of tho or more elements chemically combined (react)

together.

Example•

When magnesium (an element) reacts with oxygen (an element) to form magnesium oxide.

magnesium oxygen magnesium oxide

(element) (element) (compound)

Shiny silvery solid Colourless Gas White solid

Example 2

Water is formed from reacting hydrogen gas and oxygen gas as follow:

hydrogen +
oxygen water "pop!"

(element) (element) (compound)

lighted splint

Hydrogen: colourless gas, boling point of -253°C

drops
Oxygen: colourless gas, boiling point of - 183°C water formed

Water: colourless liquid, boiling point of 100°C.

hydrogen and
oxygen (air)

2. To tell that a given name is of a compound: the name must derive from at least two different
elements such as sodium chloride, magnesium oxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen trifluoride, etc.

To tell that given chemical formula is of a compound: the formula must contain at least two
different symbols of elements such as NaC7, MgO, H2O, CO2, NH3, CuCO3, etc.

Page 4
B1. Properties of Compounds
1. A compound has different properties from its constituent elements.
2. A compound has fixed melting and boiling point.
3.
A compound can be _brakcn daun_ into simpler substances only by chemical reactions.
sodium chloride sodium + chlorine

(compound) (element) (element)

B2. What are Compounds Made Of?

1. Compounds are made up of either male kes

Molecules of Compounds

2. If the elements that chemically combined to form the compound are between _nan-metalk,
the compound is made up of
3. The atoms that made up the molecules must be of different kind.
4. Examples of compounds that are made up of molecules: water, carbon dioxide, ammonia.

&

Ions in Compounds

5. If the elements that chemically combined to form the compound are between _mefals_ and
non-metal the compound is made up of
6. For example, sodium chloride (common salt) is a compound that consists of ions.

sodium lon chloride ion

Page 1 5
Name: Nean Date: 3/9/12

Experimental Techniques of Separation and Purification

Learning Objectives

Core:

(a) Name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, temperature, mass and volume, including
burettes, pipettes, measuring cylinders and gas syringes

(b) Describe and explain methods of purification by the use of a suitable solvent, filtration, crystallisation
and distillation (including fractional distillation and the use of fractionating column).

(c) Suggest suitable methods of purification, given information about the substances involved

(d) Demonstrate the knowledge and understanding of paper chromatography and interpret simple
chromatograms

(e) Identify substances and assess their purity from melting point and boiling point information

(fl) Understand the importance of purity in substances used in everyday life, e.g. foodstuffs and drugs.

Extended:

(g) Interpret simple chromatograms using R- values.

(h) Outline how chromatography techniques can be applied to colourless substances by exposing
chromatograms to substances called locating agents

A. Introduction to Purity of a Substance

A ..p............. substance consists of only one type of substance (can be element or

compound) that is not mixed with anything else.

Example: sugar, copper, water, sodium chloride, etc.

An......m.......... substance is a mixture, which contains two or more substances not chemically
combined e.g. air, seawater, milk, alloys, etc.

Exercise 1 : Are the following pure substance?

Supplement Facts
Serving Size 4 grams(approx. one teaspoon)
Servings Per Container 36

mount Per Serving 6 Daily Value

Vitamin 2569 mg 4280%

(as Ascorbic Acid, Caldum Ascorbate, Magnesium Ascorbate)

20.mg
Hesperidin (as Citrus Bioflavonolds) 20 mg
10 mc

*Daily Value not established.

..10 1 ...

Page 1 1
B. Obtaining Pure Substance from Mixture (Separation Techniques)

The process of separating mixtures into pure substances is known as purification, which is done

by using........puS..c.a......... methods.

1. Mixture of an Insoluble Solid and a Liquid

Appearance of the mixture:

Examples of such mixtures:

sand and water

• powdered chalk and water

......f.ltx.ouhlo.n..... is used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid and obtain both solid
and liquid.

How the separation works?

The filter paper consists of many very small

holes, which allow only small particles such as water
and dissolved substance to pass through. The particles of insoluble solid
are large and thus, not
able to pass through the holes and stay on the
filter paper.

The solid collected in the filter paper is <nown as the ........esidve...

The liquid that passes through the filter paper is called the .........Itc he.........

particles of insoluble solid

Filter
paper

Suspension
chalk in water
Filter
funnel

Chalk (the
small holes of filter paper
residue)

Flask
particles of water

Water
the filtrate)

Applications

Filtration is used in water purification. Small filter systems are used at home to filter tap water.

Page I 2
2. Mixture of a Soluble Solid and a Liquid (Solution)

When a solid (solute) dissolves in a liguid (solvent), a ....o..v.f i.c...... is formed.

Examples of such mixtures:

O sodium chloride (common salt) and water

sugar and water

dryness used if we want to

obtain solute
evapotation.te.or......rystalisaf..............is
(dissolved solid) from a solution.

ouistill.atio............. is used if we want to obtain solvent (liquid) from the solution.

Exercise 2: Why can't we use filtration to separate this type of mixture?

Answer: the dissolve solid will be able to.pas....tar.gu.g...... the filter paper.

Soluble solid
Insoluble solid

Page I 3
2.1 Evaporation to Dryness Call the way)

How the separation works?

Heat the solution in

an evaporating dish. Only the solvent (liquid) will boil and evaporate off. The
dissolved solid will appear as more and more solvent evaporates.

2.2 Crystallisation half way)

How the separation works?

1. Heat the solution to evaporate the solvent

until .....atufamh................ (when first sign of
solid starts to appear).

2. Leave the hot solution to....(..2 .......

As it cools, the dissolved solid will appear as crystals.
3. Filter to obtain the crystals and dry
the crystals between sheets of filter paper.

filter
paper

crystals
The cold solution is poured off to
The hot solution obtain the crystals. The rystals
allowed to cool. The solid may bo dried by pressing them
between sheets of iter paper.
appears as pure crystals,

The solution is heated to

evaporate most of the colvent.

Note

Crystallisation is a preferred method when we want to obtain a solute from a solution.

Many substances ......dle.com.p..1e..... when strongly heated.
For
example, sugar will decompose when it is heated strongly.
evaporation might burn the substance (spoil)

Page 1 4
2.3 Simple Distillation

How the separation works?

the solvent vapourises.
Heat the solution in the distillation flask. At the boiling point of the solvent,
The vapour rises, enters the condenser and is cooled in the condenser.
collected as the ....dishi.lot...........
The vapour condenses into a liquid and is

The solute will be left in the distillation flask as the residue.

Water out

Side arm
condense 1
Condenser gas- lauid

Distillation Flask
Solution
Boiling Chips

Water in Receiver

Distillate

Note

ensure...m..........
Water enters the condenser from the bottom and leaves at the top: to
condenser.
.cond.enso.tlo.f..... of all the vapour that enters the
chips are added to the mixture: to ensure a.smooth..ho.......... process.
Boiling
Conical flask to receive distillate: conical flask has small opening (mouth), thus,
minimising [email protected]. through splashing and evaporation.

Application

is mainly used in countries

The main use of distillation is to obtain pure water from seawater, which
source of water.
where there are few rivers or lakes to provide adequate

Page
 Separating solid from liquid

Insoluble solid from liquid

Soluble solid from liquid

Filtration
Crystallisation Evaporation Distillation

to dryness

Solid
Solid Solid Liquid
Liquid

3. Mixture of Insoluble Liquids

When two liquids are mixed and they are not soluble in each other, separate
be formed.
...l.yev........... will
Such
liquids are known as ..v.0.. ........ liquids.

Examples of such mixtures:

oil and water

petrol and water

... pa.rahna.. unne.. is used if we want to obtain both liquids separated from one another.

How the separation works?

Based on the difference in the densities of the two liquids.

stopper stopper
stopper

separating funnel separating funnel separating funnel

oil

water

oil is left in
the funnel

tap

Page 1 6
4. Mixture of Soluble Liquids

When two liquids are mixed and they are soluble in each other, .....C.... separate layers will be
formed.

Such liquids are known as ..mis.ci.b.l.e..... liquids.

Examples of such mixtures:

o ethanol and water

another.
fractian.. distillatia is used if we want to obtain both liquids separated from one

How the separation works?

the boiling points of the two liquids, where the liquid with lower boiling
Based on the difference in

point will boil first.

thermometer

water out

fractionating condenser
column

glass beads

water in

distillation flask-
mixture of water
and ethanol 7%
boiling chips
distillate
receiver

will wit nicely

Note

First liquid (first distillate) obtained is ... e.tha......

Second liquid (second distillate) obtained is ........v...............
Glass beads in the fractionating column: to provide a...lage.sw.oven for the vapour to

condense on.

Application

Fractional distillation is used in industries to obtain pure oxygen and pure nitrogen from air. Note

that air must be cooled to liquid first before fractional distillation can be carried out.

Page 7
Exercise 3: Name the technique which is most suitable for the following separation.

(a) obtaining water from sugar solution distillat........................

(b) removing sand from milk .......liltrm.g..............................

(c) separating mixture of diesel oil and benzene oil

(d) obtaining salt from salt solution .........V.0.2e.lto....a.......ytalisation

(e) separating olive oil from water

C. Separating Mixture of Solids

In separating a mixture of two or more solids, a combination of separation techniques is needed

such as filtration and evaporation.

Examples of such mixtures:

° Sand and sodium chloride (common salt)

The key idea is to convert one of the solids into a...Sohlatian...... by

.....d.1969590.M0Q.... it, so that
separation can be taken place.

The following are steps in separating a mixture of sand and sodium chloride:

Step Action Reason

Add water to the mixture and stir Salt can be dissolved in water but not sand

Filter the mixture Separate sand out from salt solution

Wash and dry the sand To obtain pure sand

Heat the salt solution to evaporate To remove the water, so that solid salt can
the water. be obtained.

salt solution
and sand

-fitter funnel

stir - salt dissolve:

sand is obtained salt is obtained

Page 8
D. Checking Purity of a Substance

We can check if a substance is pure by measuring its melting point or boiling point.
melts or boils at only
A pure substance has ...fixed..... melting and boiling points, which means
one temperature.
The table below shows the difference between pure and impure substances.

Pure substance Impure substance

Pure solid melts at only one temperature. Impure solid starts melting at a..L.o.n ......
temperature and also boils ..OV.PY......... a

range of temperature.

° Pure ice starts melting at 0°C. Frozen seawater is impure ice and starts
When the block of ice all melts, the melting at about -2.5°C.
temperature is at 0°C. When the block all melts, the temperature
is at 3°C.

Pure liquid boils at only one temperature. Impure liquid starts boiling at a ..... g.hox......
temperature and also boils .....7v.2.x...... a

range of temperature.

Pure water starts boiling at 100°C. ° Seawater is impure water and starts
When water all boils, the temperature is at boiling at about 104°C.
100°C. When the seawater all boils, the
temperature is at 107°C.

Page 1 10
E. Paper Chromatography

Examples of uses of paper chromatography:

To separate and identify dyes found in food and ink.

O To separate substances found in urine.
O To separate substances in blood or amino acids from protein.

Separating a Mixture in Paper Chromatography

Place a spot of the mixture at the .....tor.t...lin.e.....

Dip the paper into a suitable solvent, with solvent level

.be.lo........ the spot.

As the solvent travels up the paper, it will ........iS.S.o..v........the components in the mixture
and carry them along.
Different components travel up the paper at different ....S.peR.d... according to the
different .....l.odty in the solvent.

If the component is not soluble -_ stay at ...Sta.rt.line...

If the component is less soluble - appear ..c.os.ex....... to the start line.

If the component iS very soluble - appear ...l.r.tbo.e..4.y from the start line.
The resulting chromatography paper with the separated components iS called
the .....r.amatialam
lid

solvent front

paper
container

sample
at origin separated components

solvent

Note

The start line should be drawn in pencil and not in ink: ink will ..diss.q..v.e.....and.interfe.r.e....
with the results.

The start line must be above the solvent: to prevent the mixture from dissolving in the
solvent ......or.... separation.
Paper chromatography should be carried out in a container with lid: to prevent ..p.atafio.n.....
of solvent.

Paper should be taken out of the solvent when the solventis..ncY...the....o.p...... of the paper.

Page 11
Identifying Components Separated in Paper Chromatography
To identify the components, we need to use references.
If a component has the same .....level..... as that of a reference (travel the same distance

from the start line), this means that the component is the same substance as the reference.

R. value = distance moved by substance

distance moved by solvent

The distance is measured from the start line.

R of lower spot= = 0.326

R; of higher spot =

pencil line

Exercise 5:

Complete the blanks based on the given chromatogram.

solvent front

food
Dye Dye B

The results of the experiment show that:

The food colouring consists of different dyes.

Two known dyes are ... . .. . .. ., .. . .. . . .. . ........ .....

The food colouring does not contain

of the dyes in the food colouring cannot be identified.

Dye B is .. M9....... soluble than Dye C.
The R. value of Dye A is
t ..........#1.4............

Page 1 12
Locating Agent

Chromatography can also be used on colourless substances.

However, a locating agent is needed on the chromatogram at

the end to change the colourless
spots to...Colaured.....SubStoue$ to ensure that the components can be seen.
can be
For example, sugars in fruit juice can be separated and the colourless components
agent makes
identified by spraying the chromatogram with a suitable locating agent. The locating
the components appear as brown spots.

position
position reached
reached by.
by, solvent
solvent

stan
start
line
line
fruit juice sucrose maltose glucose
fruit juice sucrose maltose glucose

pure sugars pure sugars

Page 1 13
F. Quick Summary

Type of Mixture

Insoluble solid & liquid Soluble solid & liquid Insoluble liquids Soluble liquids

Filtration Crystallisation or Simple Use of separating Fractional

Evaporation distillation funnel distillation

(to dryness)

Solid Liquid Liquid A

Solid Liquid A
Liquid Liquid B Liquid B

Page 1 14
G. Collection of Gas

There are four main methods to

collect gas produced from a chemical reaction.
gas
(a) collection of water water

delivery tube
gas jar

water

Suitable for gases that are insoluble in water e.g. oxygen, nitrogen,
hydrogen.

(b) upwaid dirplacment_ of air

gas delivery tube

gas jar

gas

Suitable to collect gases that are denser than air e.g. carbon dioxide,
chlorine, oxygen.

The denser gas will displace the air and Sink to the bottom of the jar.

Page 1 15
(c) downward disalate -of air
me n

delivery tube

Suitable to collect gases that are less danse than air e.g. hydrogen,
ammonia.

The less dense gas will displace the air

and rist to the foe of the inverted
jar.

Not tested
(d) Collection of gas using a gas syringe

gas

For collecting and measuring volume of gases

Table below summarises solubility and density of some gases.

Gas Solubility Density compared to air

Ammonia Soluble Less dense

Carbon dioxide Slightly soluble Denser

Hydrogen Insoluble Less dense

Oxygen Insoluble Denser

Page 1 16
Name: Nean Class: 4H Date:

The Particulate Nature of Matter

Learning Objectives

Core:

(a) State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases

(b) Describe the structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of particle separation, arrangement and
types of motion

(c) Describe changes of state in terms of melting, boiling, evaporation, freezing, condensation and
sublimation

(d) Describe qualitatively the pressure and temperature of a gas in terms of the motion of its particles

(e) Show understanding of the random motion of particles in a suspension (sometimes known as
an

Brownian motion) as evidence for the kinetic particle (atoms, molecules or ions) model of matter

(f) Describe and explain diffusion

Extended:

(g) Explain changes of state in terms of the kinetic theory

(h) Describe and explain Brownian motion in terms of random molecular bombardment

(i) State evidence for Brownian motion

(j) Describe and explain dependence of rate of diffusion on molecular mass

A. States of Matter

1. There are three physical states of matter - solid, liquid and gas.

2. Properties of solids, liquids and gases:

Solid Liquid Gas

Fixed shape No fixed shape No fixed shape

Take the shape of Spread easily to fill any container

container
Take the shape of container

Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume

Take the volume of container

Not compressible Not compressible Compressible
B. Kinetic Particle Theory

1. The kinetic particle theory states that:

All matter is made up of tiny particles.
These particles are in constant and random motion
(and thus particles have kinetic energy).

2. The diagram below shows the model of particles in each of the state:

• 3-dimensional

• 2-Dimensional

Particles in a solid Particles in a liquid Particles in a gas

3. The table below describes the differences in the particles of each of the states.

Solid Liquid Gas

Arrangement of Very closely packed Closely packed Far apart

particles in orderly arrangement in random arrangement In random arrangement

Movement of Vibrate about fixed Sliding over one another Move randomly at high
particles positions speed

Forces between Very strong Strong but weaker than Negligible

particles in solid

Energy of Low More kinetic energy A lot of kinetic energy

particles than in a solid but less
kinetic energy than gas.

4. In the same volume, a gas has fewer particles than a liquid, which in turn has fewer particles than
a solid. Thus, in general, the density of gas < liquid < solid.

5. The constant random motion of the gas particles would hit the walls of the container. These hitting
causes gas to exert a pressure on the container.
C. Changes in State

1. Matter can change from one state to another. This is known as changes of state.
Changes in state are reversible.

2. The names of the processes involved in changes of state:

gas

freezing
solid liquid
melting

C1. Melting, Boiling and The Heating Curve

Melting process:
point, the particles
When a solid is heated, the particles gain energy and vibrate faster. At melting
the particles in an orderly manner.
gain sufficient energy to overcome the strong forces that keep
the solid
another and have random arrangement. This cause
The particles can now slide over one
to melt into a liquid.

2. Boiling process:
When a liquid is heated, the particles gain energy and vibrate faster. At boiling point, the particles
gain sufficient energy to overcome the forces that keep them closely packed together. The particles
are now far apart and moving randomly. This cause the liquid to boil into gas.

Heat added

Solid Liquid

3. The heating curve:

first sign
of gas boiling point A to B: temperature of solid is increasing

liquid
660 gas
B to C: the solid is melting (melting point)
first drop
of liquid
C to D: temperature of liquid is increasing
solid
liquid 242 0
whole liquid
D to E: the liquid is boiling (boiling point)
boils
solid E to F: temperature of gas is increasing
whole solid melts

Time/s
C2. Condensation, Freezing and the Cooling Curve
1. Condensation process:
When a gas is cooled, the particles lose energy, move slower and come closer together.
At condensation point, the particles are close
enough and they are only able to slide over one
another, This cause the gas to condense into
liquid.

2. Freezing process:
When liquid
a is
cooled, the particles•lose energy and move slower. At freezing point, the particles
move so slow that they can
only vibrate about fixed position and the forces are able to keep them in
an orderly arrangement. This cause the liquid to freeze into a solid.

3. The cooling curve:

A to B: temperature of gas is decreasing

first drop
all gas condenses
of liquid
to liquid B to C: the gas is
condensing
°C (condensation point)
/

all liquid

Tempratue
B gas
becomes solid C to D: temperature of liquid is decreasing
liquid
liquid liquid
solid D to E: the liquid is freezing (freezing point)
solid
E to F: temperature of solid is decreasing

first sign of solid

Time / s

C3. Boiling and Evaporation

1 . Differences between boiling and evaporation:

Boiling Evaporation
Fast process Slow process
Bubbles are observed No visible change

Occurs throughout the liquid Occurs at the exposed surface of the liquid only

Occurs at a fixed temperature Occurs at all temperatures

Source of energy needed Energy supplied by the surroundings

C4. Sublimation

1. Sublimation is the change from a solid to a gas without melting.

Example: iodine, ammonium chloride, mothball and dry ice
D. Diffusion

1. Diffusion is a process whereby the particles move due to constant random motion of the particles.

2. Diffusion occurs only in gases and liquids. The diffusion in the gaseous state is the fastest as

particles in gases move faster.

3. Diffusion in gases experiment:

A gas jar containing air IS on top of another gas jar containing bromine gas (reddish-brown).
A cover used to separate the gas jars is removed.

air mixed with

bromine
bromine

Observation:
of time.
A uniform reddish-brown colouration is seen throughout the gas jars over a period

Explanation:
Both air and bromine particles moving at constant random motion to occupy available
space.

4. Diffusion in liquids experiment:

A small drop of purple potassium manganate (VII) is introduced into a beaker of distilled
the beaker.
water. A purple colouration forms at the bottom of

Observation:

A uniform purple colouration is seen throughout the liquid after a long time.

Explanation:
Both potassium manganate(VII) and water particles moving at constant random motion
within the liquid.
D1. Factors affecting Rate of Diffusion

1. Two factors affecting the rate of diffusion: temperature and relative molecular mass (Mr).

2. The higher the temperature of the substance, the faster the rate of diffusion.

Example:

Experiment 1 Experiment 2

Mixture

Before

Temperature lower higher

Rate of diffusion slower faster

Explanation Diffusion takes place slower Diffusion takes place faster as

as particles move slower at particles move faster at higher
lower temperature. temperature.

Note: when comparing temperature factor, we are must compare based on the same substance.

3. Relative molecular mass or Mr, is similar to the mass of the substance.

It is calculated by adding up the mass number of all the atoms in the substance (based on the
formula of the substance).

Example:
M. of helium, He is 4
Mr of sodium, Na IS 23

M. of bromine gas, Br2 is 80 x 2 = 160

M, of ammonia gas, NHs is 14 + (1 x 3) = 17

Exercise:
Mr of Cl2 iS .. .. 35.572. ....21
M. of CO2 iS .....12..(11.2.... 44

M. of CH4 is

M. of SO2 IS
32+ ( 16*2) - 44

M. of H2 is ......1X2.:.2.......
4. A gas with a lower relative molecular mass diffuse faster than gas with a higher relative
molecular mass.

Example 1:

Experiment 1 Experiment 2

air
air

Mixture
nitrogen
bromine
dioxide

Before

Formula bromine: Br2 nitrogen dioxide: NO2

faster
Rate of diffusion slower

M, of Br2 = 80 x 2 = 160 M, of NO2 = 14 + (16 x 2) = 46

Explanation
will diffuse faster
Nitrogen dioxide has lower M, and thus,

Example 2:

cotton wool soaked cotton wool soaked

White ring of in concentrated
in aqueous
ammonia
solid hydrochloric acid
(ammonium
chloride)

ammonia.
Ammonia gas, NH3 is produced from aqueous
Hydrogen chloride gas, HCl is produced from concentrated hydrochloric acid.
When ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas meet, they will react to form a white solid.

Observation:
The two gases did not meet at the centre of the tube. The white solid did not appear at the

centre but closer to the right side.

Explanation:
M. of NHa = 14 + (1 x 3) = 17
Mr of HCI = 1 + 35.5 36.5

Ammonia has a lower relative molecular mass and hence diffuses faster. Thus, the white

solid is formed further away from the aqueous ammonia.

Name: Neon Class: A1 Date: 25/9/1

Atomic Structure & Introduction to the Periodic Table

Learning Objectives

Core:

an electron
(a) State the relative charges and approximate relative masses of a proton, a neutron and

(b) Define proton number (atomic number) as the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

as the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

(c) Define nucleon number (mass number)
of an atom

(d) Use proton number and the simple structure of atoms to explain the basis of the Periodic Table

(e) Define isotopes as atoms of the same element which have the same proton number but a different
nucleon number

(f) State the two types of isotopes as being radioactive and non-radioactive

(g) State one medical and one industrial use of radioactive isotopes

(h) Describe the build-up of electrons in 'shells' and understand the significance
of the noble gas

electronic structures and of the outer shell electrons

(i) Describe the formation of ions by electron loss or gain

Extended:

(j) Understand that isotopes have the same properties because they have the same number of

electrons in their outer shell

A. Structure of an Atom & Sub-atomic Particles

1. An atom is the smallest indivisible particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.

2. An atom is made up of three sub-atomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.

Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus, while electrons orbit around the nucleus in the

electron shells.

election
shells

neutron

electron

Page 1 of 9
3. The table below gives further information about the three sub-atomic particles.

Particle Position in atom Relative charge Relative mass

Symbol

Proton In the nucleus +1

Neutron n In the nucleus

Electron e Around the nucleus 1/1840

From the information on relative mass:

Almost all the mass of an atom is contained in its ..nucleus......... because electrons have a

very tiny mass compared to protons and neutrons.

From the information on relative charge:

The nucleus is .20s tively.chamgedcharged because of the
protons.
All atoms have
..eond.. number of protons and electrons. Thus, atoms are.electricalu..nentral

B. Representation of an Atom
1. An atom of element X can be
represented in symbol form as shown

X represents the symbol of the element

Z represents the proton number or ..Oxto.m..c............ number

A represents the.....mss......numberor...nm.cleo.n ...... number.
Nucleon number or mass number .... .e.ut.ron.........

Example:

If element carbon, C, has 6 protons, 6 electrons, and 6 neutrons, the symbol would be:

2. Given the symbol, the number of electrons can be obtained from ... aromi.c n umher.
Number of neutron can be obtained from.....ma$..no.....atomic no

Exercise 1:

23 80
H Na Br
11 35
No. of protons: No. of protons: No. of protons: .....3.5.... ...
No. of electrons: No. of electrons: No. of electrons:
No. of neutrons: .....0....... No. of neutrons: 12
No. of neutrons: .45.....
Nucleon number: Nucleon number: .. 2.3 . . .. ... Nucleon number: . . . o. 0. . ..

Page 2 of 9
C. Difference among Atoms

1. elements in the Periodic Table, we can observe the following:

Going down the
from one atom to the next.
The number of protons increases by
electrons also increases by
Since atoms are electrically neutral, number of
in the numbers of neutrons in the atoms.
However, there is ........frend.....

Be
He

electron
electron electror
electron

protons
3 protons 5 neutrons
protons
neutrons
proton 2 neutrons

Beryllium
Lithium
Hydrogen Helium

D. Isotopes
but different
of the same element with the same number of .....p.9...........
1. Isotopes are atoms neutrons, isotopes have
this difference in number of
number of....newArQh........ Because of
different .......mos.......... numbers.

Example:

nucleus

"c

16 17 18

Oxygen
35 37

Chlorine 17
17

As long as the number of protons is the

Each element is defined by the ......rom.o...... number.
the same element even the number of neutron is different.
same, the atoms belong to

Isotopes have the same ...chemio.l...... properties because isotopes have equal number of
electrons (chemical reactions only involve outer shell electrons).

4. Isotopes have slightly different ......hg.icul..... properties.

Page 3 of 9
 the atom is not stable. The
5. Some isotopes are radioactive. Radioactive means that the nucleus of
form of radiation.
nucleus will break down, giving out some particles and energy in
Radio active ISofop es
Energy

Radiation

Radioactive
Atom

Particle

6. The emission of radiation from radioactive isotopes has the following uses:
...Meducal..... uses cancer treatment, sterilising medical equipment, locate tumour.

.. Industria.... uses - measuring and controlling thickness of paper, locating leakages in

pipes, nuclear power energy.

E. Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms

1. Electrons are arranged in shells. Each electron shell is numbered 1. 2, 3 and so on, going outwards
from the nucleus.

2. The maximum number of electrons that each shell can hold is shown in the table below.

Shell No. from nucleus Maximum no. of electrons in the shell

18

Rules in filling up the electrons of an atom:

The inner shell must be filled with electrons to the maximum capacity before the subsequent
shells are being filled up.
Note that for first 20 elements (from hydrogen to calcium), only 8 electrons can go into the third
shell. After calcium, the third shell can hold up to 18 electrons.

3. Electronic structure or the electronic configuration is used to describe the arrangement of electrons
in the shells.

Example 1: Lithium Atom, Li

Lithium atom has ............ electrons.

Electronic configuration of lithium is

Wage 4 of 9
 28
Example 2: Silicon Atom, Si
14

Silicon atom has .....14..... electrons.

Electronic configuration of silicon IS ..28.:H..

or the
4. The electron shell which is furthest away from the nucleus is called the outer shell
........v.oken............. shell. The electrons in this valence shell are known as the outer electrons or
the valence electrons.

(Full) electronic structure showing only valence electrons

Page 5 of 9
F. Introduction to the Periodic Table

1. The elements in the Periodic Table numbers.

are arranged in order of increasing proton

2. Vertical set of elements IS called a..9.coup....... Horizontal row of elements is called a perio.d...
Hydrogen and helium falls in the ......s....... period.

3. In a Group, the number of.....valence.......... electrons are the same for every element and is equal

to the Group number.

Example: beryllium and aluminium are both in Group III and they both have 3 valence electrons.

Note: The group containing the noble gases is named Group V/III. However, helium does not have 8
electrons in the valence shell but 2.

4. Elements in the same Group have similar chemical.... properties. This is because they have the

same number of valence electrons.

is equal to the
5. In a Period, the number of..elcciv.on.shells..... is the same for every element and
Period number.

Example: beryllium and aluminium are both in Period 3 and they both have 3 electron shells.

HYDROGEN

HELIUM

10
BORON CARBON NITROGEN OXYGEN FLUORINE NEON
LITHIUM

Be B 2.8
2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
2.1
12 13 14 16
SODIUM MAGNESIUM ALUMINIUM SILICON PHOSPHORUS SULPHUR CHLORINE ARGON

S
2.8.2 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8

2.8.8.) 2.8.82

fame no.

of shells

Page 7 of 9
G. Formation of lons

1. The electronic structure of noble gas atoms such as helium, neon and argon are very ..Strlole.........
number of electrons.
This is because their valence shells are filled to the ..maximum........

He Ne

2,8 2,8,8

Note: If an atom has fully-filled first shell (as valence shell), it is known as ..dup!et... configuration.
If an atom has a fully-filled second or third shell (as valence shell), it is known as ..aatat.......

configuration.

2. Atoms of other elements are not stable because their valence shells are not fully filled.
To become stable, atoms will need to
..gin.ar..1........... electrons.

3. If electrons are added to or taken away from an atom, the atom is no longer neutral.
It becomes a charged particle called ... . . .0.0....

Elements in Group I, and I11 (the metals) have f.9 N ...... outer shell electrons.
To become stable, the metal atom will ... a s........ electron(s) from its outer shell.
The ions formed are....positive...... ions, which also known as......cati.ons.......

Example 1: Formation of Lithium Ion

Li

Lithium atom, Li (2,1)

only ) no. hange
Neutron Proton electron

Lithium atom, Li

Lithium ion,

Example 2: Formation of Aluminium Ion

Page 8 of 9
5. Elements in Group V. VI and VII (the non-metals) have ...m....e...... outer shell electrons.
To become stable, the non-metal atom will .....in.... electron(s).
The ions formed are .20.sttl.&..... ions, which also known as....m..1.o.........

Example 1: Formation of Fluoride lon

Fluorine atom, F (2,7) (2,8)

Neutron Proton electron

Fluorine atom, F 10

Fluoride ion, 10 10

Example 2: Formation of Oxide Ion

2-

Page 9 of 9
Name: Nean Class: H Date: 2/10/12

Naming & Writing Chemical Formulae

A. Names and Formulae of Positive lons (Cations)

Charges Name of lons Formulae Remarks

Lithium Li* All group I elements form ions with 1+

charges.
1+
Sodium Na*

Potassium

Hydrogen
Silver Ag* Transition metals

Ammonium Polyatomic ion

Magnesium All Group II elements form ions with 2+

2+ charges.
Calcium

Zinc Transition metals

Copper(II) Cu2+

Iron(II) Fe2+

Lead(II)

3+ Aluminium A73+ Group III elements form ions with 3+

charges.
Iron(III) Fe3+ Transition metals

Chromium(III) Cr3+

Ammonia

SNOOPY™ Carbonate 9 COg

& Woodstock
Phosphates SOA

©2012 Peenuts Worldwide LLC

B. Names and Formulae of Negative Ions (Anions)

Charges Name of lons Formulae Remarks

Fluoride Group VII elements form ions with

1- charges.
Chloride
1-
Bromide Br

I"

Hydroxide OH- Polyatomic ions

Nitrite

Nitrate

Hydrogen carbonate

Manganate(VII)

S2- Group VI elements form ions with

2- charges.
Oxide O2-

Carbonate Polyatomic ions

Nitride N3- Group V: only nitrogen and

phosphorus can form ions with 3-
Phosphide p3-
3- charges.

Phosphate PO43- Polyatomic ion

Note:

Many Group IV and all Group VIII elements do not form ions.
For polyatomic ions, the charges are for all the atoms involved. The charges do not belong to
any particular one atom.
In naming, anions of non-metallic elements will end with -ide. If oxygen is present (in the cases

of polyatomic ions), the ending will be -ate or ite.

SNOOPY™
& Woodstock

Phosphales PO,

NO.

02012 Peanuts Worldwide LLC

804
C. Writing Chemical Formulae For lonic Compounds

To obtain the chemical formula of a given ionic compound:

1. Write out the positive ions and the negative ions in the compound,
2. Balance the charges on the positive ions with those on the negative ions.
The positively charged ions are always written first both in the name and in the chemical

formula of a substance.

Example 1: What is the chemical formula of magnesium oxide?

Magnesium ion is Mg2t Oxide ion is O2

The charge on one magnesium ion (2+) is balanced by one oxide ion (2-)

Thus, chemical formula is MgO.

Note: MgO and not OMg. Subscript 1 is not written.

Example 2: What is the chemical formula of copper(II) hydroxide?

Copper(1I) ion is Cu2+ Hydroxide ion is OH-

Two hydroxide ions ¾ 2-

Thus, chemical formula is Cu(OH)2.

• Note: CuOH2, CuO2H2 are wrong.

Example 3: Write the chemical formula of aluminium sulfide.

Aluminium ion is A73t Sulfide ion is S2-

Two aluminium ions 7 6+ Three sulfide ions 7 6-

Thus, chemical formula is Al2S3.

What do you observe?

Shortcut: the chemical formulae can be

obtained by 'criss-crossing' the number on the
charges of the ions.

Recall: magnesium oxide

2+

Ratio

Simplest ratio

chemical formula is MgO.

Note: the ratio must be in the simplest form.

Recall: copper(II) hydroxide

Cu OH

Ratio

.'. chemical formula is Cu(OH)2.

Recall: aluminium sulfide

3+
Al

Ratio

chemical formula is Al2S3.

D. Naming of lonic Compounds

Naming of an ionic compound involves identifying of the positive ion and negative ion in the
given substance.
Once the respective ions are identified, the names of the ions are written with positive ions
before the negative ions.

Example 1: What is the name of CaCl2?

By doing criss-cross method backwards, the two ions are Ca2+ and Cl-

Thus, chemical name is calcium chloride.

Example 2: What is the name of MgO?

By doing criss-cross method backwards, the two ions obtained will be Mg* and O•

However, oxygen is in Group VI. Thus, it does not from 1- ion but 2- ion, O2-

So, the charge is multiplied by 2 for both ions 7 Mg2+ and O2-

Thus, chemical name iS magnesium oxide.

Example 3: What is the name of CuSO4?

By doing criss-cross method backwards, the two ions obtained will be Cu2+ and SO42

Thus, chemical name is copper(II) sulfate.

Note:

In naming compounds involving transition metals e.g. copper, iron, etc., valency must be
stated with the exception of zinc compounds and silver compounds.

Examples

FeCk2 iron(II) chloride Zn(OH)2 : zinc hydroxide Ag2O : silver oxide

5
E. Naming and Writing Formulae for Covalent Compound

The steps in naming a covalent compound:

1. The first element IS named first, using the elements name.
2. Second element IS named as an anion (end with "-ide").
3. Insert in prefixes to denote the number of atoms for both 1. and 2. "Mono" is not used
to name the first element.
Prefixes: 1 - mono, 2 - di, 3 - tri, 4 - tetra, etc.

Examples:

CO: carbon monoxide CO2: carbon dioxide CCl4: carbon tetrachloride

SO2: sulfur dioxide SO3: sulfur trioxide S2C½2: disulfur dichloride

PBr3: phosphorus tribromide N2O: dinitrogen monoxide

Some covalent compounds are given special name

Examples:

H2O: instead of dihydrogen monoxide, 'water' is used.

NH3: instead of nitrogen trihydride, 'ammonia' is used.

CH4: instead of carbon tetrahydride, 'methane' is used.

F. Naming and Writing Formulae for Elements

In writing formula of the elements, the formula must reflect how the elements exist (atoms or
molecules).

Note: metallic elements exist as atoms. Non-metallic elements mostly exist as molecules
(except Group VIII, the noble gas - exists as atoms).

Examples:

Neon: Ne Nitrogen: N2 Iron: Fe magnesium: Mg

Oxygen: 02 Chlorine: Cl2 Hydrogen: H2

In naming of elements, given the formulae, the name follows that in the Periodic Table
regardless whether they exist as atoms or molecules.

Examples:

02: Oxygen Cu: Copper He: Helium Br2: Bromine

 Name: Nean Class: Date: 25/10/18

Bonding, Structures and Properties of Substances

ion ic 3 ions
Learning Objectives
Covalent - moleculer
Core:

(a) Describe the formation of ions by electron loss or gain

(b) Describe the formation of ionic bonds between elements from Groups I and VII
(c) Describe the formation of single covalent bonds in H2, Cl2, H2O, CH4, NH3 and HCI as the

sharing of pairs of electrons leading to the noble gas configuration

(d) Describe the differences in volatility, solubility and electrical conductivity between ionic and
covalent compounds
(e) Describe the giant covalent structures of graphite and diamond
(f) Relate their structures to their uses, e.g. graphite as lubricant and a conductor, and diamond
in cutting tools

Extended:

(g) Describe the formation of ionic bonds between metallic and non-metallic elements
(h) Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds as a regular arrangement of alternating
positive and negative ions
(0) Describe the electron arrangement in more complex covalent molecules such as N2, C2H4,
CH:OH and CO2
(j) Explain the differences in melting point and boiling point of ionic and covalent compounds in

terms of attractive forces

(k) Describe the macromolecular structure of silicon dioxide

(I) Describe the similarity in properties between diamond and silicon dioxide, related to their

structures

(m) Describe metallic bonding as a lattice of positive ions in a 'sea of electrons' and use this to

describe the electrical conductivity and malleability of metals

10 + 4 +6
& TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS 83
212 +10 +1
D
ABOD

AB
A BOD

BOD A Fo 1. Tone

A c

D
Fre 2. Covnient

Page I 1
A. Introduction to Bonding
other elements are not stable as they
Other than Group VIII (the noble gases), all atoms of
do not have fully-filled valence shell.
stable.
Thus, atoms will form bonds with one another so that they can become
• There are two types of bonding between atoms.

ionic bonding covalent bonding

(form between metal and non-metal atoms) (form between non-metal atoms)

B. Ionic Bonding

lonic
bonds are formed between metal (Group I - III) and non-metal (Group IV - VII) atoms

Example: between sodium and chlorine (sodium chloride)

between magnesium and oxygen (magnesium oxide)
between potassium and nitrogen (potassium nitride)

of sharing*
by of electrons from metal atoms to non-metal atoms.
After the transfer of electrons, the positive Ions and nen ativeions are formed.
The oppositely charged ions are then, together, forming ionic bond.
Compounds that contain ionic bonds are called ionic compounds.

Definition of ionic bonds:

lonic bonds are that formed between the resulting from the
transfer of electrons from metal atoms to non-metal atoms.

Example 1: sodium chloride (NaCI)

Sodium chloride is formed from the bonding between sodium and chlorine.

sodium atom: chlorine atom: both ions have stable

2,8,1 2,8,7 electronic configuration

(need to lose (need to gain

electron) 1 electron)

Page 2
Example 2:
magnesium fluoride (MgFz)
Magnesium fluoride is formed from bonding between magnesium and fluorine atoms.

fluorine atom: 2,7

magnesium atom: 2,8,2

(need to lose 2 electrons) (need to gain 1 electron)

Dot and cross diagram:

2+

Or

Sove time

Page 1 3
C. Structure & Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds
C1. Structure of Ionic Compounds (Using NaCl as Example)
The 'dot and cross' diagram only shows one fartaush unit of the ionic compound.
For example, in NaCI, only one Na* and one Cl are shown;

in MgF2, only one Mg2 and two Fare shown.

However, the actual structure consists of a continuously repeating 3-dimensional lattire

of positive and negative ions.

The ions are closely packed, arranged in an oderi manner and held in fixed position

by Sty ona

This structure forms by ionic compounds is known as _giant lan C structure

Note: lattice refers to a regular three-dimensional, orderly arrangement of particles.

orderly/ nicely arranged

sodium chloride salt crystal sodium ions and chloride ions

tree-dimensional arrangement of
sodium ions and chloride ions alternate with each other

The structure forms by ionic compounds can be drawn as:

Page 1 5
 C2. Physical properties of Ionic Compounds

• Physical properties refer to:

1) melting & boiling points,
2) electrical conductivity,
3) solubility (in water / organic solvent)

Table below shows physical properties of some ionic compounds.

Electrical Electrical

Melting Boiling Solubility conductivity conductivity

Substance
point (°C) point (°C) in water (when molten (in solid state)

or aqueous)

Sodium chloride 801 1413 soluble good does not conduct

Magnesium oxide 2852 3600 soluble good does not conduct

Potassium bromide 728 1376 soluble good does not conduct

Copper(II) chloride 620 990 soluble good does not conduct

Property #1: High melting and boiling point

lonic compounds generally have _hiah melting and For example, NaCl melts at
808°C. boiling Point
They generally exist as at room temperature (25°C) and pressure.

Explanation for property #1:

Large amount of heat energy is required to break

between the ions

during melting/boiling

breat the bandy

molten
crystal
anything that has
alat of heat high melting point.
charge and co move Can
Property #2: Conductor of electricity in molten and aqueous state
Conduct electricitu
Note: For a substance to be a conductor of electricity, there must be presence of
mo bile ions or mable

Free moving melt dissolve in wafer

In the solid state, ionic compound Cannot conduct electricity.
• lonic compounds conduct electricity only when in maten state and naveons state
• Molten state is a state when a solid substance has melted (at

temperature).
Aqueous state is a state when a substance has dissoled in water (usually at
room temperature).

Page 6
 Explanation for property #2:
In the solid state, the ions
stay fixed position or ions are not mobile and hence

cannot conduct electricity.

In the molten or aqueous state, the ions are free. maulnd and hence can conduct
electricity.

solid state:

ions are in fixed position and

not free-moving

dissolve

in molten state or aqueous solution:

ions are now free-moving and can conduct electricity

Property #3: Soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvent

lonic compounds are generally soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvent.

Examples of organic solvent include ethanol, petrol, turpentine, benzene, etc.

C3. Uses of Ionic Compounds

Property Use

High melting point Used as

Refractory materials are heat- resistant

For example, melting point of magnesium oxide is 2852°C.

It is used to line the inner surface of a high temperature furnace.

Page I 7
D. Covalent Bonding

• Covalent bonds are formed between non-metal atoms (Group IV - VII, including hydrogen).

Example: between hydrogen atoms themselves (hydrogen gas, H2)

between hydrogen and oxygen atoms (water, H2O)
between nitrogen and hydrogen (ammonia, NH:)
between carbon and hydrogen (methane, CH4)

• by of electrons between the non-metal atoms.

The shared electrons give rise to the covalent bond.

Substances that contain covalent bonds are called covalent substances.

Definition of covalent bonds:

Covalent bonds are strong bonds that formed by sharing of electrons between non-metal atoms.

D1. Covalent bonds between non-metal atoms of the same kind single' covalent bond

Example 1: hydrogen (H2)

Hydrogen atom: 1 Both hydrogen atoms: 2 (stable).

Each atom need to gain one electron One pair of shared electrons is

Thus, each hydrogen atom shares one represented by'

electron with each other. This is known as a single covalent bond.

Note: the shared electrons belong to all atoms that involved in sharing

Chemical formula Structural formula

H-H

Page I 8
Example 2: chlorine (Cl2)

Dot and cross

diagram (showing only valence electrons):

Chlorine atom: 2,8,7 Both chlorine atoms: 2,8,8 (stable).

Each atom needs to gain one more electron A single covalent bond is formed
Each chlorine atom shares one electron with between two chlorine atoms.

each other.

Chemical formula Structural formula

Example 3: oxygen (O2) double covalent

Dot and cross diagram:

Oxygen atom: 2,6 o Both oxygen atoms: 2,8

Each atom needs to gain two electrons. A double covalent bond is formed

Each oxygen atom shares two electrons between two oxygen atoms, which
with another oxygen atom. is represented by ' = '.

Chemical formula Structural formula

02

Page 1 9
Quick Check 1 on Covalent Bonding:

Use dot and cross diagram to represent the following covalent substances. You only need to show
the valence shell electrons.

Fluorine (Formula: F2) Nitrogen (Formula: N2)

F-F

D2. Covalent bonds between non-metal atoms of different kind

Example 1: hydrogen fluoride (HF)

Dot and cross diagram (showing only the valence electrons):

• Hydrogen atom: 1 Hydrogen atom: 2 (stable)

Fluorine atom: 2.7 Fluorine atom: 2.8 (stable)
Each atom needs to gain one electron.
Each atom shares one electron with each
other.

Page 10
Example 2: water (H2O)

Dot and cross diagram (showing only the valence electrons):

All three atoms are stable

Hydrogen atom: 1 (needs 1 more)
oxygen atom: 2,6 (needs 2 more)
Oxygen atom in the centre

Hydrogen atom each share one electron to

oxygen atom.

Example 3: carbon dioxide (CO2)

Oxygen atom: 1 (needs 2 more) All three atoms are stable

Carbon atom: 2, 4 (needs 4 more)

Carbon atom in the centre
C Oxygen atom each share two electrons to

carbon atom.

Page I 11
D3. Summary: Identify Ionic or Covalent?

When you are asked to draw a dot and cross diagram, given name or formula of the substance,
you have to identify the type of bonding first.
Identify the type of bonding by checking if the substance is made up from metal and non-metal
atoms or only non-metal atoms.
Recall: Metals (Group - I1I) and non-metals (Group IV - VII, including hydrogen).

Example 1: calcium sulfide, CaS

calcium = metal sulfide (comes from sulfur) = non-metal

metal and non-metal = ionic bond

Example 2: hydrogen sulfide, H2S

hydrogen = non-metal sulfide (comes from sulfur) = non-metal

non-metal and non-metal = covalent bond

Example 3: lithium phosphide, Li3P

Type of bond formed:

Example 4: aluminium fluoride, AlF3

Type of bond formed:

Example 5: carbon tetrachloride, CCl4

Type of bond formed:

Page 1 13
E. Types of Covalent Substances

Covalent substances can be categorised into two types:

Covalent substances

covalent bonds among large number of

covalent bonds among few atoms atoms throughout

simple coolent. subStance

Substan (e
e.g. diamond, silicon,
graphite
e.g. H2, H2O, NH3, CH4, CO2

F. Structure & Physical Properties of Simple Covalent Substances

F1. Structure of Simple Covalent Substances

The structure consists of many_ ample, Molleasles

These molecules are attracted together byweak Intirmalecular forces alattraction
Within each molecule, there are stcon_ coulent hond_ between atoms.
simple covalent substances is known as simple
The structure of

Examples: water, methane, carbon dioxide, ammonia, iodine,

etc.

(simple)

weak intermolecular forces

strong covalent bonds

Page 14
F2. Physical Properties of Simple Covalent Substances

Table below shows physical properties of some simple covalent substances.

Electrical Electrical
Melting Boiling Solubility conductivity
Substance conductivity
point (°C) point (°C) in water (in solid state)
(in liquid state)
does not conduct
Methane -182 -161 insoluble does not conduct

does not conduct does not conduct

Carbon -78 slightly
dioxide soluble

does not conduct does not conduct

Nitrogen -210 -196 insoluble

does not conduct does not conduct

Oxygen -218 -183 Insoluble

does not conduct does not conduct

Water 100

Property #1: Low melting point and boiling point

Simple covalent substances have melting point and boiling point.

respectively.
For example, melting point of water and methane is 0°C and -182°C
They generally exist as at room temperature (25°C).

Explanation for property #1:

peak

Small amount of heat energy is needed to break the M intermalonsar forte nf atiattion

Note: When melting or boiling simple covalent substances, we are breaking the

Meak Intermaleculir farcafol and not the strann_ camlant_ between the atoms.

attraction bond
To cordudt

Property #2: Non-conductor of electricity in any states

Simple covalent substances generally do not conduct electricity in any states.

Explanation for proper electrons

free -moving ions electrons),
There are to conduct electricity. move freely

Property #3: Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvent

Simple covalent substances are generally insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
For example, methane is insoluble in water but can dissolve in organic solvents such as
turpentine.

Page 1 15
F3. Uses of Simple Covalent Substances

Uses
Property

evaporate easily (volatile) in perfumes and flavourings

in room deodorants and insect repellents e.g.

does not conduct electricity as electrical insulators

G. Structure & Physical Properties of Giant Covalent Substances

G1. Structure of Giant Covalent Substances

The structure of giant covalent substances consists of __ atams_ forming covalent band
throughout the entire structure.
The structure of giant covalent substances is known as
Example: diam and araphite, silicon silir on dirxide
Comparison between simple covalent structures and giant covalent structures:

oxygen molecules

Simple covalent structure Giant covalent structure

G2. Diamond

G2.1 Structure of Diamond

In the structure of diamond, each carbon atom forms Strond cove ont bonds with

other carbon atoms in a arrangement throughout the

structure.

The carbon atom

n the centre
joined to four
others at
corners.

Page 1 16
G2.2 Physical Properties of Diamond

The table below shows some of the properties of diamond.

Properties Diamond

Appearance Transparent colourless crystal

Density (g/cm*) 3.5

Hardness Very hard

Melting and boiling point Melting point: 3500°C

Boiling point: 4827°C

Electrical Conductivity Does not conduct electricity

Property #1 : High melting point

Diamond has very high melting point; about 3500°C.

Explanation for property #1:

A large amount of heat energy is needed to break strom coalent lands between
carbon atoms.

Property #2: Diamond does not conduct electricity

Explanation for property #2:

Each carbon atom in diamond used all valence electrons in

bonding.
There are na-hee maving electron to conduct electricity.

Property #3: Diamond is insoluble in water and organic solvents

Property #4: Diamond is hard

Explanation for property #4:

All the carbon atoms stay in fixed position due to stron content laod when force is
applied.

G2.3 Uses of Diamond

Property Uses

hard tips of drilling or cutting tools

shiny transparent crystals

Page 17
G3. Graphite

G3.1 Structure of Graphite

• Graphite is made up of many layers of

other carbon atoms
Within one layer, each carbon atom forms covalent bonds to
in a arrangement.
The layers are held together by heal intermolecular foxces, of attraction

Weak forces
of attraction

Strong between each

covalent layer of
bonds carbon atoms

between each
carbon atoms
in each layer

part of each layer of graphite

G3.2 Physical Properties of Graphite

Table showing physical properties of graphite and comparing between diamond and graphite:

Property Diamond Graphite

Appearance Transparent colourless Black, opaque, shiny solid

crystal

Density (g/cm*) 3.5 2.2

Hardness Very hard soft

Melting and boiling point Melting point: 3500°C Melting point: 3652°C
Boiling point: 48270C

Electrical Conductivity Does not conduct electricity Conducts electricity.

Property #1: Graphite has high melting point

Graphite has very high melting point; about 3650°C.

Explanation for property #1:

A large amount of energy is needed to break strong covalent bands between carbon
atoms.

Page 1 18
Property #2: Graphite can conduct electricity

Explanation for property #2:

valence
Each carbon atom uses only _ 3 ouh of A4 in bonding. The are

firee moving to conduct electricity.

free-moving electron

Property #3: Graphite is insoluble in water and organic solvents

Property #4: Graphite is soft and slippery

Explanation for property #4:

when a force is
The layers of carbon atoms are able to slide over ane another
applied.

soft

G3.3 Uses of Graphite

Uses
Property

soft and slippery in pencil lead.

as a solid lubricant to reduce friction in machinery
conductor of electricity in brushes for electric motors and as inert electrodes.

Page 1 19
G4. Silicon & Silicon Dioxide (Sand)

Structure of silicon:

, just like
diamond
but Si instead Based on the given structure of silicon,

state the type of structure that silicon belongs

to.

t covalent shucture
Silicon
deduce the following properties of silicon:

(high low melting and boiling point.

o good / poon conductor of electricity.

tetrahedral
hard / soft solid.

° soluble / insoluble in water and organic solvent.

Structure of silicon dioxide (sand), SiO2:

Based on the given structure of silicon dioxide,

Silicon atom

state the type of structure that silicon dioxide belongs to.

Glant Covalent Striacture

Covalent bond
deduce the following properties of silicon:
Oxygen atom

° high low melting and boiling point.

conductor non-conductor of electricity.

• hard / soft solid.

soluble insoluble in water and organic solvent.

Page 20
H.. Metallic Bonding & Structure of Metals

In any metal, metal atoms areclosely packed together to form giant metallic Structure
The metal atoms in
the structure loses their valence electrana_ and form

The valence electrons are free -movin _ giving rise to seal of deloralised valence electyon
The attraction between the positive metal ions and the mobile electrons results in

metallic lond

Definition of metallic bond:

Metallic bonds are strong bonds that form between the and the

Iseal of delocalised valence within a metal.

Note: Metallic bonding exists within all metals.

Diagram below shows the metallic bonding and structure of metals.

positive ions
metal

free- moving

Page 1 21
H1. Physical Properties of Metals

Table below shows physical properties of some metals.

Melting Boiling Electrical conductivity Electrical conductivity

Substance
point (°C) point (°C) (in liquid state) (in solid state)

magnesium 650 1091 conducts conducts

copper 1084 2562 conducts conducts

aluminium 660 2740 conducts conducts

Property#1: Metals have high melting point

Most metals have high melting point.

Exception: Mercury, which is a liquid at room temperature.

Explanation for property #1:

A large amount of heat energy is needed to break the strong metallic loand
between the posilve meta and the sea of delacalised valene

Property #2: Metals can conduct electricity in all states

Explanation for property #2:

•
There is a_ free-maxing present to conduct electricity.
valence electrons.

electrons
moving
into metal
0099 electrons
leaving
melal
metal plece

Property #3: Solubility of metals

• Metals are insoluble in water and organic solvents.

Note: some metals react with water to form compounds.

Page 1 22
Name: Nean Class: 9h Date: 3/12

Acids, Bases, Oxides and Preparation of Salts

ning Objectives

Core:

(a) Describe the characteristic properties of acids as reactions with metals, bases, carbonates and effect on

litmus and methyl orange

(b) Describe the characteristic properties of bases as reactions with acids and with ammonium salts and effect
on litmus and methyl orange

(c) Describe the neutrality and relative acidity and alkalinity in terms of pH measured using Universal Indicator
paper (whole numbers only)

(d) Describe an explain the importance of controlling acidity in soil

(e) Classify oxides as either acidic or basic, related to metallic and non-metallic character

(f) Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of preparation, separation and purification of salts as examples
of some of the techniques (methods for preparation should include reactions of acids with metals, insoluble
bases and insoluble carbonates).

Extended:

(g) Define acids and bases in terms of proton transfer, limited to aqueous solutions

(h) Describe the meaning of weak and strong acids and bases

(i) Further classify other oxides as neutral or amphoteric

(j) Demonstrating knowledge and understanding of the preparation of insoluble salts by precipitation

(k) Suggest a method of making a given salt from a suitable starting material, given appropriate information
A. Acids

A1. Definition of Acids

An acid iS substance that produces

Example of common acids:

Name of acid Formula of acid lons produced when acid dissolved in water

Hydrochloric acid
HT, CI
Nitric acid

Sulfuric acid
Ethanoic acid

2. To be able to produce hydrogen

ions, all acids must contain element

3.
Before adding water, acid is made up of molecules

4. Equation to show the production of hydrogen ions

by acid:

not
acid (molecule) hydrogen ion + negative ion

+ Cl-

5. The 'breaking' of the molecule into H+ ions and negative ions are called
distocsiation/ionisation
6. Ht ions are often called a

A2. Properties of Acid Solutions

1. Acids taste SoUY

2. Acids are corrosive

due to presence of
3. Acids turn blue litmus paper _ red

4. Acids have pH less than

5. Acids are colourless.

Acid solutions can conduct electricity.

There are to conduct electricity.

in water
A3. Chemical Reactions of Acids

1. Acids react with some metals to produce salt and hydrogen gas.

metal + acid salt + hydrogen gas

Examples: reactants

magnesium + hydrochloric acid > magnesium chloride + hydrogen

calcium + nitric acid Calum nitrate

Ca ANO2

zinc + sulfuric acid hydrogen

Note: hydrochloric acid ¾ chloride salt, e.g. sodium chloride;

sulfuric acid sulfate salt, e.g. magnesium sulfate;

amount of metals
grey
nitric acid > nitrate salt, e.g. calcium nitrate decreases.

offer vescence
• Observation for the reaction:
lower than hydrogen in the _ reactim tu_ series.
Acids do not react with metals that are

potassium

reacts vigorous lu_ with acid

sodium

calcium

magnesium

aluminium
Reactivity

zinc reacts_ radilu with acid

metal

iron
Increases

lead

reference point
1001360
hydrogen

copper

silver
reaction with acid

gold
2. Acids react with carbonates to produce salt, water and carbon dioxide gas.

carbonate + acid 7 salt + water+ canoondiaxide

Examples:

calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + water + carbon dioxide

Ca C12 + C 02

magnesium carbonate + sulfuric acid water t Carbon dioxide

Mg Co2 H2504 Mg S04 H20 +

iron(II) carbonate + nitric acid yon nitrate f wafer t

t (H N03), H20 + CO2

Observations for the reaction: bubbles seen.

3. Acids react with bases to produce salt and water.

acid + base >

Examples:

sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid * sodium chloride + water

+ + H2 0

sulfuric acid + potassium hydroxide > potassim Sulfate + water

+ 2120

calcium oxide + nitric acid calcium nitrate t water

Ca(N02, +

This reaction is also known as neutyalifatins reaction.

There will be no effervescence because no gaseous substance IS produced in this reaction.
 IMPORTANT

IS needed for
All the properties and reactions of acids are due to the presence of H* ions.
acids to display the above properties.

Example: dry solid citric acid does not turn blue litmus paper red and does not react with a piece of
magnesium.
without water with water

ageons form

dry, blue
litmus
paper magnesium

citric acid crystals citric acid crystals

dissolved in water

A4. Uses of Acids

1. Food preservation
• This is because bacteria do not grow well in acidic conditions.

2. Cleaning metals and some grease

• Acid can be used to remove the layer of rusty metals.

3. Car batteries (sulfuric acid)

BOSCH
 h

H has No
A5. Strength of Acids
neutron No electron
1. A strong acid is an
acid that completelu Tonired in water.
Examples: HCI, H2SO4 and HNO3

- is used to
represent complete ionisation.

acid (molecule) hydrogen ion + negative ion

ons

Note: There will be large_number of Ht ions produced.

2. A weak acid is an acid that partialls in water.

Examples: ethanoic acid, carbonic acid, citric acid

(reversible arrow) is used to represent partial ionisation

acid (molecule) hydrogen ion + negative ion

CH, COO H

Note: There will be Small number of H+ ions produced.

 CH3 COOH
ethanoic acid

A6. Distinguishing Strong and Weak Acids

1. For the same concentration of both strong and weak acids (e.g. 1 mol/dm3 of a strong acid compared
to 1 mol/dm3 of a weak acid), Strong and

Strong acids have a lower _ab than weak acids Weak aad.
Strong acids conduct electricity than weak acids
weak acids
Strong acids react Faster with metals, carbonates and bases than
( more vigorous)

- hydrochloric acid ethanoic acid

Very vigorous reaction Very slow reaction

Explanation:

Strong acid competelu_ ionises in water while weak acid only _ at all ionises in water.
Thus, there are more / higher concentration of _ podgtal in the strong acid solution.

1.0 mol/dm3 1.0 mol/dm3 solution

solution of HCI

belter
strong acid Conduit electrioly
P More
 GAH

normally
insoluble
B. Bases and Alkalis bases that Are

Soluble
B1. Definition of Bases and Alkalis

1. A base is a substance that reacts with acid to form sat and bater only.

base + acid salt + water

2. Group of chemical substances that are bases include mela oxides and metal hudfoxides

They are said at room temperature.

Examples:

Metal oxides Metal hydroxides

sodium oxide, Na20 sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

zinc oxide . ZnO zinc hydroxide, Zn(OH)2
calcium oxide, CaO calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3 iron(III) hydroxide, Fe(OH)s
copper(II) oxide, Cuo copper(II) hydroxide, Cu(OH)2

Exception: ammonia ( NHA) alkali

3. All metal oxide and metal hydroxides will neutralise acids.

Examples:

sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid sodium chloride + water

magnesium oxide + sulfuric acid magnesium sulfate + water

4. Most bases are insoluble in water. Only some are Soluble in water.

The common bases that are soluble in water are:

sodium hydroxide, NaOH

° potassium hydroxide, KOH

calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2

Bases
ammonia, NH3
e.g. Cud, ZnO, Mg(OH)2,

5. An alkali is a term used to describe the bases

that are Soluble in water.
Alkalis

e.g. NaOH,
NH:(aq), KOH,
 6. All alkalis will produce when dissolved in water.
ion)

Examples:

Name of alkali solution Formula of alkali lons produced when dissolved in water

sodium hydroxide And Na

potassium hydroxide KOH
OH and K
calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
**ammonia solution OH- and NH4+

7. Equation to show the ionisation by alkali in water:

Sodium hydroxide ¾ sodium (ion) + hydroxide (ion)

OH-

B2. Properties of Alkalis

1. Alkalis have a Litter taste and Joann feel.

due to presence of OH ions
2. Alkalis turn red litmus paper

3. Alkalis have pH value greater than (9-14)

4. Alkalis are hazardous.

5. Alkalis are colourless.

6. Alkali solutions can conduct electricity.

There are fire movingions to conduct electricity.

B3. Chemical Reactions of Bases and Alkalis

1. Bases react with acids to produce salt and water (neutralisation reaction).

Examples: Acid Base

sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid sodium chloride + water

+ + H2O
Salt + water
Neutralisation reactions occur between
acid and bases.

+ water
potassium hydroxide + sulfuric acid potasium sultate
2 H2 0
H2504 K,504

nitrate + Hoter
magnesium oxide + nitric acid magnesium

+ Mo (NO), H20

2. Alkalis react with ammonium salts to produce salt, water and ammonia gas.

ammonium salt + alkali 7 Salt + Hater t ammonia

chloride
Examples:
nitrate
ammonium nitrate + sodium hydroxide > sodium nitrate + water + ammonia

No NO3 + H2O +

ammonium sulfate + potassium hydroxide *

potassium sulfatet water + ammonia

(NH4)S0 4

ammonium chloride + calcium hydroxide chlovide t watertammonia

2 NH, CI + 2N H-3

Observation for the reaction:

gas evolved, which will turn red litmus paper bue

smelly
B4. Uses of Bases and Alkalis

1. Sodium hydroxide is used in making soaps.

2. Ammonia solution is used in window cleaning solutions and in making fertilisers.
3. Magnesium hydroxide is used in:
Toothpaste, to neutralise acids in the mouth to prevent tooth decay.
O Antacid, to neutralise excess acid in the stomach and thus, stop indigestion problem.

10
B5. Strength of Alkalis

1. A strong alkali undergoes complete lonisatiorin water.

Examples: NaOH, KOH and Ca(OH)2

Sodium hydroxide sodium ion + hydroxide ion

Nat +

Na'
OH"

OH- Na'
Na*
Na*
Na*
JOH" Na'

Note: There will be number of OH ions produced.

2. A weak alkali undergoes _partin imitation in water.

Examples: aqueous ammonia / ammonia solution

ammonia + water hydroxide ion + ammonium ion

Note: There will be number of OHions produced.

11
B6. Distinguishing Strong and Weak Alkalis

1. For the same concentration of both strong and weak alkalis (e.g. 1 mol/dm' of a strong alkali

compared to mol/dm3 of a weak alkali),

Strong alkali has a higher pH than weak alkali

Strong alkali conduct electricity better than weak alkali

Explanation:

Strong alkali completely water while weak alkali only partially tonises
ionies in

in water.

Thus, there are higher concentration of OHI 100 in the strong alkali solution.

-OH

OH

12
C. Indicators and pH

C1. pH Scale

The ph scale is a set of numbers from

2. It is used to indicate whether a solution is acidic, neutral or alkaline.

hydrogen ion (H*) hydroxide ion (OH-)

hydrogen ion (H*)
hydroxide ion (OH-)

Acids Alkalis

Higher H concentration, Higher OH concentration,

lower OH concentration lower H concentration
lower pH value
higher pH value

pH = 7 means that the solution is nentral

The concentration of and in the solution are the same

pH < 7 means that solution is

The concentration of is higher than in the solution.

The smaller the pH value, the more acidic is the solution.

means that the solution is aralive

The concentration of is higher than in the solution.

The greater the pH value, the more alkaline is the solution.

3. pH values of some common substances:

baking soda bleach

stomach acid milk

apple juice blood

10 11 12 13 14

10 11 12 13 14
fresh'
water
acid/
battery acid rain
tomato soap drain
pure rain cleaner
soft drinks laundry detergent

13
C2. Determining pH of a Solution

1. Most solutions of acids and alkalis are colourless. It is hard to identify them just by appearance.

2. ph of a given solution can be determined by using substance called indicator.

Litmul_ paper
Shows red colour in a solution with pH < 7 and blue in a solution with pH > 7.
Does not give a good estimate of how acidic or alkaline the solution is

Shows different colours at different pH values.

the
The pH value is found by adding universal indicator (or dipping the paper) into
colour chart.
unknown solution and comparing the colour obtained with the
Give good approximation to the actual pH value of the solution.

Universal Indicator colour chart:

1 0 1 1 12 13 1 4

blue 10101^
strong acid strong alkalins

Other common laboratory indicators:

Indicator Colour in acidic Colour in alkaline Colour in Neutral

solution solution solution

Methyl orange red

Phenolphthalein pinn colourless /light piak

14
3. pH Meter can also be used to obtain very accurate pH value of a given solution.
The probe is dipped into the solution and the meter shows the pH value digitally.

4. Possible pH of some common substances:

pH range Type Examples

1-3 Strongly acidic hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid

4- 6 Weakly acidic carbonic acid, ethanoic acid

Neutral water, sodium chloride solution

8-11 Weakly alkaline aqueous ammonia

12 - 14 Strongly alkaline aqueous sodium hydroxide, aqueous potassium hydroxide

+ (a (0H ),

15
D. Oxides

1. An oxide is a compound formed when omger reacts with one other plement
Examples:
carbon + oxygen > carbon dioxide
C + 02 CO2

zinc + oxygen ) zinc oxide

+ 02
0:
2. Oxides can be classified into four types: acidic, basic, amphoteric and neutral.

D1. Acidic Oxides

1. Acidic oxides are usually oxides of non-Metals such as SO2, CO2, NO2, SiO2.

Most acidic oxides dissolve in water to produce acids.

Examples:

Acidic oxide Dissolves in water to form

NO2 Nitric acid

SO3 Sulfuric acid

CO2 Carbonic acid

Acidic oxides can react with (to form salt and water).

x, Example:

sulfur trioxide + sodium hydroxide sodium sulfate + water

D2. Basic Oxides

1. Basic oxides are usually oxides of metals such as CuO, MgO, CaO, etc.

Basic oxides are the same as hases

2.
( Same prop erry)
3. Basic oxides react with Acids (to form salt and water).

Example:

magnesium oxide + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + water

16
 exceptions

D3. Amphoteric Oxides

1. Some )metallic oxides are

2. There are three amphoteric oxides: _ 2n0__. Pb0_ and_ AL, O,

( alkalines)
Amphoteric oxides react with both acids and (to form salt and water).

Examples:

H2O only 3 amphotenic

D4. Neutral Oxides

1. Some non-metallic oxides are neutrall

2. There are three neutral oxides: NO H.0_ and _ co

No

3. Neutral oxides do not react with either acids or

H20 only nentyal.
Go
( no reaction)

D5. Summary for Oxides

Oxides

Non-metal oxides Metal oxides

Acidic Neutral Basic

oxides oxides oxides oxides

NO, No 2n0

Co
CO.
Al203

17
 12/2/19

E. lonic Equation

An ionic equation is an equation that shows the on :_ taking part in a reaction.

Steps in writing an ionic equation:

1 . Write a chemical equation (balancing is optional at this step).

2. Identify soluble salts / soluble base (alkali) / acids.
3. Separate the compounds in 2. to their ions.
4. Cancel the same ions on both sides of the equation.
5. Re-write the remaining as ionic equation.
6. Balance the ionic equation.

Solubility Table

Solubility of Salts in water

Salts Solubility in water

Sodium, Potassium and Ammonium salts are soluble (no exception)

All nitrates salts are soluble (no exception)

All sulfate salts are soluble except BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4,

Chubbi Lector
All chloride salts are soluble AgC!, PbCl2
except
/(same for bromide and iodide salts)/

All carbonates are insoluble except Na2CO3, K2CO3 and

(SPA carbonate)

Solubility of Bases in water

Bases Solubility in water

All metal oxides are insoluble except sodium oxide, potassium oxide & calcium oxide
All metal are insoluble except sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide & calcium hydroxide
hydroxides

Example 1: identify @
+

Copy down one ri thout

underline
lonic equation:

the Sami So
Example 2: Cancel out Mg +24 2 Mg +H2
soluble sah
KOH +
KNO3 + H2O

H H2O

lonic equation:
OH H' H. 0

18
F. Salts

1. The diagram below shows the various uses of salts in our daily lives.

silver salts chemicals

sodium nitrite
sodium sulphate
sodium citrate
Photography

Food Sodium chloride

preservatives industry

Salts in Society

Medical Fertilisers
Food
uses in agriculture

sodium chloride
plaster of Paris ammonium sulphate
(calcium sulphate) glutamate (MSG) ammonium nitrate

2. A salt is a compound that is generally formed when:

a) acid + metal > salt + hydrogen gas

Example: + +

b) acid + base salt + water

Example: + H2O

c) acid + carbonate > salt + water carbon dioxide

Example: + + CO2

3. Some salts are soluble in water while some are not. The solubility of salts is given in the table below:

Salts Solubility in water

All sodium, potassium and are soluble (no exception)
ammonium salts (SPA salts)
All nitrates salts are soluble (no exception)

All sulfate salts are soluble except BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4,

All chloride salts are soluble

(same for bromide and iodide salts)

All carbonates are insoluble except Na2CO3, K2CO3 and (NH4)2CO3

20
F2. Overview of Preparation (Making) of Salts

1. The method used to prepare a salt depends on the solubility of the _salt in woter

Salt Preparation

Soluble salts Insoluble salts

Sodium, potassium, Others

ammonium salts (SPA) Precipitation

Sexy Le ster
Titration Reaction of acids with
excess insoluble carbonates,
bases, metals Silver Chloride
Sadiun chloride
Calcium sulfate
Potassium sullate
Ammonium nitrate

21
F3. Preparation of Soluble Salts (EXCEPT Sodium, Potassium, Ammonium Salts)

Example of salts that can be made by this method: magnesium sulfate, zinc chloride, iron(II) nitrate,
copper(II) sulfate, etc.
acid with excess insoluble carbonate, an insoluble base or a metal.
To make these salts, we react an

Example: In making magnesium sulfate, MgSO4, any of following can be used:

a Sullunic acid with excess Magnesi um meral

H2S04 + Mg

b) Sulfuric_ acid with excess _ magner Am oxide

Mg504 t H.0
c) Sullund acid with excess

**Steps in preparation of magnesium sulfate (using magnesium and sulfuric acid as e.g.)**

1. Heat the sulfuric acid (optional).

2. Add magnesium m excess to the acid in a beaker.

3. Filter to obtain filter off the

mognesim sufate
Solution
the salt solution until Sextivration / crystals can be seen forming at the side.

5. Leave the solution to cool for more crystals to form.

6. Filter to obtain magnesium sulfate crystals and dry the crystals between filter paper.

magnesium

funnel
filter paper

excess

magnesium
glass rod
sulphuric
acid

reacting magnesium
magnesium
solution

evaporating-
dish

funnel.
filter paper magnesium
magnesium sulfate
crystals solution
filter
paper
magnesium sulfate
crystals

22
 The table below shows reason behind of some of the steps in the making of magnesium sulfate:

Action Reason

Heat the acid To Speed the reaction.

Add the metal in To ensure that all the acid is (sO that no acid is left to
Completell
contaminate the salt).
excess reacted

How can you tell that the magnesium added is in excess?

1) No more effervescence / bubbles stops

2) Grey metal remon unreacted.

Evaporation is stopped
So that the salt will not
at saturated point and Lase Later of crustalivation and
become
not to
powder cunhudroys
dryness

23
 SPA salty
F4. Preparation of Soluble Salts (Sodium, Potassium, Ammonium Salts)

Example of salts that can be made by this method: potassium chloride, sodium sulfate,
ammonium nitrate, etc.
The method of preparation of these salts are known as titration method.

To make these salts, we react an acid with an alkali solution.

Example: In preparation of potassium chloride, KCI, the following can be used:

a) hydrochloric acid with potassium hydroxide solution

KOH

**Steps in preparation of potassium chloride**

1. measure_ a known volume (e.g. 20 cm3) of hydrochloric acid into a conical flask.

2. Add indicator into the conical flask.

3. Add aqueous potassium hydroxide from the to the acid in the conical flask until the

indicator __ shande olaur

4. record the volume of aqueous potassium hydroxide needed to cause the colour change.

5. repe at the experiment without adding the indicator.

6. Evaporate the solution until saturation and allow the solution to cool for more crystals to form.

7. Filter to obtain potassium chloride crystals and dry the crystals between filter paper.

potassium
hydroxide solution

hydrochloric
acid

phenolphthalein-
indicator
solution of
hydrochloric acid
potassium
• indicator
chloride

24
 The table below shows reason behind of some of the steps in the making of potassium chloride:

Action Reason

Repeat the titration without adding To ensure that indicator will not Contaminate the salt.
an indicator

Record the volume needed for sure that can be obtained

pure Scatt
neutralisation
when repeat the titration.

Evaporation is stopped at So that the salt will not lose mater of crustallifation_
and ecome
saturated point and not to dryness pobler/anhudrous

25
F5. Preparation of Insoluble Salts

Example of salts that can be made by this method: silver chloride, calcium sulfate, lead(II) chloride, etc.
The method to prepare insoluble salt is known reaction.
as
are cipitation
•
In precipitation reaction, two soluble salt (solutions) are needed:
first name
one solution must contain the positive ion of the insoluble salt (the
a)
of the insoluble salt (the second name).
b) the other solution must contain the negative im

The positive and negative ions will combine upon mixing to form the insoluble salt as

Example: In preparation of silver chloride, AgCl, any of the following can be used:

a) silver nitrate solution with sodium chloride solution

Sodium Nitate
silver nitrate + sodium chloride > Silver Chloride
+ No Cl + No N02

b) silver sulfate solution with magnesium chloride solution

silver sulfate + magnesium chloride > Silver Chloridet Magnesmm
Ag2 304 + 2 Ag CL

nitrate solution and sodium chloride

**Steps in preparation of silver chloride (using silver
solution as e.g.)*

1. Mix silver nitrate and sodium chloride solution.

2. Filter to obtain Chloride

wakh the precipitate with _ distilled water and dry the precipitate using filter paper.

wash bottle
funnel [distilled water)

filter paper
•precipitate
precipitale

silver nitrate sodium chloride

precipitate of
solution solution
silver chloride

26
G. Water of Crystallisation in Salts

1. Salts appear crystal-like and shiny. This is due to the presence of some water molecules in the
structure. These water molecules are known as of crustallisation
Salts that contain water of crystallisation are called ny dr atted salts, and they are in the
form of

Salts that do not contain water of crystallisation are called Anhud rous salts, and they
are in
the form of _ pobder
Example:

Name of salt Anhydrous salt Hydrated salt

Formula Appearance Formula Appearance
Copper(II) sulfate White powder CuSO4.5H20 Blue crystals

2. To convert from hydrated salt to anhydrous salt, heat is needed to remove the water of crystallisation.

Example: CuSO4.5H20

Evaporate a solution to dryness will also cause the salt formed to be anhydrous.
When some water is added to an anhydrous salt, a hydrated salt will be obtained.
near

cry stal powder

water
H. Summary for Salt Preparation

The three methods used in preparation of salts:

Solubility Soluble Soluble

Insoluble
of salt (Except SPA salts) (SPA salts)

Zinc nitrate, Zn(NO.)2 Potassium nitrate, KNO3 Silver chloride, AgCl

Example Magnesium chloride, MgCl2 Sodium chloride, NaCl Lead(II) iodide, PbI2
Copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4 Ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4 Barium sulfate, BaSO4

Reaction of acids with

Method excess insoluble Titration Precipitation
carbonates, bases or metals
Acid + insoluble carbonate
Reaction Acid + insoluble base Acid + alkali Salt solution + salt solution
Acid + metal
State of
Solid + solution Solution + solution Solution + solution
reactants

Form of
the salt
obtained Solution Solution Solid (precipitate)
from the
reaction

27
 Name: Class: G-91 Date: 63119

Identification of Tons and Gases

Learning Objectives:

Describe the following tests to identify:

cations:

aluminium, ammonium, calcium, chromium(III), copper(II), iron(II), iron(III) and zinc (using
aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia as appropriate)
use of the flame test to identify lithium, sodium, potassium and copper(II)
anions:

carbonate (by reaction with dilute acid and then limewater), chloride, bromide and iodide (by
reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous silver nitrate), nitrate (by reduction with
aluminium), sulfate (by reaction under acidic conditions with aqueous barium ions) and sulfite
(by reaction with dilute acids and then aqueous potassium manganate(VII))
gases:

ammonia (using damp red litmus paper), carbon dioxide (using limewater), chlorine (using
damp litmus paper), hydrogen (using lighted splint), oxygen (using a glowing splint), and sulfur
dioxide (using aqueous potassium manganate(VII)

A. Colour & Solubility Check

Checking the colour of the given unknown and test its solubility in water is important as these
will give a clue to the what the unknown substance might be.

A1. Colour of Substances

Solids Solutions
White solid sodium salts, potassium salts and sodium salts, potassium salts and
Colourless solution ammonium salts & hydroxide ammonium salts

zinc salts & hydroxide *

zinc salts

acids and alkalis

Blue copper(II) salts & hydroxide copper(II) salts
Green iron(II) salts & hydroxide iron(II) salts
*
chromium(III) salts & hydroxide chromium(III) salts

copper(II) carbonate exception

Yellow iron(III) salts iron(III) salts
Reddish-brown iron(III) hydroxide & oxide

no need Purple potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4

to test
Grey / Silver metals, e.g. Mg, Fe, Na, except Cu
Black copper(II) oxide, CuO
carbon, C

SOE
-

C1 v05
salts generally refer to chloride, sulfate, nitrate
e.g. copper(II) salts refer to copper(II) chloride, copper(II) sulfate, copper(II) nitrate

G9 Chemistry / Identification of lons and Gases

A2. Solubility of Substances

Salts Solubility in water

All sodium, potassium and are soluble (no exception)

ammonium salts (SPA salts)
All nitrates salts are soluble (no exception)

All sulfate salts are soluble except BaSO4, CaSO4, PbSO4,

All chloride salts are soluble except AgCI, PbCk2

(same for bromide and iodide salts)

All carbonates are insoluble except Na2CO3, K2CO3 and (NH4)2CO3

B. Identifying Unknown Substance

(-)
Most substances consists of two parts,......1o........ and..amon......
To find out what the unknown substance is test for . . . (.o f.! o ..... and test for.O1on......
must be carried out on the unknown, separately.
Once the two ions are found, the substance can be identified.

Example 1:

test for cation

Cation is Zn2+
Conclusion:
take

The unknown is

take
a portion .......4.050p........
test for anion
Anion is SO42-

Example 2:

test for cation

notion Cation is Fe3+
Conclusion:
sake

The unknown is

take
a
Portion ........f.e.Ck..........
test for anion
Anion IS Cl m (11 Chloride

G9 Chemistry / Identification of Tons and Gases

C. Test for Cations (Positive ions in the Unknown)

To test for cations in the solution, two chemicals (reagents) are

To identify which cation is present, the following must be observed:

O Colour of precipitate after adding a few drops of the chemicals and

If the precipitate soluble (dissolves) in excess of the chemicals,

The table on the shows the tests for cations.

Observations on adding
Cation present Observations on adding
in the solution aqueous sodium hydroxide aqueous ammonia

White precipitate seen., No precipitate seen.

Calcium Insoluble in excess.
odd more
t Shake

White precipitate seen. White precipitate seen.

Aluminium Soluble in excess
odd mat Insoluble in excess.

to give colourless solution

White precipitate seen. White precipitate seen.

Zinc Soluble in excess
Soluble in excess
to give a colourless solution to give a colourless solution

Greyish-green precipitate seen. Greyish-green precipitate seen.

Chromium Insoluble in excess.
Soluble in excess
( Cr3t) to give a green solution

Blue precipitate seen. Blue precipitate seen.

Copper (11) Insoluble in excess. Soluble in excess
to give a deep blue solution
(Cult)
Green precipitate seen. Green precipitate seen.
Iron (11) Insoluble in excess. Insoluble in excess.

Reddish-brown precipitate seen. Reddish-brown precipitate seen.

Iron (111)
Insoluble in excess. Insoluble in excess.
( Fest)
No precipitate seen.
Ammonium Ammonia gas produced on
warming.

G9 Chemistry / Identification of lons and Gases

C1. Why is There a Precipitate Forming & What is the Precipitate?

Aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia provide ..hwdraxidf.on... (negative ion)

to react with the cation (positive ion) in the unknown.

because it is .....ln50...%.......

Example1:

lonic equation: Ca(OH)2

white precipitate

Example 2:

lonic equation: 2. OH-

blue precipitate

Example 3:

lonic equation: Fe (OH),

reddish-brown precipitate

C2. Why Are Some Precipitate Dissolve in Excess Alkali?

Some precipitates dissolve in excess aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia

because the precipitates can react further to form soluble complex salts.

G9 Chemistry / Identification of lons and Gases

3. Summary For Testing for Cations

Unknown solution

few drops of aqueous sodium hydroxide, NaOH

No precipitate White precipitate seen Coloured precipitate seen

ammonia precipitate precipitate blue grey-green green rea-brown

gas evolved soluble in insoluble in precipitate precipitate precipitate precipitate

on heating excess excess insoluble soluble in insoluble insoluble

in excess excess in excess in excess

to give a

to give a

solution green
solution
Calcium Copper

Aluminum
tinc

Unknown solution

a few drops of aqueous ammonia, NH3

No precipitate White precipitate seen Coloured precipitate seen

precipitate precipitate blue grey-green green red-brown

soluble in insoluble precipitate precipitate precipitate precipitate
excess in excess soluble in insoluble in insoluble insoluble
excess excess in excess in excess
to give a
to give a

solution deep blue

solution
Chromium

G9 Chemistry / Identification of lons and Gases 5

 C4. Flame Tests for Some Cations

Flame tests can also be used to identify some cations as certain metal ions give a

characteristics coloured flame.

To carry out flame test, a clean nichrome wire is dipped into the compound and then placed
under the Bunsen flame.
The results of some flame test colours are shown in the table below.

Cation Formula Colour of flame

sodium Na*
yellow ñ
potassium purple la lie
pp
copper(II) blue -oreen
lithium Li* red shaw

G9 Chemistry / Identification of lons and Gases

D. Test for Anions (Negative ions in the Unknown)

The table below shows the tests for anions.

Anion Test Observations / Results

Carbonate, Add dilute acid Effervescence / Bubbles

CO32 Carbon dioxide gas is produced
to with line Hoter

Chloride, Cl precipitate seen nothing

Add dilute nitric acid,
at all.
then add aqueous silver nitrate, (precipitate is silver chloride)
AgNO3
Ionic equation: Ag + C1

Bromide, Br Add dilute nitric acid, ......Cre.m...... precipitate seen

then add aqueous silver nitrate, (precipitate is silver bromide)
AgNO3
lonic equation: Ag + Br Ag Br

lodide, I Add with dilute nitric acid, ..Yella.hl..... precipitate seen nothing
then add aqueous silver nitrate, (precipitate is silver iodide)
AgNO3
Ionic equation:

Add dilute nitric acid, ..white... precipitate seen or nothing

seen at q11.
then add aqueous barium nitrate, (precipitate is barium sulfate)
Ba(NO3)2
lonic equation: Ba + Sou

Add dilute hydrochloric acid then add Purple potassium manganate(VII)

aqueous potassium manganate(VII), .deco.oue....../turns.....colorless.......

Nitrate, NO3l Add sodium hydroxide solution, Ammonia gas is produced

aluminium foil and warm
then heat

G9 Chemistry / Identification of lons and Gases

E. Tests for Gases

Colour &
Gas Test Observations / Results
Smell

use a lighted/burning splint Gas ....extin.qnishes... a lighted splint with

pop' sound.

neutral Plowe go ott

insoluble lighted
splint

02 use a glowing splint Gas...rel.ig.h.t.(.... a glowing splint.

glowing splint-
neutra
insolu ble

CO2 bubble gas into limewater Gas forms .....htt..... with limewater.
precipitate.
limewater
acidic Calcinm hydrox id chalk y/
CaCOH), milky/
s lightly soluble carbon
dioxide cloudy.

use damp red litmus paper Gas turns damp red litmus paper ...blue.......
pungent
moist red
-basic (alkaline nature litmus

- Soluble paper

pale green, use damp blue litmus paper Gas turns damp blue litmus paper red
pungent then blearnfr......... it
Soluble acidic

SO2 bubble the gas into Gas turns potassium manganate(VII) solution
pungent potassium manganate(VII) from purple to ...colaurle.s....
-acidic solution, KMnO4
- Soluble purple

Gas turns cobalt(II) chloride paper from blue

H2O use blue cobalt(II) chloride
to ...pink........
paper.
neutral

obtain when hent hydrated salt.

G9 Chemistry / Identification of lons and Gases

Name: nean Class: Date: 26/3/19

Mole Concept & Stoichiometry

Learning Objectives

Core:

Define relative atomic mass, Ar, as the average mass of naturally occurring atoms of an element
on a scale where the 12 C atom has a mass of exactly 12 units.

Define relative molecular mass, Mr, as the sum of the relative atomic masses (Relative formula
mass or Mr will be used for ionic compounds.

Extended:
Define the mole and the Avogadro constant.
Use the molar gas volume, taken as 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure.

Calculate stoichiometric reacting masses, volumes of gases and solutions, and concentrations of
solutions expressed in g/ dm3 and mol / dm3
Calculate empirical formulae and molecular formulae.
Calculate percentage yield and percentage purity.

1. Relative Atomic Mass (Ar)

In chemical calculations, we need to know the masses of atoms and molecules. However, the exact
masses of atoms and molecules are very small. Therefore, we work with relative masses.

Relative Atomic mass is the average mass of an atom compared to 12

= of the mass of an atom of

carbon-12.

Ar is used to represent relative mass of an atom.

Relative atomic mass of each element can be obtained from the Periodic Table (mass number).
A is a number with no units.
neutrons
•

Ar is an average value. pd ws volume of gas

no.
of moles
Most elements have isotopes. Isotopes have different masses.
24 = 24 dm
Ar is the average of the different masses of the isotopes.

M 2 mass
Why does a chlorine atom have a mass number of 35.5?
N = no. of moles
Chlorine has 2 isotopes, namely 35C7 and 37 CI. Mr= molecuby mass

The number '35.5' is the average mass of chlorine atom, taking into account the
isotopes present.
no. of moles
VE
volume at lanid
Concen trat Page 1

ฟ
2. Relative Molecular Mass & Relative Formula Mass

2.1 Relative Molecular Mass (My)

Not all substance exists as atoms. Many elements and compounds exist as molecules.

Relative Molecular Mass is the average mass of a molecule compared to 12 of the mass of an

atom of carbon-12.

• Mr is used to represent the relative masses of molecules.

M. can be found by adding up the relative atomic masses of all atoms present in the molecule.
M. is also a number with no units.

H2O
Equivalent to relative masses

of two hydrogen atoms and

one oxygen atom

M. of a substance = sum of the A, of all atoms present in the substance

Determine the relative molecular mass of ethanoic acid, CHCOOH.

42 +(4*3) t 42 + 16 116t:

12+3+12 t15+15 t1
60

Example 2.1b
Determine the relative molecular mass of glucose, C6H12O6.
(12x6 ) 1 (1x12) + (16*6)

12+ 42 + 96

Example 2.1c
Determine the relative molecular mass of phosphorus trichloride.

31+ (35 3x3)

31 + 106.5

431.5, Page 1 2
2.2 Relative Formula Mass (M,)
Relative formula mass is used for ionic compounds. This is because ionic compounds are made up

of ions and not molecules.

Mr, is also used to represent relative formula mass and calculation is done the same way.

Na Relative mass of sodium

ion and chloride ion is

relative
Sodium Chlorine
equivalent to the
mass of sodium atom and
chlorine atom

Na

Sodium Chloride

Example 2.2a

Determine the relative formula mass of sodium oxide.

(23 x2) + 4b
= 46416

62,,

Example 2.2b
Determine the relative formula mass of iron(Il) sulfate.

56 + 32+ (16x4)

56 1 32 + 64
152,

/ Example 2.2c
Calculate the relative formula mass of hydrated copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4.5H2O.
64+ 32+(14x4) + (1x52) + (46x5)

= 14 * 32 1.4 + 10+ 80

250

Example 2.2d
If the relative formula mass, M, of a compound XCl2 is 136, what is element X?

136 - X t ( 35.5x2)

130 = X + 21 Page I 3
3. Percentage Composition in a Compound
This is the percentage by mass of an element (or sometimes, water) in a compound.

H2O
How many % How many %

A of the element or M. of substance needed to find

% composition =
100%
M of the whole compound

Example:

What is percentage by mass of hydrogen and oxygen in water, H2O?

% of hydrogen = (2 /18) x 100 = 11.1%
% of oxygen = (16/18) x 100 = 88.9%

Note that the percentage composition of all the elements in a compound must add up to 100%. E.g.
percentage composition of hydrogen and that of oxygen in water must add up to 100%

Example 3a
NHL NO3
Calculate the percentage composition of nitrogen in (i) ammonia and (ii) ammonium nitrate.
= 14 + (1x3) 14 (1x4) + 14 + (46x3)
7 14 x100 28 +4+ 48

- 2%
82.4 7.,
36 7.

Calculate the percentage composition of water in hydrated copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4.5H2O.

= 160 +90

Go
x100
250

Example 3c

The percentage composition of X in a compound, XNO3 is 38.6%. What is element X?

38.67 61.42
14 (46*3)

36.6

100 62+ X Page 1 4

is potassium,
2393.2 + 38.6 x 100 x
2393.2 (1.4 X
= 30 0
4. Mole & Avogadro's Number

A mole is a term used to describe or measure the amount of (very small) particles.

Counting units Amount

Pair

Dozen 12

Ream

Million 1,000,000

Mole 10-3

One mole of any substance contains 6 x 1023 particles of that substance.

Particles refer to: atoms, molecules, ions.

One mole of carbon contains 6 x 1023 carbon atoms. One mole of

water contains 6 x 1023 water

molecules. One mole of sodium ion contains 6 1023 sodium ions. he comes

The Sl unit for the mole is mol.

The number 6 X 1023 is known as Avogadro's Constant or Avogadro's Number,

Formula relating no. of moles and number of particles:

No• of moles = Given number of particles

6 x 7023

Example:
there?
If there are 2 x 1023 molecules of water, how many moles are

No. of moles of water = (2 x 1023 / 6 x 1023) 0.333 mol

Example 4a
6 x 10~ atoms.
(a) 1 mole of neon atom contains
molecules.
(b) 1 mole of hydrogen gas, H2, contains
molecules.
(c) 0.5 mole of nitrogen gas, N2, contains

Example 4b

How many moles are present if there are 4.2 x 1023 atoms of iron?
4.2x 1023
6 * 1043

0.+ mol,,
Example 4c
In 0.450 moles of carbon dioxide, how many molecules are there?

0.45 2

,x 1023 Page I 5
5. Mole & Mass of a Substance

This is the mass of one mole of any substance.

The unit is gram, g.

relative
The mass of one mole of any substance is equivalent to the relative atomic mass or

molecular mass or relative formula mass of that substance.

Example:

What is the mass of one mole of water? and one mole of sodium chloride?

18 g and 58.5 g respectively

.0235

Formula relating no. of moles and mass of a substance:

Mass of substance (9)

No• of moles (mol)
A. or M. of the substance

Example:

How many moles are there in 36 g of water, H2O?

No. of moles = 36/18 = 2 mol

Example 5a
Calculate number of moles of 101 g of ethyne, C2H2. (1x2) +(1 *2)

101
24

Example 5b
Calculate the mass of 0.0340 mole of zinc hydroxide. 2n(0H),
0.0340
a 5
65 + (1641) *2
-
65+ 34
3.3 bb
99,

3.30 9
Example 5c
Determine no. of moles present in 1.66 g of carbon dioxide.

124 (46*2
1.66
44 12 + 32

44.
0•03¾1 mol,

Page 1 6
6. Mole & Volume of a Gas

One mole of any gas occupies volume of 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.).

Room temperature and pressure is defined to be 20°C and 1 atmospheric pressure (1 atm).

dm = 1000 cm'. Therefore, 24 dm3 = 24000 cm3

Example:
one mole of carbon dioxide gas?
What is the volume occupied by one mole of hydrogen gas and
24 dm3 of each of the gases.

Carbon
(Hydrogen dioxide
(He)
(CO?)

Mole:

Particles: 6 X 7023 molecules 6 x 702 molecules

Volume: 24 dm3

44
Mass:

Formula relating no. of moles and volume of gas:

Volume of gas (dm")

No• of moles
24 dms

Example:

If there 12 dm3 of oxygen gas, how many moles are there?

No. of moles of = (12/24) = 0.5 mol

Example 6a

A sample of sulfur trioxide has a volume of 6.0 dm3 at r.t.p. Calculate the no. of moles of the gas.

< 0.25 mol

J Example 6b

What is the volume, at r.t.p., of 0.200 mole of oxygen?

24

/ Example 6c
Find the number of moles of 30 cm3 of ammonia gas at r.t.p.

0.03 30
Page 1 7
24

1.25 X 1073 mol,

0.001 25)
 Nean 2/4/19

7. Calculations Using Chemical Equations - Reacting Masses and Volumes

7.1 Mole Ratio 2) 4T Yat0 Mol 100 fina

Consider a reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to produce water: X1 (fined 9100 hind

If 1 mole of hydrogen gas is used in the reaction, how many moles of water will be form?
To be able to solve such questions, you need to make use of chemical equation.

Chemical equation tells us how the various substances in a chemical reaction are related.

Example:

+ 027

The chemical equation tells us that:

2 molecules of H2 reacts with molecule of O2 to produce _ 2 _ molecules of H2O.

o 2 dozen of H2 reacts with of 02 to produce of H2O.

o 2 million of H2 react with million_ of O2 to produce 2 mil. of H2O.

2 moles of H2 reacts with mole of O2 to produce moles of H2O.

**The number in front of the substances is also known as 'mole ratio', which tells the ratio of the

amount of reactants involved and product formed in the reaction.**

Example 7.1a
Consider reaction

how many moles of hydrogen is needed when 0.1 mol of oxygen in used in the reaction? 0.2 mal.

How many moles of water is formed? 0.2 mol

Example 7.1b
Consider the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid,

If 0.25 mol of zinc is used, how many moles of zinc chloride salt can be obtained? 0.25
How many moles of hydrogen gas will be produced? 0.25

Page 1 8
7.2 Calculation involving Masses and Volumes

From example 7.1a, 02

022
92
If 0.1 mol of oxygen is used, what is the mass of water formed?

0.2 mal
12,
3.69,

If 3.2 g of oxygen gas is used, what is the mass of water formed?

32 0.1.
32

0.1 mol,

The
following are steps involved in solving this type of questions.

1. Find the number of moles of the given substance.

(if you are already given in moles, this step can
be skipped).
2. Using mole ratio from the given
chemical equation, find the number of moles of
substance required in the
question.
(If the equation
is not given, you must write and balanced first).
3. Convert the number of moles of required substance to
mass or volume as required in
the question.

Example 7.2a

Methane undergoes reaction with oxygen in air according to the equation:

CH4 + 202 > CO2 + 2H20
18
Calculate (a) the mass of water produced from the complete reaction of 16 g
of methane, and (b) volume
of carbon dioxide, measured at r.t.p., produced.

(a) Step 1: Find the number of moles of the given substance.

16
CH4 :
16

Step 2: Using the mole ratio from the given chemical equation, find the number of moles of
substance required in the question.

Step 3: Convert the number of moles of required substance to mass or volume as required
in the question.

m
2 mol
18

Page 19
&. Concentration of Solutions

When a solute dissolves in a solvent, a solution is formed.

The concentration of a solution IS the amount of solute dissolved per unit volume of the solution.

Two ways to measure concentration:

The mass of solute in 1 dm3 of solution (g/ dm3)

mass of solute (9)

Concentration of solution (g/dm") volume of solution (dm')

The moles of solute in dm3 of solution (moll dm3)

moles of solute (mol)

Concentration of solution (mol/dm") volume of solution (dm')

less solute per unit

Concentration of

3 mol/dm'
volume = more

diluted

3 mol of NaCl Total volume of solution is 1.00 dm3

Concentration of More solute per

9 mol/dm' unit volume = more

concentrated

9 mol of NaCl Total volume of solution is 7.00 dm3

Example 8a

20 g of KOH was dissolved in water to form a solution with volume of 2 dm3. Find the concentration of

the alkaline solution in

(a) g/dm3
20 = 10
(b) mol/dm3

b)
20 0.36 mol
36
0.36
= 0.129 mol/dm,

Page 1 12
10. Percentage Yield

The amount of product formed in a reaction is known as the yield.

The theoretical yield is the amount of product calculated from the equation.

The experimental yield is the amount of product that is actually obtained in the experiment, which
the question will provide the value.
Percentage yield compares to the amount obtain from experiment to that of calculation.

Experimental yield
Percentage Yield
Theoretical yield

The experimental yield is always less than the theoretical yield (<100%).
•
One additional step is required to calculate percentage yield:

1. Find the number of moles of the given substance.

(if you are already given in moles, this step can be skipped).
Using mole ratio from the given chemical equation, find the number of moles of substance required in the question.
(If the equation is not given, you must write and balanced first).
Convert the number of moles of required substance to mass or volume as required in the question.
4.
Calculate percentage yield by using the formula. Your answer should be < 100%

Example 10a
65

Zinc reacts with sulfur according to the equation:

In an experiment, 6.5 g of zinc was used to reacted with sulfur to make zinc sulfide.
9 g of zinc sulfide
was obtained from the experiment. Calculate the percentage yield of zinc sulfide.

= 0.1 mol
Step 1: No. of moles of zinc used = 65

Step 2: No. of moles of zinc sulfide formed =

0.1 m 0

Step 3: (Theoretical) mass of zinc sulfide obtained =

9.+9

Step 4: Percentage yield =

92.487.

Page 15
11. Percentage Purity

The percentage purity of a substance shows the percentage of a pure substance in an impure

sample of the substance used for reaction.

Percentage purity can be calculated THE SAME WAY as percentage yield, assuming that the

reactant is pure.

Expected yield
Percentage Purity X 700%
Theoretical yield (if pure)

Example 11a
+ CaCk2 + H2O + CO2
10 0
An impure sample of calcium carbonate with mass of 6 g was added to excess hydrochloric acid.
1200 cm3 of carbon dioxide gas was obtained at r.t.p. Calculate the percentage purity of the calcium

carbonate sample.

Step 1: No. of moles of calcium carbonate used if pure :

0.06
00

Step 2: No. of moles of carbon dioxide expected =

0.069

Step 3: (Theoretical) volume of carbon dioxide 0.06 * 24

1.44 dm 3

Step 4: Percentage purity = 1.2

83.339.

Example 11b

Hydrogen peroxide is easily contaminated. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form water and oxygen
according to the following equation:

If 44 g
g of impure hydrogen péroxide sample produced 11 dm3 of oxygen gas, what is the percentage

purity of the hydrogen peroxide?

of
44 1.294
34
of
1 294
a 0.642 mol

vol
15.529
41
10 Page I 17
15.529
 Date: 30/4/pL
10
Name:
Class: Call

Chemical Energetics (Energy Changes)

Learning Objectives:

Core

a) Describe the meaning of exothermic and endothermic reactions

b) Interpret energy level diagrams showing exothermic and endothermic reactions
c) Describe the release of heat energy by burning fuels
d) State the use of hydrogen as a fuel
Describe radioactive isotopes, such as 235U, as a source of energy

Extended

a) Describe bond breaking as an endothermic process and bond forming as an exothermic process
b) Draw and label energy level diagrams for exothermic and endothermic reactions using data given
c) Calculate the energy of a reaction using bond energies
fuel cell
d) Describe the use of hydrogen as a fuel reacting with oxygen to generate electricity in

EXIT EXTER

HEAT

Endothermic
Heat "exits" Heat "enters"

Page 1
A. Two Types of Energy Changes

A1. Exothermic Change

Dissolving of NaOH in water is used to illustrate the characteristics of exothermic change.

The temperature of the water is measured before and after adding the solid.

Initial temperature Final temperature Temperature change

Experiment

Dissolving of NaOH in water room temperature

higher increaser
-Saduam hydroxide

**Characteristics of exothermic change:*

° Chemical releacer / give out heat to the Surrounding_ as It reacts.

° Thus, temperature (of surroundings)

O The mixture becomes hotter

*Note:

You are the chemiral in this topic.

Thermometer measures temperature
around you.

A2. Endothermic Change

Dissolving of NH,CI in water is used to illustrate the characteristics of endothermic change.

The temperature of the water is measured before and after adding the solid.

Initial temperature Final temperature Temperature change

Experiment

Dissolving of NH4Cl in water room temperature

lower decreases

**Characteristics of endothermic change:**

Chemical ahsurbed / tokim in heat from the _ surYoundig as it reacts.

Thus, the temperature (of the surroundings) decreases
The mixture becomes

*Note:

You are the chemical in this topic.

Thermometer measures temperature
around you.

An exothermic change is a reaction or process which release heat to the surrounding.

An endothermic change is a reaction or process which heat from the surrounding.

Page 2
B. Temperature Variation for Exothermic and Endothermic Changes

For exothermic
change:
The temperature of the mixture increaked until the highest temperature is reached.
Afterwards, the temperature of the mixture will go back to Startina temperatuve

Temperature (°C)

Time (min)

For endothermic change:

The temperature of the mixture decreases _ until the lowest_ temperature is reached.
Afterwards, the temperature of the mixture will go back to_ startia temperature

Temperature (°c)

Time (min)

Page ] 3
C. Enorgy Level Diagrams for Exothermic and Endothermic Changes

Energy level diagram: A diagram showing the energy change of a process or a reaction.

For exothermic change:

At the end of the reaction, the product has owley energy than reactant.
• This is because heat is released to the surroundings as the chemicals react.
The difference between the energy levels of the product and reactant is known as
enthalpy changey Loveral eneny coonge)
The symbol is .( delta heat)
The unit is
The arrow iS downward._.

The overall energy change (enthalpy change), AH is negative

Energy
reattant

negative

Reaction pathway

For endothermic change:

At the end of the reaction, the product has higher energy than the reactant.
O This is because heat is absorbed from the surroundings as the chemicals react.
• The difference between the energy levels of the product and reactant is known as

enthalnn Change
• The symbol is AH
o The unit is kJ mol.
The arrow is

The overall energy change (enthalpy change), AH is _ pusitive_

Energy
product

AH positive

reactant

Reaction pathway

Page 1 4
D. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

Common examples of chemical reactions that are exothermic;

1) Combustion reaction
Combustion reaction refers to the chemical reaction whereby a substance reacts (burns)
with in air.

CH4 + 202 CO2

2) neutralitation_ reaction
NaCl + H2O

3) Reactions of acid with metals

4) Respiration

endothermic:
Common examples of chemical reactions that are

1) Thermal peram position of compounds

whereby solid substance breaks down
Decomposition is the process
into two or more simpler substances.
Cu + NO2 + 02
CaCO3 > CaO + CO2

6CO2 + 6H2O > C6H12O6 + 602

Page] 5
Exercise 1

1. Which row describe the characteristics of an exothermic change?

temperature of the mixture the surroundings

increase absorbed from
decrease absorbed from
increase released to
decrease released to

2. Which of the following equation shows an exothermic reaction?

acid+ metal
02 > CO2 combustion
IV. FeCO3 > FeO + CO2

The equations that show exothermic reactions: ..............1......11. ...2..........................

3. Draw the energy level diagram for the reaction in 2(1I1). Label your
diagram clearly.

Energy

negative

C02

Reaction pathway

Which statements about exothermic and endothermic reactions are correct?

1 . During an exothermic reaction, heat is given out. J
2. The temperature of an endothermic reaction goes up because heat is taken in.
3. Burning methane in oxygen is an exothermic reaction.

A 1, 2 and 3
and 2 only
1 and 3 only
2 and 3 only

Page 1 6
E. Bond Breaking and Bond Making

Before we can understand why some chemical reactions are exothermic and why some are
endothermic, we need to understand what occurs in a chemical reaction first.

In any chemical reaction, when reactants react to form products, the following occurs.
1. The old bonds in the reactants have to be broken hand - breaking
2. The new bonds between atoms have to form, which lead to the formation of products
bind - farming

Example: A2 + B2

A-A A A

B-B B B B B

Thus,
When bonds between atoms in reactants are broken, heat energy is
bond breaking iS an enda thermic ande.

released Thus,
When bonds between atoms in products are formed, heat energy is
bond forming is an exothermic Change

Page 1 7
F. Bond Energy and Calculation of Enthalpy Change

Bond energy is the energy absorbed to break one mole of a bond. Unit: kJ/mol
Examples of bond energies are given below:

Bond Bond energy (kJ/mol)

H-H 436
endo
+ 242 -860

endo
H - CI 430 -182
- 660,
(exo)
endo (gon
Interpretation of bond energy, using hydrogen as example:
o The energy involved in breaking one mole of H- H bonds is + 436
The energy involved in forming one mole of H- H bonds is

exo Close)
Question:

Calculate the overall energy change and show that the reaction below is an exothermic reaction.

H2 + Ch

Step1: Identify all the bonds in reactants (to be broken)

Step 2: calculate the energy involved to break bonds in reactants
Step 3: Identify all the bonds in products (to be formed)
Step 4: calculate the energy involved to form bonds to get the products
Step 5: calculate enthalpy change by making use of the two energy values

Energy involved to break bonds in reactants

436 t 242

Energy involved to form bonds in product:

2x( -430) -860 ki/mol

Overall energy change (enthalpy change) for the reaction =

+ 698 -860 F -1862 ki/mol

The overall heat change or enthalpy change for this reaction is negative_ value.
Thus, the reaction iS Pother mic

Page [ 8
Exercise 2

1. Calculate the overall energy change for the following combustion reaction to show that it is
4364
194
+ 120

2 H-H 0=0 2 H-O-H

end

Bond Bond energy (kJ/mol)

H-H + 436

O-H 463

496
€

genew term
Con be both t

Energy involved to break bonds in reactants

(436x2) + 496 41368
change
Energy involved to form bonds in product
2x (2x- 463)

Overall energy change (enthalpy change) for the reaction

Energy absorbed to break bonds in reactants

1368 1J / mol

Energy released to form bonds in product =

1652 k/ mol

Overall energy change (enthalpy change) for the reaction =

"-A84
*Note:

Exothermic Change Include Endothermic Change Include

sign? sign?

Energy change / involved Energy change/ involved

Energy released / given out / produced Energy absorbed / taken in / used,

/ lost gained

Page 1 9
2. Ammonia gas decomposes to give hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas as shown in the equation below.

react Ant
pod oct
2 H-N-H NEN + 3 H-H

(a) Given the following values of bond energy, show by calculation, that this decomposition is an

endothermic reaction.

Bond Bond Energy (kJ/mol)

-)N-H 393

+ NEN 941

H-H 436

+ Energy absorbed to break bonds in reactants =

Energy released to form bonds in product =

941+ (3* 436) 2249 k3

Overall energy change (enthalpy change) for the reaction =

+ 109 KJ/mol

(b) Draw and label the energy level diagram for this reaction.

Energy

AH a positive

Reaction pathway

Summary:
A chemical reaction is exothermic if the energy released during is
band forming
MORE than the energy absorbed during bond breaking_

A chemical reaction is
endothermic if the energy absorbed during _band breakins is
than the energy released during
band h forming.

Page 10
Exercise 3

1. The formation of hydrogen iodide from hydrogen and iodine is an endothermic reaction.

H-H+ 1-I > H-1 + H-I

What can be deduced from this information?

bonds formed.
A The number of bonds broken is greater than the number of
B The forming of H - I bonds releases energy.
The product has higher energy level than the reactants.

The mixture will become hotter at the end.

2. Propane undergoes combustion as shown in the following reaction.

R
CsHa + 502 ¾ 3CO2 +

H A H
+ 50=0 30= C=0 + 4H-O-H

H H H

Given the bond energy values in the table below and that the enthalpy
change is -1660 kJ, calculate
the C- C bond energy.

Bond Bond Energy (kJ/mol)

C-H 410 10

740

496

O-H 460

Energy absorbed to break bonds in reactants =

(8 *410 ) + (5x u96) t 20x)5.- 6460

Energy released to form bonds in product =

8120
4 (2 x460 )

-1660
Overall energy change (enthalpy change) for the reaction =

C - C bond energy = LIN) - 100

Page 11
G. Enthalpy Change of Forward Reaction Versus Backward Reaction
In the earlier section, the calculated value of enthalpy change for the reaction,

Question:

Calculate the enthalpy change for the following reaction.

H-0-1 02 2 M-H
R

Bond Bond energy (kJ/mol)

H-H 436

O-H 463

496

Energy involved to break bonds in reactants

2(2 x 463)2 1852

Energy involved to form bonds in product

2( 436) + 991 =_1377

Overall energy change (enthalpy change) for the reaction =

+ 484 kJ

What do you notice?

The sign of AH is opposite

If the forward reaction is exothermic, the backward reaction will be endother micho and vice
versa.

The magnitude of the enthalpy change remains

Exercise 5

1. The Earth atmosphere contains ozone, Oa. The ozone absorbs ultraviolet light and breaks down to
form oxygen. The enthalpy change (AH) for the reaction is -143 kJ.

203 7 302

(i) In this reaction, is bond breaking or bond forming has a higher energy?

..........................o.....orm.mq.....
What is the value of AH for the reaction, 302 > 203?

Page 12
H. Hydrogen as a Fuel

Hydrogen gas can be used as a fuel because upon

burning (combustion), energy is released.
2H2 + 02 ¾ 2H2O AH = -484 kJ

Hydrogen is generally used in rockets and fuel cells to power vehicles.

Hydrogen
Station

FUEL CELL VEHICLE

Advantages of hydrogen as a fuel:

Release more energy per kg than many other fuels.
o Not polluting to the environment as the product is water.

Disadvantages of hydrogen as a fuel:

Expensive to obtain hydrogen gas.
O Difficult to store. The gas is needed to be converted to liquid first.

I. Radioactive Isotopes as a Source of Energy

Uranium-235, 235 U, is a radioactive isotope.

The isotope decays and releases heat energy.

NEUTRONG

NEUTRON

• Nuclear power stations use the heat energy produced for various uses.

Advantage of using radioactive isotope as source of energy:

Only a small amount of 235 U can produce large amount of energy.
• Disadvantages of using radioactive isotope as source of energy:
° Expensive
o Possibility of harmful radioactive materials

Page 13
 of

Name: Class: 410 L Date: 21/8/19

Nean

Redox Reactions

A. DEFINITION OF OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Some chemical reactions can be described as redox reactions.

A redox reaction IS a reaction where oxidation and reduction occur at the same time.

Redox Reactions always happen

at the rame time
Reduction Oxidation

Red ox Reactions

Oxidation is the: Reduction is the:

substance Loss of ....0w 9.20.... by a substance

•
Gain of....oXyg.en....... by a

Loss of .... lfcut.ro.nt.. by a substance Gain of......2.0TY........ by a substance

Decrease in of an
Increase in ...0X1001lan.....fatp.... of an
element in a substance
element in a substance

B. INVOLVING GAIN OR LOSS OF OXYGEN

by a substance Reduction: loss of oxygen by a substance

Oxidation: gain of oxygen

E.g. reduction

+ C > Cu + CO

oxidation ^

C is .........d.ised..... because C ....gain.... oxygen.

JoseS...... oxygen.

.......x.lofed.............
• C is the .nedvam.g......agent because C is
opposite

An oxidising agent is a substance that

oxidises another substance and itself is ....e.daced....
in a reaction.

substance that reduces another substance and

itself is ..4X..dired.....
A reducing agent is a

In a reaction.

Page 1
Chemistry/Redox Reactions
 Note:

Can we explain the following reaction by gain or loss of oxygen?

+ +
No! Oxygen alone only

QUICK CHECK EXERCISE 1

In the following reaction, state and explain which substance is oxidised and which IS
reduced.

Cu

......n...... is oxidised because ...g21........nd..becme.s....2np....................

........... is reduced because .........m.Q....1ose.........nd...beromes.....(u...............

In the following reaction, state and explain which substance is the oxidising agent and which
is the reducing agent.

....l2.03.... is oxidising agent because .........Feny0g.....1u....ldu.c.t.c...................

......C O..... is reducing agent because.............CO.......oxdlsed...

C. INVOLVING GAIN OR LOSS OF ELECTRONS

Oxidation: loss of electrons by a substance

Reduction: gain of electrons by a substance

C1. HALF EQUATIONS (IONIC-HALF EQUATIONS)

Half equation or ionic-half equation is the equation that shows the movement of electron(s)
by a specie.
Electron(s) can be represented by e or e.
The movement of electron(s) can either be gain or loss.

If a specie loses electron(s), it will become more positive at the end.

° Example: Na Na*
For losing of electron(s), e or e is put on the right side of the
equation
Complete half equation: Na Na* +

If specie gains electron(s), it will become more negative at the end.

Example: S
For gaining of electron(s), e or e'is put on the left side of the half equation.
° Complete half equation:

To
ensure that half equation is correct, both elements and charges must be balanced.

Chemistry/Redox Reactions Page

 lose Electroar

less reduction-

QUICK CHECK EXERCISE 2

IS oxidation or reduction.
Complete the following half equations and identify if the process elections Changes
in
look out for chovge!
Oxidation / Reduction?
Half equation

Ca Ca oxidation

oxidation
Al

Fe reduction

Cr reduction
Cr3+

reduction

+1 oxidation

S2- te S

reduction

Fe2* Fe3+ + oxidation

C2. EXAMPLE OF REACTIONS De

Cult
E.g.

Mg + Cu2+ Mg2+ + Cu

electrons.
• Mg is ....gxdifed..... because Mg
Cu2+ IS reduced.... because Cu2+ ...4......... electrons.
Mg iS the ...red.uting..... agent because Ma....is.0xidised........
Cu2tis the.....x.id..<in.g...... agent because

Tip to Remember (Gain / Loss of electron):

OIL: Oxidation is Loss of electrons LEO Loss of Electrons is Oxidation.

OR
RIG : Reduction is Gain of electrons

E.g. 2

Fe2+ + S h Fe3t + S2-

Half equations: and ...........t.2e.........................

Fe2+ is ..u.difed... because Fe2+ .....l........ electrons.

Sis .....duckd......becauseS......4@1s.... electrons.

Fe2+ is the ..rdutiny... agent because Fe?t ...1....C1dised.......

Sis the ....x.disi.ng.....agentbecauseS......1S...reduCfd.......

Page 3
Chemistry/Redox Reactions
 QUICK CHECK EXERCISE 3

Write the half equations and explain the reduction and oxidation that occurs in the following
reaction in terms of electrons.

.....2n..7 2nl+2e

gains electron
Which substance is a reducing agent in the following reaction? Explain your answer.

2Br- + Ch > Br2

red

reduced because CA elections.

Ga los

D. OXIDATION STATE / OXIDATION NUMBER

A number given to an element.

Oxidation: increase in oxidation state of an element in a substance during a reaction.

Reduction: decrease in oxidation state of an element in a substance during a reaction.

D1. RULES IN ASSIGNING OXIDATION STATE/ OXIDATION NUMBER

Note: When writing oxidation state, charge ( + or - ) must be written in front of the number.

(1) FOR SINGLE ELEMENT / ION:

Oxidation state = charge that the element / ion has,

e.g. Oxidation state of sodium in Na = ... ...

e.g. Oxidation state of carbon in C = ..O...

e.g. Oxidation state of chlorine in Cl2 = ...9...

e.g. Oxidation state of lithium in Lit = ..1.

e.g. Oxidation state of aluminium in A73+ =

e.g. Oxidation state of fluorine in F = -1

e.g. Oxidation state of oxygen in O2- =

Chemistry/Redox Reactions Page 4

 se this 40 And (2.3)

(2) FOR COMPOUNDS: adcled np oS = 0

(2.1) The sum of the oxidation states of ALL the elements in the compounds = 0
in NaCl =
e.g. Sum of oxidation states of all elements
• Oxidation state of sodium + Oxidation state of chlorine = ...... ........
+1

e.g. Sum of oxidation states of all elements in H2O

Oxidation state of oxygen ... ... ... ....
2(Oxidation state of hydrogen) +

of some elements in the compounds are fixed

(2.2) Oxidation state
Oxidation state of all Group I elements in the
compounds = ..*.1....

in the compounds = ........

Oxidation state of all Group elements

Oxidation state of all Group III elements in the compounds =

+1
Oxidation state of hydrogen in the compounds =

Oxidation state of oxygen in the compounds

(2.3) Oxidation state

of some elements can be different in different compounds.
etc. can
to VII such as C, N, S, Cl, Br,
Oxidation state of many non-metals in Group IV
vary in different compounds. different
Oxidation state of many transition metals such
as Fe, Cu, Mn, Cr, etc. can vary jn

compounds.

QUICK CHECK EXERCISE 4

Determine the oxidation state/oxidation number of the underlined element in each of the substances
below:

Substance Oxidation state Substance Oxidation state

Substance Oxidation state
NO2
CO -2 + 2 + 4

CO2 KI

Chemistry/Redox Reactions Page 5

 D2. INCREASES OR DECREASES IN OXIDATION STATE / OXIDATION NUMBER
E.g. 1
+1

red

Znis.....xldied..... because oxidation state of....tn......lnccmse.s

His.....re.dluced.. because oxidation state of ..hy.drnge... .dourea.Res
• Zn is the...rednnng... agent.
H'isthe ...ox1d15inq........ agent.
Not

E.g. 2

CuO is ....r.edudkd........ because oxidation state of ...Cur.......dleeals...

Cis.......x1.qu.d... because oxidation state of........... ...in@eop.
CuO is the...v.ldiSing... agent.
C is the ...cRoung.... agent.

QUICK CHECK EXERCISE 5

For each question, explain which substance is oxidised and which substance is reduced in terms of
oxidation state.

Br2
redl

+1

(iv) Na + 2HCI_, NaCl + H2

Chemistry/Redox Reactions Page

E. POTASSIUM MANGANATE(VII) AS COMMON OXIDISING AGENT

(Acidified) aqueous Potassium Manganate(VII), KMnO4 is an oxidising agent by nature.

It is used to oxidise several chemicals e.g. alcohols to carboxylic acids.
It is purple in colour.

Itself can only be reduced.

When it is reduced (by another substance), its colour changes to colourless.

seen if another chemical is a
Thus, the change from purple to colourless will only be
reducing agent.
is oxidising
There will be no change in the purple colour of KMnO if another substance
an

agent.

Why is the change from purple to colourless mean that KMnO4 is reduced?

Mn2+ ion is the product at the end of the

When purple KMnO4 undergoes reduction,
reaction, which is colourless.

(a chemical) -
+

purple

decreases from
• KMnO4 is reduced because the oxidation state of manganese
to

F, POTASSIUM IODIDE AS COMMON REDUCING AGENT

Aqueous Potassium iodide, KI is a reducing agent by nature.

It is colourless.

Itself can only be oxidised.

When it is oxidised (by another substance), its colour changes to brown.
Thus, the change from colourless to brown will only be seen if another chemical is
an

oxidising agent.
There will be no change in the colourless KI if another
substance is a reducing agent.

Why is the change from colourless to brown mean that KI is oxidised?

When colourless KI undergoes oxidation, I2 is formed, which will dissolve and form

brown solution.

KI + a chemical) 12 +
brown

• KI is oxidised because the oxidation state of iodine increases from to

Chemistry/Redox Reactions Page

Name: Nean Grade 10 Date:

Rate of Reaction

A. The Collision Theory

1. According to the collision theory, a chemical reaction occurs only when the particles (atoms,
molecules, ions)......ollid......... with one another.

A B AB

(vice versa)
2. The ......hi.4..e..... the collision rate between particles, the more the products are being
formed at a given time, and the ......faster.. the rate of reaction.
Example:

Reaction 1 Reaction 2

.. .. . ... collisions in 1 second ........ collisions in 1 second.

Rate of reaction is .slove..... Rate of reaction is ..fautex......

3. In some collisions, the particles must possess sufficient energy, known as activation energy,
before reaction can take place.
....Achvation...90........ (Ea) is the minimum amount of energy that particles must have sO

that reaction will occur when they collide.

(if too little won't form)

4. If the particles do not have the activation energy required, they will bounce off upon collision.

If the particles have the activation energy required, they will form product upon collision.

AB

Page 1 1
B. Introduction to Rate of Reaction

1. The rate of a chemical reaction means how quickly a reactant reacts to form a product.
If a reaction is fast, the time taken for the reactant to form product will be short.
If a reaction is slow, the time taken for the reactant to form product will be long.

2. In any chemical reaction, the rate of reaction is always:

fastest at the ...star.........

.dentall. with time

eventually comes toa..Stqp......

3. **Explanation to why the rate of reaction decreases / slows down with time and comes to a

stop**:
The amount of......mi.ti.ng........ reactant becomes ...ler..... as reaction progress
ORthe.....cllsian.....afe...demeaves
•
Eventually all the .........4.011p.J....... reactanthas ....al...react?d....

C. Methods to Measure / Prove the Rate of Reaction

1. The two main methods to measure / prove the rate of a reaction:

1) Measuring the amount of gas formed at regular time intervals

2) Measuring the mass of the reaction mixture at regular time intervals

Page 2
 to prove the

C1. Measuring Volume of Gas at Regular Time Intervals "fast

1. The reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid can be used to prove that the
rate of reaction decreases with time and eventually stops.

CaCO (s) + 2HCZ(aq) * CaC/2(aq) + H2O(7) + CO2(g)

The following diagram shows the set up.

Carbon dioxide gas produced is being collected in water or in the gas syringe. The total volume
of carbon dioxide gas is recorded at every 10 seconds.

Measuring cylinder

Gas syringe

Dilute hydrochloric acid

Dilute hydrochloric acid

Marble chips
Marble chips

stopwatch

2. The results obtained is shown in the table below.

Time / s Total volume of gas

measured / cm3

volume of gas

obtained within each 10

seconds.

Rate of reaction
.deareares..... with time.

.. . ....... gas obtained.

120 Rate of reaction .. .. . ..

From the results above, the graph is plotted. The typical graph for rate of reaction is shown
below.

Total volume of gas measured / cm3

120
110
100

88
10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Page I 3
C2. Measuring Mass of Reaction Mixture at Regular Time Intervals

1. Again, using the reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid to prove that the

rate of reaction Is fastest at the start and decreases with time until reaction comes to a stop.

CaCOa(s) + 2HC(aq) ) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(1) + CO2(g)

However, the set up is different from the previous method, as shown below.
Carbon dioxide gas produced is allowed to escape, causing the decrease in mass with time.
The remaining mass of the mixture is recorded at every 10 seconds.

Cotton Wool (allows only the gas to escape but not acid or marble chips)

Dilute hydrochloric acid

Marble chips

60 g Electric scales
stopwatch

2. The results obtained is shown in the table below.

Time / s The remaining mass of the

mixture / g

60

..u... mass decrease

within each 10 seconds.
Rate of reaction
darns..... with time.

60
70 ..!09.... mass decrease.
Rate of reaction = ........
90

3. From the results above, the graph is plotted. Another typical graph for rate of reaction iS shown

below.

The mass of the mixture / g

60

50

40

30

20

10

10 2 0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Page I 4
D. Graph for Rate of Reaction

In summary, the two common graphs for rate of reaction.

Volume of gas / cm3 mass of reaction

mixture I g

Time/s
Time / s

2. The rate of reaction is represented by the ......rg.dle.1.......... of the graph.

the rate of reaction.
The .....teR.p.ex.............the gradient, the .....fusf.er............
.ler........... steep with time, so the rate of
From the graph, the gradient becomes
reaction ..derease..... The gradient becomes..Pl1..3.0Yp.... at the end, so the

reaction has .......4top pedk.......

E. Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction

of chemical reaction. These include:
There are five factors that can affect the rate
1) Effect of particle size (of solid reactant) Only
2) Effect of concentration (of solution)
3) Effect of pressure (of gaseous reactant)
4) Effect of temperature (of reaction mixture)
5) Effect of catalyst (being present or not)

Page 1 5
E1. Effect of Par ticle Size (of solid reactant)

1. Small particle size of solid: powder

Large particle size of solid: lumps, ribbons, chips

C higher)
2. Smaller particle size has surface area than larger particle size.

larger piece of solid smaller piece of solid

surface area: ... .... unit surface area: ...... ..... unit

3. Compare the following two experiments between calcium carbonate (marble) and dilute
hydrochloric acid, where the only difference is the particle size of the solid.

CaCOa(s) + 2HC/(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(I) + CO2(g)

gas syringe gas syringe

dilute hydrochloric acid dilute hydrochloric acid

small marble chips large marble chip
Experiment : Experiment 2

Experiment : Experiment 2
Mass of CaCO3 1 g g
Particle size of CaCO3 Small chips Large chips
Concentration of acid 1 mol/dms mol/dm3
Volume of acid 50 cm3
Temperature Room temperature Room temperature

Key idea:

Keeping all other conditions the same, the rate of reaction will be .........ex..... for
smaller solid size / larger surface area**

Page 1 6
 4. **Explanation why rate is faster for small size of solid (in terms of collision theory)**
Smaller size of solid (of the same mass)has...gxeativ....mi.late..Ana

Hence, there will be hiq.h?r..collit.ion..rate.........

and the rate of reaction ... ...Jes......

particles
rot liquid
particles
+ liquid~

small pieces of solid,

large piece of solid,
small surface area large surface area

5. Applications:
faster.
cooking process will be
Food are usually chopped into smaller pieces so that the

Exercise E1
diagram below shows the graphs obtained when large lumps of excess calcium carbonate
is
The
different methods).
allowed to react with hydrochloric acid (the rate is monitored by two
using
Sketch in thediagram below, the graphs you expect to obtain if the experiment is repeated
smaller lumps of calcium carbonate, keeping other conditions the same.

not the Pune grtiply

Mass of

total volume of reaction

gas produced mixture /g

Time
time

Page 1 7
E2. Effect of Concentration (of solution)

1. Concentration refers to the amount of substance (solute) dissolved to form a solution.

Lower concentration:...k.......... particles in a unit volume.

Higher concentration: ..more.... particles in a unit volume.

...l0wex... concentration .....aher. concentration

Unit for concentration: g/dm3, mol/dm3

Example of concentration: 1 mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acid solution

2. Compare the following two experiments between calcium carbonate (marble) and dilute
hydrochloric acid, where the only difference is the concentration of the acid.
CaCO (s) + 2HCI(aq) > CaC½2(aq) + H2O(1) + CO2(g)

gas syringe gas syringe

dilute acid more concentrated acid

calcium carbonate calcium carbonate

Experiment Experiment 2

Experiment Experiment 2
Mass of CaCO3 1 g 1 g
Particle size of CaCO3 powder powder
Concentration of acid 1 mol/dm3 2 mol/dm3

Volume of acid

Temperature room temperature room temperature

Key idea:

Keeping all other conditions the same, the rate of reaction will be ..tastey.......... for
higher concentration of solution**

**Explanation why rate is faster for higher concentration of solution (using collision theory)**
There are .mo......... particles per unit volume for higher concentration of solution.
Hence, there will be .....hiqhe..c.llisan..mate......
and the rate of reaction......nmwaes......

One reactant is a solid

Page I 8
 Exercise E2
to react with
The diagram below shows the graphs obtained when calcium carbonate is allowed
excess 0.5 mol/dm' hydrochloric acid (the rate is monitored by two different methods).
repeated using
Sketch in the diagram below, the graphs you expect to obtain if the experiment is
0.1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid, keeping other conditions the same.

Mass of
reaction
total volume of
gas produced mixture /g

Time
time

Page 1 9
 E3. Effect of Pressure (of Gaseous Reactant)

1. Changes in pressure will only affect those reactions involving .....3aseous....214Vt.....

This is because solid and liquid particles cannot be compressed.

Starting point
> Piston

Chalk
Powder

Solid Liquid Gas

2. Lower pressure: gas particles are ...further..ap.

Higher pressure: gas particles are ....close.r togetler

3. Key idea: lower pressure higher pressure

Keeping all other conditions the same, the rate of reaction will be ...tw1........ for
higher pressure applied to reaction involving gas(es)**

4. **Explanation why rate is faster for higher pressure of gas (using collision theory)**
When the pressure (of gaseous reactant) is increased, the gas particles
are pushed... togethe..........
Hence, there will be ....high...collislm...rate........
and rate of reaction increases

The particles of gaseous

reactants are compressed

Lower pressure Higher pressure

Exercise E3
In which reaction is the pressure least likely to affect the rate of reaction?

CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(I)

2H2(g) + O2(g) - 2H2O(I)
ho ga5 reactant.
Page ) 10
E4. Effect of Temperature

1. Lower temperature: particle has (kinetic) energy and move ...dlow.erc......

Higher temperature: particle has ......... (kinetic) energy and move ......fas.tex......

lower temperature higher temperature

dilute
2. Compare the following two experiments between calcium carbonate (marble) and
hydrochloric acid, where the only difference is the temperature of the acid.

gas syringe gas syringe

acid at 50°C
acid at 30°C

calcium carbonate calcium carbonate

Experiment Experiment 2

Experiment Experiment 2

Mass of CaCO3 g g

Particle size of CaCO3 powder powder

mol/dm3 mol/dm3
Concentration of acid
50 cm3 50 cm3
Volume of acid

Temperature

Key idea:

of reaction will be .....f.Y.......... for

Keeping all other conditions the same, the rate
higher temperature of the reaction mixture**

3. **Explanation why rate is faster for higher temperature (using collision theory)**
When temperature increases, the particles have ...Mor. ..00gg..........
More particles have ........sw4.m...... to react (energy above activation energy).
Also, when temperature increases, the particles move ...f...t.ex..............
There will also be .....iguuv..collisimn....afe
and rate of reaction .....In.c...........

Page I 11
more collisions and particles
collide with more energy
 4. Importance of Temperature:
of food is a
Temperature is important in preserving food. The decay and decomposition
chemical process. Food kept a low temperature slow down the reaction.
often
commonly used in industries to speed up reactions. High temperatures
are
Heat is
economical.
used to make products as quickly as possible. Slow reactions are not

Exercise E4:

The diagram below shows the graphs obtained when excess calcium carbonate is allowed to
react

with dilute hydrochloric acid at 50°C (the rate is monitored by two different methods).
Sketch in thediagram below, the graphs you expect to obtain if the experiment is repeated at a lower
temperature, keeping other conditions the same.

Mass of
total volume of owed
reaction
gas produced
mixture /g

Time
time

Page I 12
E5. Effect of Catalyst

1. A catalyst is a chemical substance that ..speed. v.p... the rate of a chemical reaction without
itself being used up at the end of the reaction.

2. Other characteristics of catalysts include:

A..SmAl..o.mouyt..... of a catalyst has a .n g...efe. on the speed of a reaction.
° Catalyst can be recovered at the end of the reaction.

° Most catalysts are ..Ser.b.c... in their action e.g. only catalyse a very specific type of
reaction.

3. Compare the following two experiments on decomposition of a substance called hydrogen

peroxide (H2O2), where the only difference is the presence of catalyst.

gas syringe
gas syringe

aqueous aqueous

hydrogen hydrogen
peroxide peroxide

stopwatch stopwatch
catalyst

Experiment : Experiment 2

Experiment Experiment 2

mol/dm3 mol/dms
Concentration of H2O2

Volume of H2O2 100 cm3

Room temperature Room temperature

Temperature

No Yes
Presence of catalyst

Key idea:

Keeping all other conditions the same, the addition of catalyst ....no2e....... the rate
of reaction**

4. Applications of catalysts:
Many catalysts are transition metals or compounds of transition metals.
Catalysts are commonly used in industry to speed up chemical reactions. This saves

energy and money.

Industrial Process Catalyst

Haber Process
Iron, Fe
(industrial production of ammonia, NH3)
Contact Process
(industrial production of sulfuric acid, H2SO4) Vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5

Page ] 13
 5. Enzymes (Biological Catalysts):
Enzymes are biological catalysts, essentially proteins which catalyse many reactions in
living organisms.
Enzymes are found in living things such as plants and animals.
Enzymes work well over around neutral pH (pH 6 to 8) with optimum temperature of
about 37°C.

Optimum temperatura
(the enzyme works best
at this temperature)

re a c t i o n re a c t i o n
of of

Rate 0178

10 20 30 40 50 60
pH

When the temperature rises above the optimum temperature, the enzyme will be
denatured, making the enzyme lose its ability to catalyse the reaction.
When the temperature falls below the optimum temperature, the enzyme will become
inactive, making the enzyme lose its ability to catalyse the reaction.

Examples & Uses of Enzymes:

Digestion of food involves many enzymes, e.g. saliva contains an enzyme, amylase which
speeds up digestion of starch in mouth.
Beer and wine are made by a reaction that uses enzymes in yeast.

Washing powders contain an enzyme, which remove grease and stains.

Exercise E5:

The diagram below shows the graphs obtained on a reaction (the rate is monitored by two different

methods).
Sketch in the diagram below, the graphs you expect to obtain if the experiment is repeated with the
addition of a suitable catalyst, keeping other conditions the same.

Mass of
total volume of reaction
gas produced
mixture /g

Time
time

Page 1 14
Name: Nean Class: 101 Date: _ 3/9/19

The Periodic Table

Learning Objectives

Core:

(a) Describe the Periodic Table as a method of classifying elements and its use to predict properties
of elements

(b) Describe the change from metallic to non-metallic character across a period

(c) Describe lithium, sodium and potassium in Group I as a collection of relatively soft metals

showing a trend in melting point, density and reaction with water

(d) Predict the properties of other elements in Group given data, where appropriate
(e) Describe the halogens, chlorine, bromine and iodine in Group VII, as a collection of diatomic
non-metals showing a trend in colour and density and state their reaction with other halide ions
(f) Predict the properties of other elements in Group VII
(g) Describe the noble gases, in Group VIII or 0, as being unreactive, monoatomic gases and
explain this in terms of electronic structure
(h) State the uses of the noble gases in providing an inert atmosphere, i.e. argon in lamps, helium
for filling balloons
(i) Describe the transition elements as a collection of metals having high densities, high melting
points and forming coloured compounds, and which, as elements and compounds, often act as
catalysts

Extended:

(j) Describe and explain the relationship between Group number, number of outer shell electrons

and metallic/nonmetallic character

(k) Identify trends in Groups, given information about the elements concerned
(1) Know that transition elements have variable oxidation states

A. Introduction to the Periodic Table

111 VI

He

Be H B Ne
staircase

Si Ar

As Se Br Kr

Ru Rh Ag Cd In Te

Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir T1 Pb Bi Po

Fr Ra
A1. Revision on the Periodic Table
number.
1. Periodic Table is a way of arranging the elements in order of increasing praton.
2. Group is a vertical column of the elements. There are total of groups.

Three important Groups for this topic:

Group I - The Alkali Metals

Group VII - The Halogens
Group VIII or Group 0 - The Noble Gases

Period is a horizontal row of elements. There are total of 8 periods.

and is in Period 1.

4. Elements in the Periodic Table are divided by the 'staircase' into metals and non -matals.
Metals: elements to the left Silt of the staircase

Non-metals: elements to the Yight side_ of the staircase

A2. Characteristics of Elements in the Same Group

1. The elements have the same number of volond plentyon., which is equal to the group
number.

Group Elements Electronic Configuration

Li 2.1

Na 2.8.1
2.8.8.1
Be 2.2

2.8.2
Ca 2.8.8.2

2. The elements have similar menial properties.

They form ions of the same Charnes

Example: all Group I elements form ions with 1+ charge and all Group VII elements

form ions with 1- charge.

They form compounds with similar danital Armu lae..

Example: Group II elements form chlorides with formula: MgCl2, CaCl2, BeCk2.

Page 2
A3. Characteristic of Elements in the Same Period

1. The elements have the same number of plenty on shell where the number of Shell

is equal to the period number.

Hydrogen
Helium

Period 1

Fluorine Neon
Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen
Lithium Beryllium Boron

Period 2

F Ne
B N
Li Be 2.7 2.8
2.1 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
Chlorine Argon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorous

Period 3

Na Al Si
2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8

A4. Metallic VS Non-metallic Character

1. Metals: element on the left side of the Periodic table (generally Group
2. Metals are elements that prefer to lose valence electrons.

3. Non-metals: element on the right side of the Periodic table (generally Group
4. Non-metals are elements that prefer to valence electrons.

5. Other differences between metals and non-metals:

Properties Metals Non-metals

Bonding Metallic bond Covalent bond

Type of oxide Basic oxide (except a few) Acidic oxide (except few)

Reactions with acid Reacts Does not react

Page 3
B. Group I (The Alkali Metals)

• The elements in Group are called the alkali metals because the metals react with water

to produce Meta hu draxid), giving out hydrogen gas.

Example: sodium + water sodium hydroxide + hydrogen gas

They have valence electron, form ions with charge 1+_.

Element Symbol Proton number Electronic configuration

Lithium Li 2.1

Sodium Na 11 2.8.1

Potassium 19 2.8.8.1

Rubidium 37 2.8.18.8.1
55 2.8.18.18.8.1
Francium Fr 87 2.8.18.32.18.8.1

Note: Hydrogen does NOT belong to Group

B1. Physical Properties of Group I Elements

1. conductor of electricity
The elements have free-moving electrons.
2. and can be easily cut with a knife
3. Shiny, _ sileyn solids when freshly cut
4. density
Lithium, sodium and potassium are less dense than water and thus, float on water.

5. melting points
The melting point deceases down the group.

Element Symbol Density (g/cm°) Melting Point (°C)

Lithium Li 0.53 180

Sodium Na 0.97 98

Potassium 0.86 64

Rubidium 1.53 39
1.88 29

Page 4
B2. Chemical Properties/Reactions of Group I Elements

1. Group I metals react vigorously with water to produce alkali solution and hydrogen gas

Element Observation Chemical Equation

Lithium Reacts quickly.

Metals move slowly over the surface.
2Li + 2H2O > 2LiOH + H2
Fizzing. No flames.
Slow stream of bubbles.

Sodium Reacts violently.

Metals move quickly over the surface.
Some flames can be seen
Bubbles produced rapidly.

Potassium Reacts very violently.

Metals move very quickly over the surface.
Flames can be seen; may explode.
Bubbles produced very rapidly.

2. The reactivity of Group I element down the Group: francium > caesium
rubidium > potassium > sodium > lithium.

3. Group I metals react vigorously with oxygen to produce _ mita oxides

Element Chemical Equation for the Reaction with Oxygen

Lithium lithium + oxygen ¾ lithium oxide

Sodium sodium + oxygen 7 sodium oxide

Potassium potassium
02

Note: Group metals are stored to prevent the metals from reacting with
in the air.

Eg. of alloy s
now to describe reattion
with acid.
Colours of Mlids and
Solutions ( Iden.)

how to write explanati on

for displacwints
1 st of redor

Page 5
C. Group VII (The Halogens)

Group VII elements are known as halogens.

They have valence electrons, form ions with charge _ 1_. Br,
molecules (molecules containing atoms).
They exist as diatomid

Element Symbol Proton number Electronic configuration

Fluorine F 2.7 pale gellow gos

Chlorine Cl 17 2.8.7

2.8.18.7 reddish brewn

Bromine Br 35

53 2.8.18.18.7

Astatine At 85 2.8.18.32.18.7 Black

C1. Physical Properties of Group VII Elements

1. The elements are tolouted

o The colour becomes progressively darker down the Group.

( not jon/compound)
2. LoW melting and boiling point
Quin
Melting and boiling point _ in ease down the Group. only whan elemont)

Element Formula Melting point (°C) Boiling point (°C) State at r.t.p.

Fluorine F2 -220 -189 Gas Pale yellow

Chlorine -101 -35 Gas Greenish-yellow

Bromine Br2 -7 59 Liquid Reddish-brown

12 114 184 Solid Black

want to react

((an4 be alone
C2. Chemical Properties/Reactions of Group VII Elements
Nant to form
1. The reactivity of Group VII elements down the Group: fluorine > chlorine > compound.
bromine > iodine > astatine.

2. Group VII elements undergo _amplatement reactions.

A more reactive halogen will displace a _ lexr reactive _ halogen from its

compound.

Example 1: Nat Br Nat + Cl +

When chlorine is added to sodium bromide solution, the following reaction occurs:
chlorine + sodium bromide) sodium chloride bromine
+
Br2
brown

Chlorine is more reactive

than bromine and thus, chlorine _ displaces
bromine.
reddish
Observation: colourlesr turns Brown
Soluti
lonic equation:
201 +

Page 6
 Example 2:
When chlorine gas is bubbled through potassium iodide solution, the following
reaction occurs:
potassium chloride + iodine
chlorine + potassium iodide 7
+ k1 +

is more reactive than idline and thus, chlorine dbplal

iodine.
Observations: colouiless solution turns

lonic equation: 012 121 9 2017 12

Note: Less reactive halogen cannot displace more reactive halogen from its aqueous

halide solution.

The table below summarises the displacement reactions of halogens with different
solutions.

Sodium chloride Sodium bromide Sodium iodide

Chlorine Displacement reaction. Displacement reaction.

and sodium churide and
formed. formed.

Bromine No reaction Displacement reaction.

sadium bromide and
formed.

No reaction No reaction

Page 7
D. Group 0 (The Noble Gases)

Elements in Group D are called f noble gaurs

Helium has 2. valence electrons (stable _duplet configuration) while the rest of the
elements in the group has _8 valence electrons (stable configuration).
They are (exist as sinale atomn.).

Element Symbol Proton number Electronic configuration

Helium He

Neon Ne 10 2.8

Argon Ar 18 2.8.8

Krypton Kr 36 2.8.18.8
Xenon 54 2.8.18.18.8
Radon 86 2.8.18.32.18.8

D1. Properties of the Noble Gases

1. melting and boiling points.

They are all coloy less gases at r.t.p.

Their valence shells are filled to the number of electrons. Thus, the

atoms do not gain, lose or share electrons with other atoms.

Element Boiling point (°C) % in atmosphere

Helium -268 0.00052

Neon -280 0.0018

Argon -186 0.93

Note: Argon is the most abundant among all the noble gases in the atmosphere.

D2. Uses of the Noble Gases

Noble Gas Uses

Helium Fill weather balloons and airships.

Neon Making of advertisement lights.

Argon Fill light bulbs.

Page 8
E. Transition Metals

Transition metals are the elements between

Most transition metals are in colour, except _ cop pbr (pink or

Silv ex
reddish-brown) and

E1. Properties of Transition Metals

1. conductor of electricity
O There are free-moving
2. high_ melting and boiling points.
3. high density.

Transition metals Melting point (°C) Boiling point (°C) Density (g/cm*)

3000 7.9
Iron 1535

2595 8.9
Copper 1083

2100 7.2
Manganese 1240

1890 2482 7.2

Chromium

Can have more than one O% datii itate when it form compounds (form ions with
more than one charges).

Transition metals Compounds

Iron iron(II) oxide, FeO (oxidation state:

iron(III) oxide, Fe2Oa (oxidation state:

The compounds of transition metals are

Compound Compound
Yellow
Pale green
Blue
Purple

6 Transition metals are good cataln

Catalyst Industrial process

Iron, Fe Production of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen

(Haber process)
Nickel, Ni Production of margarine from vegetable oil

Page 9
Name: Mean Class: Date: 13/9/19

Metals

Learning Objectives

Core:

(a) List the general physical properties of metals

Describe the general chemical properties of metals reaction with dilute acids and reaction
(b) e.g.

with oxygen
(c) Explain in terms of their properties why alloys are used instead of pure metals
(d) Identify representations of alloys from diagrams of structure
(e) Place in order of reactivity: potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, (hydrogen) and
copper, by reference to the reactions, if any, of the metals with:
water or steam

dilute hydrochloric acid

and the reduction of their oxides with carbon

(f) Deduce an order of reactivity from a given set of experimental results

(g) Describe the ease in obtaining metals from their ores by relating the elements to the reactivity
series

Describe and state the essential reactions in the extraction of iron from hematite
(h)
Describe the conversion of iron into steel using basic oxides and oxygen
Know that aluminium is extracted from the ore bauxite by electrolysis

(k) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of recycling metals, limited to iron/steel and

aluminium
Name the uses of aluminium:
in the manufacture of aircraft because of its strength and low density
in food containers because of its resistance to corrosion

(m) Name the uses of copper related to its properties (electrical wiring and cooking utensils)
in

(n) Name the uses of mild steel (car bodies and machinery) and stainless steel (chemical plant and
cutlery)

Extended:

its positive ion,

(o) Describe the reactivity series as related to the tendency of a metal to form
illustrated by its reaction, if any, with:

the aqueous ions

the oxides of the other listed metals
the listed
(p) Describe and explain the action of heat on the hydroxides, carbonates and nitrates
of

metals
terms of the oxide layer which adheres to
(q) Account for the apparent unreactivity of aluminium in
the metal

(r) Describe in outline, the extraction of zinc from zinc blende

(s) Describe in outline, the extraction of aluminium from bauxite including the role of cryolite and

the reactions at the electrodes

Explain the uses of zinc for galvanizing and for making brass
(u) Describe the idea of changing the properties of iron by the controlled use of additives to form

steel alloys
A. Introduction to Metals

Table including the

Metals are generally the elements in Group 1-2-3_ of the Periodic
metals side of staircase).

Metals are elements which Lore electrons to form positive ions.

Metals are at r.t.p. and has _ colour.
generally_ Solid silver
Structure of a metal:

B. Physical Properties of Metals

Metals have high melting and boiling point e.g. magnesium melts at 650°C and boils at 1100°C.

A lot of energy is needed to break strong metallic band

Metals conduct electricity both in the solid state and when molten (liquid state).

There are froe maung (mibile electrons.

(sea of de loCali SPal)

electrons
moving elections
inlo metal leaving
metal
melal piece

Metals are malleable

(can be bent and beaten into different shapes) and ductile.
(can be stretched).

The lawer_ of metal atoms/ions can_ slide one another easily when force is
applied.

metals are malleable metals are ductile

C. Alloys - MiXtun of metal with anyth ng
(element)

Pure metals are not widely used because:

another
Pure metals are the layers of atoms can side one

easily when force is applied.

Force
Layers of
toms slidc

Force-

• Alloys are usually used instead of pure metals.

elements. Example of alloys:
• Alloys are mixture of metals with one or a few other
Brass - an alloy of copper and zinc Fork and spom.
Steel - an alloy of iron and carbon®
iron, chromium, nickel and carbon'
Stainless steel - an alloy of

C1. Physical Properties of Alloys

Alloys are hand and stro ge than pure metals.

Atoms of other elements have different _size,_ and thus, making it Aifticult_ for the
is applied.
layer of metal atoms to slide over one another when force

atoms of other element Layers of metal atoms cannot slide

pure metal atoms
but can't

Alloys are more resistant to

© Exercise on Alloy ©

Alloy 2024 contains 95% aluminium and 4% copper. The diagram below shows the structure of
pure aluminium.

(a) In the empty box on the right, draw a similar diagram to snow the structure of alloy 2024.

(b) Explain alloy 2024 is stronger and harder than pure aluminium.
 only (om mon metal
D. Reactions of Metals and Reactivity Series

•
Different metals react differently with water or steam and dilute hydrochloric acid.
The reactions of metals are used to find out the of metals.

D1. Reaction of Metals with Water or Steam

If a metal is able to
react with water, the products of the reaction are mutal meter and

metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas

If a metal is able to react with steam,

the products of the reaction are mutal midu and

metal + steam metal oxide + hydrogen gas

Table below shows information about reactions of some metals with water or steam:

Metal Reaction with water or steam Chemical Equation

Potassium, K Reacts very violently with water
Flame is seen and may explode.

Sodium, Na Reacts violently with water

No explosion and flame may be seen.

Calcium, Ca Reacts rapidly with water.

Ca + 2H20 >

Magnesium, Mg Reacts very slowly with water.

Reacts rapidly with steam.

Only reacts when heat with steam.

Iron, Fe Only reacts when heat very strongly

with steam.

Copper, Cu Does not react at all.

D2. Reaction of Metals with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid

Table below shows the reactivity of different metals with hydrochloric acid.

Metal Reaction with the acid Chemical Equation

Potassium React explosively K + 2HCI 2KCl + H2

Sodium React violently 2 No + +

Ca + 2HCl CaCk2 + H2
Calcium Reacts very rapidly

Magnesium Reacts rapidly Mo

Zinc Reacts slowly

Fe +
Iron Reacts very slowly

Copper No reaction occurs.

D3. Reactivity Series of Metals

obtain the following reactivity series of

From the reactions with water, steam and acid, we can

the metals:

most reactive
Remember:
potassium
sodium Please

calcium Stop
Calling
magnesium
Me
aluminium A
realt
zinc Zombie,
steam reactivity
iron increases
Love
lead
(hot)
(hydrogen) Cute
copper
Sexy
silver Gaga
least reactive
pani gold

avng metal below

doesn't read w/ water)
E. Other Reactions of Metals

Reactivity series of metals allows us to understand many reactions that involve metals.
same idea
as
9P
E1. Displacement Reaction of Metals from the Salt Solutions

More reactive metals can reactive metal from its salt solution.
disdate.

Example 1;:

When iron is added to copper(II) sulfate solution,

iron + copper(II) sulfate > iron(II) sulfate + copper

+
Fe +

Observation: Blue solution turns Copper_ solid seen.

(pinn / rdolish - brown)

Iron powder-

Iron(II) sulfate

copper(II) sulfate

copper

Explanation:
from copper(I)
Iron iS more readive than copper and thus, iron displaces

Example 2:

When zinc is placed in aqueous iron(II) chloride,

+ iron
zinc + iron(II) chloride zinc chloride
+ Fe

solution turns_ colourless silverlonty solid is seen.

Observation:

Silvery grey deposit of iron

metal

zinc chloride
iron(II) chloride

Explanation:

iron from iron(II) chloride.

Zinc is more reactive than Y ov and thus, zinc displace
E2. Displacement Reaction of Metals from Metal Oxides

reactive metal from its oxide. This

More reactive metal can displace the

type of reaction is very exothermic.

Example:

When a mixture of zinc and copper(II) oxide is heated, the following reaction occurs:

Zinc + copper(II) oxide 7

+ 2n0 +

Explanation: from
zinc is more leagive than copper
and thus, zinc displaces

© Exercise on Metal Displacement Reaction 2 ©

powder reacts
(a) Displacement of metal oxides is used to weld railway rails together. Aluminium
between rails.
with iron(III) oxide to make molten iron which runs into the gaps

-fuse

_mixture of
aluminium and + 2 He.
iron(IIl) oxide

molten Iron red

rallway line

gap

(i) Complete the table.

Oxidation state at the Oxidation state at the

Element
start end

Oxygen 2

Aluminium t 3

Iron (111)

reaction and it is very exothermic. The

(b) The reaction iS an example of metal displacement
amount of energy given out depends of difference in reactivity of two metals.

(i) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.

....2A1......F2.03....7..44.12.2g.......

(ii) Suggest a name of another metal that could be used to replace aluminium for a more
exothermic reaction

..........Magne.0m....................
 lose ox open

E3. Reduction of Metal Oxides with Carbon

Carbon can reduce some metal oxides to produce metal and carbon dioxide.

Mixture of copper(II) oxide and carbon

Example:

When copper(II) oxide is heated with

carbon, the following reaction takes place:

copper(Il) oxide + carbon > copper + carbon dioxide

+ C 2 Cu C02

However, carbon only can remove oxygen from oxide of metal that is het foo hil in
reactivity series.
The more reactive the metal, the more the compound is. Thus, it is harder for
carbon to remove oxygen from the compound.

•
The table below shows reaction of some metal oxides with carbon:

Metal oxide Reaction

Potassium oxide
Sodium oxide
Calcium oxide Metal oxides are not reduced by carbon
Magnesium oxide
Aluminium oxide

Zinc oxide

Iron(II) oxide
2 Fe + 002
Copper(II) oxide

bond)

most reactive
potassium
sodium
carbonate
calcium
& hydrox. de
magnesium

carbon aluminium
zinc
reactivity
iron
increases

lead

(hydrogen)
copper
silver

gold least reactive

Strong
easily reatt
E4. Thermal Decomposition of Metal Hydroxides, Metal Carbonates & Metal Nitrates
The thermal decomposition refers to the use of heat to break down a solid into two or more
products.

The table below summarises the thermal decomposition of metal hydroxides:

example of metal sodium

hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, zinc hydroxide, etc.
hydroxides
thermal
metal hydroxide decomposes to give metal oxide and water
decomposition
reaction
magnesium hydroxide magnesium oxide + water
Mg(OH)2 MgO H2O

exception
other than lithium hydroxide, Group I metal hydroxide do not
decompose.

The table below summarises

the thermal decomposition of metal carbonates:

example of metal sodium

carbonate, calcium carbonate, copper(Il) carbonate etc.
carbonates
thermal
metal carbonate decomposes to give metal oxide and carbon dioxide
decomposition
reaction copper(II) carbonate > copper(II) oxide + carbon dioxide
CO2
Some as

reach on of

Metal and Cowlan

too reactive

doesn4

Copper

Exception other than lithium carbonate, Group I metal hydroxide do not

decompose.

The
table below summarises the thermal decomposition of metal nitrates:

example of metal sodium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, iron(II) nitrate, etc.

nitrates
thermal metal nitrate generally decomposes to give metal oxide, nitrogen
decomposition dioxide and oxygen.
reaction

calcium nitrate - calcium oxide + nitrogen dioxide + oxygen

2Ca(NO3)2 2Cao +
02

exception Group I metal nitrate decomposes to give metal nitrite and oxygen

sodium nitrate > sodium nitrite + oxygen

02
 F. Extraction of Metals

Only a few metals can be found in the ground as metal itself.

Most metals are found in Earth as compounds instead, known as ove

An ore is a compound of metal e.g. metal oxides, metal carbonates, metal sulfides.
Therefore, extraction is needed to obtain pure metal from the ores.

Ore
Extraction of
Mining concentration
metal Refining

Ores in the
Mixture of ores One type Crude metal Pure metal
ground

F1. Method of Extracting Metals from their Ores

Method to extract metals depends on the _position. of metals in the reactivity series.
Two main methods used to extract
metals: 1) reduction using (arbon 2) electrolu iu

potassium

sodium Extraction by electrolysis

calcium
The metals are very reactive and thus, the metal
magnesium
compounds have strong chemical bonds.
The metals can only be extracted using electricity.
aluminium
Reactivity
Carbon.
of
zinc
metal

Increases iron

Extraction by reduction of oxide with carbon

lead

The metals are extracted by reducing the metal oxides

copper
with carbon.

silver

gold Found naturally as metal itself.

F2. Extraction of Iron

Iron is found in nature as ore known as

and impurities such as _ land blau4

Extraction of iron form haematite is done in blast furnance
Raw materials: hne matite Core) coke and
fed at the top of the furnace. Hot div is fed into the furnace near the bottom.

th furnace)
( carbon)
Verl
coke

waste
gas
Coke
skip

molten slag

Blast
lime stone Furnace

coke, ore and' molten ron

limestone

Hot air

blasts of. blasts of

hot air extraction of iron
Flowchart diagram for
molteh slag. len iron

Extraction of iron from haematite in blast furnace

① Ct Oz → coz
② coz -1C → co
( 21% )
③ 3C 0 + Fez 03 → 2Fe -13 coz
Boom. Combustion
exothermic
These are what happen during extraction of iron:
1) Production of CO2 Cburns in 02 to For

Coke reacts with oxygen in the hot air to produce carbon dioxide and a lot of heat:

> Co,

2) Production of CO (as CO) rife meet mare C react more )

Carbon dioxide produced reacts with more coke to form carbon monoxide:

dis"
""
gian 0
Crediting agent,
200
{ Fei reduce
→ Redox reaction , lose 0 ( oxidising agent)
*3) Reduction of haematite to iron metal (co reduces oxi de In
hae matite to iron
Carbon monoxide reacts with iron(III) oxide in haematite to produce iron:

+ 300 -

**Note: Iron produced is in _molten_ state, which runs down to the of the furnace.
4) Removal of impurities
thermal decompos ition
Limestone decomposes by heat to produce calcium oxide and carbon dioxide:

Cad C02

csdnd ) (a0
• Silicon dioxide impurities present in haematite react with calcium oxide to form

Calcium silicate

Ca0 + Si02

Slag runs down to the bottom of the furnace and floot on top of molten iron.
different
dunsity im isci ble

© Exercise on Extraction of Iron

In a blast furnace, haematite (an iron ore), coke and some other chemicals are continuously
supplied through the top of the furnace, while hot air is blown into the lower section of the
furnace, so
that chemical reactions take place throughout the furnace as the materials move
downwards. A simplified diagram of a furnace is as shown.

Raw materials: coke, haematite, etc.

0,
waste gases carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, a bit
water vapour, etc.

1000°c 401+ Ih ONly

doesn+ nast.
come out.
1500°

blasts of blasts of
hot air hot air

molten
iron slag

(a) Write an equation to show the formation of the substance that reduces haematite to iron in the
blast furnace.

.. . . . . . . . . . . . M 2 . . . . . . . . . .2.C.O.....

(b) Name the raw material added to remove sand as molten slag in the furnace.

.................calcum..cbtna.t.....C.hmastmel.......................

(c) Molten slag is tapped off separately from molten iron at the bottom of the furnace. Explain
Why this can be done.
 F3. Extraction of Zinc

Zinc is found in the ground (ore) as zinc blende, which is zinc sulfide, ZnS. + sand csioz )
Zinc sulfide is first heated in air to produce zinc oxide.
-2ns zinc sulfide + oxygen > zinc oxide + sulfur dioxide

Zinc oxide produced is then extracted in the blast furnace, similar to that of iron.
Raw materials: zinc oxide and coke
is formed in the blast
Due to lower melting and boiling point of zinc compared to iron, zinc
at
furnace as gas. The vapour rises to the top of the furnace, get cooled and condensed
condensing tray (at the top of the furnace).

② C
-1oz →
coz A- Mixture of Zinc and coke
Added to furnace
② coz -1C →
2C 0
B-Molten Zinc removed
reduction ③ ZnO + CO → 2h 1-
coz
C- Zinc condenses

④ zns 1- Oz → ZnO -1502 D- Hot air blown in

© Exercise on Extraction of Zinc ©

Zinc is a very important metal.

(a) Zinc is extracted from its ore, zinc blende. Zinc blende contains zinc sulfide, ZnS.

Zinc sulfide is converted to zinc oxide in an industrial process.

(if Describe how zinc sulfide is converted to zinc oxide in this industrial process.

..............R.eaS....th...axygen............

(iñ) Write the chemical equation for this reaction.

..................................2..........................2....................................

(b) Zinc oxide is then reduced in a furnace.

(i) Name the substance added to the furnace to reduce the zinc oxide.

..............l........c.Av.le...................

Describe how the pure zinc is removed from the furnace and collected.
Due to low boiling point It

tinc
G. Making of Steel and Uses of Steel
or
The iron obtained from blast furnace are not 100% pure - known as cor t iron

The cast iron contains small amount of cole and Sand

is blown through molten cast iron to remove left over

Pure at high pressure
coke into CO. (tarbondoxide)
Small amount of IS added to react with left over silicon dioxide to form

slag. Slag is poured off , leaving behind molten pure iron.

oxygen

gaseous oxides
blown out

blast
furnace cast iron molten
iron

Pure iron is then usually made into different types of steel by adding carbon.
The properties and uses of the steel vary with the amount of carbon and/or metal(s) added as
shown below.

add different amount of carbon to molten iron

molten iron

Type of steel Composition Properties Uses

Low-carbon steel 0.25% carbon Relatively hard and malleable Car bodies, machinery
(mild steel) the rest iron

High-carbon steel 0.5% 1.5% carbon Strong but brittle Knives, hammers, saws,
the rest iron
cutting tools

Stainless steel Iron, carbon, Durable, highly resistant to Cutlery, surgical

chromium, nickel corrosion instruments, equipments
in chemical plants.
H. Uses of Other Metals

The table below gives some uses

of other metals:

Metal
Use(s) Reason

Aluminium
Making aircraft Good strength and low density

Food containers Resistant to corrosion

Copper Electrical wiring Good conductor of electricity

Zinc Prevent corrosion

Galvanising (coat another metal)
Making brass

Recycling of Metals

Metals are finite resources. There is only limited amount that can be mined from Earth.

Two main ways to

With increasing demand of metals, there is a need to conserve metals.
conserve metals:
replace
replace metals with other substances e.g. optical fibres are currently used to
metal wires in communicating devices.
crushed, cleaned and melted
recycle metals - old and used metals (scrap metals) are
for reuse.

Cans are opene

and the contents are d
are drunk. and collected in
recycling bins.

Aluminium sheets
are made into new
cans.
Used cal

into bales.

Bales are melted

in a furnace and
blocks are rolled cast into blocks.
into sheets..

Recycling

Pure metal Metal object Scrap metal

Benefits of recycling metals:

Recycling helps to conserve natural resources

Recycling saves the cost of extracting new metals

Recycling helps to reduce environmental problems
 Mg 2H20 (1) Mg(O1) + H
nater/ steam

Mo+ H20 (g) Mg0 +H

6)Ma + CuSo – Mg SO Cu
lipaement

† 2Cu
Name: Class: Date: 1/12/19

Electrochemistry: Electrolysis & Electrochemical Cell

Learning Objectives electron ⑦ → -0 > electrodes

:
graphite /carbon
Anode
Core: cathode electrolyte : molten
Alzoz

(a) Define electrolysis as the breakdown of an ionic compound, molten or in aqueous solution, by
the passage of electricity
*(b) Describe the electrode products and the observations made during the electrolysis of.
- molten lead(II) bromide
- concentrated hydrochloric acid
- concentrated aqueous sodium chloride
- dilute sulfuric acid
between inert electrodes (platinum or carbon)

(c) State the general principle that metals or hydrogen are formed at the negative electrode
(cathode), and that non-metals (other than hydrogen) are formed at the positive electrode
(anode)
(d) Predict the products of the electrolysis of a specified binary compound in the molten state
(e) Describe the electroplating of metals
(f) Outline the uses of electroplating

0
(g) Describe the reasons for the use of copper and (steelcored) aluminium in cables, and why
plastics and ceramics are used as insulators

Supplement:

(h) Relate the products of electrolysis to the electrolyte and electrodes used, exemplified by the
specific examples in the Core together with aqueous copper(II) sulfate using carbon
electrodes and using copper electrodes (as used in the refining of copper)
(i) Describe electrolysis in terms of the ions present and reactions at the electrodes in the
examples given
(j) Predict the products of electrolysis of specified halide in dilute or concentrated aqueous
solution

(k) Construct ionic half-equations for reactions at the cathode

(1) Describe the transfer of charge during electrolysis to include:
- the movement of electrons in the metallic conductor

the removal or addition of electrons from the external circuit at the electrodes
- the movement of ions in the electrolyte

(m) Describe the production of electrical energy from simple cells, i.e. two electrodes in an
electrolyte.
(n) Describe, in outline, the manufacture of:
aluminium from pure aluminium oxide in molten cryolite
chlorine, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide from concentrated aqueous sodium chloride

Page
Electrolysis

1.
Introduction to Electrolysis

•
Electrolysis is the process of using electricity to break down compound.

2. Features of Electrolysis Cell

source of
direct curront

electrolyte
anode electrodes

Electrodes

A rod or
plate where electrons enter or leave electrolyte during electrolysis.
Able to conduct electricity.
Two types: anode and cathode
Anode: positive_ electrode (connected to positive terminal)
Cathode: _ neaative_ electrode (connected to negative terminal)

Battery

Takes electrons away from the anode and electrons are then pumped out to the cathode.

Electrolyte

Compounds to be broken down.

Compounds must be able to conduct electricity (ionic compounds in _molf?n_ states or in
n eon_ state).
Contains both positive and negative ions.

3. How Does Electrolysis Process Work?

When battery is connected:

1) the cathode becomes _ neaatively_ charged and the anode becomes
charged.
2) Positive ions, cations in the electrolyte migrate to the cathode
Cations will electrons) at the cathode and form product.
gatin
3) Negative ions, anions in the electrolyte migrate to the
Anions will electrons) at the anode and form product.

*** The process can be remembered as CCR & AAO

o CCR: Cation > Cathode Reduction
• AAO: Anion Anode > Oxidation

Page 2
 4. Electrolysis of Molten lonic Compound
When molten ionic compound e.g. NaCl, KBr, MgO, PbI2 undergoes electrolysis,
Metal is obtained at cathode (negative electrode).

Non-metal is obtained at anode (positive electrode).

not reactive
P

0). 4.1 Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride Using Inert Electrodes

When molten sodium chloride is used as electrolyte in electrolysis (with inert electrodes),
and are obtained.

Substance cations anions

Nat a-

anode cathode

lose
-0 ⑦
(cation > cathode reduction) (anion ) anode > oxidation)

Half ionic equation at the cathode: Half ionic equation at the anode:

No

Product obtained: No Product obtained:

Sodium (metal)
chlorine (gas)
Sodium ions
are discharged to form Sodium • Chloride ions form
are dischamed to
The reaction is reduction because sodium gas.
ion gain elect rons. The reaction is oxid ation cause

chlonde ions lore electron s.

Page
 Electrodes
4.2 Electrolysis of Molten Lead(I) Bromide Using Inert
Substance cations anions

Br

P321 will migrate to the _ rathode and 8y~ will migrate to

(cation cathode reduction) (anion > anode ½ oxidation)

Half ionic equation at the cathode: Half ionic equation at the anode:

Product obtained: PL Product obtained: Br.

( Bromine)

Lead (n) ions one dis

charged
The reaction is redu (tron be cause
The
oxidatio be caure
lead (1) ons Gain elections
bromide ions lose electrons.

Page 4
 ©Practice Questions for Electrolysis of Molten lonic Compound ©

Half equation at the Product at anode

Compound lons present Half equation at the Product at
cathode cathode anode

Molten calcium chloride

Cor

calcium metal

Molten lead(II) oxide

02- Po
20-
lead metal
99

Molten magnesium bromide

Br 2 Br

Molten
Potassium iodide
I
KI

Page 5
5. Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions of Compounds
ions present.
For electrolysis of molten ionic compounds, there are only two different
However, for aqueous solution, water is another substance that is present.

1. 0 breaks down to produce and 0H ions.

affect
to the electrodes and
This small number of H* and OHions produced will be also move
the discharge (reactions at electrode).
discharged.
** Note that only cation and anion are _ pre fere atially

How to decide which ions will be preferentially discharged at the electrodes?

The ease of discharge depends on the position of the metal ions in the reactivity.
in reactivity will be discharged first.
electro chemcal series

Reactivity: electro cemcal:

Pls
Cations Anions
stop
call potassium ion, K* F-
fluoride ion, fish
Me sodium ion, Na*
sulphate ions so,~
A calcium ion, Ca-* soup
nitrate ions NO3 Not
magnesium ion, Mg?*
caring cheap
zombie iron ion, Fe2* bromide ion, Br"
But
iodide ion, I
I lead ion, Pb2* 2

hydrogen ion, H* [hydroxide ion, OH have

Love

Hot copper ion, Cutt

cute silver ion, Ag'
sexy lower
Ga Gd

5.1 Electrolysis of Aqueous Sodium Chloride

Substance cations anions

Nat

H2O
cathode - + anode

Half ionic equation at the cathode: Half ionic equation at the anode:

+20
2 H20 +

Product obtained: Product obtained:

Observation
Observation bubble

Page 6
 5.2 Electrolysis of Dilute Sulfuric Acid, H2SQ

Substance cations anions

Sulfuric acid
Water

Half ionic equation at the cathode: Half ionic equation at the anode:

Product obtained: Product obtained: Oxygen gas

obs. efferve scence

lons of higher concentration in the electrolyte maybe preferentially discharged even though the
ion iS of higher reactivity.
Concentration does not affect the discharge at cathode, only anode will be affected.
C7, I, Br will get discharged instead of OH when concentrated.
cont. afrect anole

6.1 Electrolysis of Concentrated Aqueous Sodium Chloride

Substance cations anions

Na* 0
H2O ☐
* What happen to

remaining Nat

Concentrated NaCl

Half ionic equation at the cathode: Half ionic equation at the anode:

Product obtained: Product obtained: Chlorine

greenish yellow gas)

Page 7
 © Practice Questions on Electrolysis of Aqueous and Concentrated Solutions ©

Compound lons present Half equation at the Product at Half equation at the anode Product at
cathode cathode anode

Dilute aqueous calcium iodide

02

Concentrated aqueous
2 1
calcium iodide

Concentrated aqueous zinc red dish

bromide

Dilute aqueous potassium

hydroxide 40H 9 4e + 0) 4220
24*+2e - H,

I
Conc
217 1,1

Page
7. Electrolysis Using Reactive (non-inert) Electrodes
Platinum
iner t

and
Inert
electrodes are electrodes which do not react in the electrolysis process. Examples are carbon/graphite electrodes and platinum electrodes.
When the electrode used is a reactive electrode e.g. copper, silver, etc., the anode will be affected.
the anions attracted to the anode are not discharged; instead, the anode itself undergoes oxidation. (AO instead of AAO)

Electrolysis of Aqueous Copper(II) Sulfate

Substance cations anions

CUZ-1
5042 504
-

H+ om
-

Water

reactive.
link botteries only
Using Inert Electrode Using Copper Electrode anode Cathode
the
Jame 4 tons

cathode
become bogey
be Cu form there due colour coluttion H2804 - colourless solution
AO (Anode 7 Oxidation)
like conC. > only affect anoda
Half equation at the cathode: Half equation at the anode: Half equation at the cathode: Half equation at the anode:
Cu > 2e t Cult
02 t 21,0

Product obtained:
copper motal Product obtained: oxygen Product obtained:
Corper metal
Anode becomes smaller

Copper ions formed which react lis:

goes into the solution.

Page 9
8. Electroplating

Electroplating is the conting_ of the surface of an object with a thin layer of a metal

by electrolysis.

Objects which are usually plated include cutlery, jewellery, iron or steel objects.
Some examples of metals used for electroplating are tin, copper, chromium, nickel,
etc.

Main purpose: to prevent corrosion_ of metals and to give the object _attractive tappeavance.
prevent

Before After

Electroplating Process

Requirement:
coated
made the cathode of the electrolysis cell.
The object to be plated e.g. cans, cutlery is
The metal to be used to coat the object is made the anode.
coat.
The electrolyte is the salt solution of the metal you want to

Example 1: Plating/coating a pot with copper metal

Copper anode bject is the cathode

Aqueous copper(II) salt

solution e.g. CuSO4

Substance cations anions

Copper(II) sulfate
Water OH

Half equation at the cathode: Half equation at the anode:

Cu Cult

anode lo@come Emailer

Product obtained: object )

copper Coat on

Page 11
 electrodes :
graphite /carbon
p
9_ Extraction of Aluminium By Electrolysis
airplane
food cans /

Y electrolyte : molten
AlzOz

The manufacture of aluminium

involves the use of electrolysis to extract metal from its ore,
bauxite, which contains aluminium oxide.
Pure aluminium oxide melts at 2045°C. The electrolysis can be carried out at a lower
temperature (950°C) by dissolving aluminium oxide in molten cryolite (Na:A/F6) thus lowering
its melting point.
In molten cryolite, aluminium ions A73+ migrate to the cathode, and oxide ions O2- ions migrate

s to the anode.
The electrolytic cell consists of a steel tank lined with graphite, which acts as the cathode.
use
to dissolves A 1203

graphite anode

graphite cathode
molten
aluminium
molten
oxide and
aluminium
cryolite

steel tank lined with graphite

Half ionic equation at the cathode: Half ionic equation at the anode:

A73+ + 3e > Al 202- 7 202 +

Product obtained: aluminium / Al Product obtained: oxygen gas / 02

Page 13
Electrochemical Cell or Simple Cell

1. Introduction

Electrochemical cells are set ups that used chemical reactions to produce electricity.

2. Features of Electrochemical Cells

zinc metal

copper
metal

aqueous
sodium
chloride
solution

Electrodes

Two electrodes made up of different metals e.g. one made up of zinc and one made
up of copper.

Electrolyte

The electrolyte can be an aqueous salt solution or an acid, as long as the solution is able to
conduct electricity.

Voltmeter

Connected to the two electrodes.

Use to measure the voltage produced.

Example of Electrochemical Cell:

Voltmeter reading = 1.1 V

Cu
electrode electrode

More reactive metal 2 inc Less reactive metal 1 copper

Electrons will flow from Zinc electrode along the wre to Copper electrocle.

ey from (zine

Page 14
3. Electrochemical Cell and Reactivity Series

the magnitude of
The the metals in the reactivity series, the grater.
electrolyte used.
the voltage produced (the brighter the light bulb), regardless of the

Voltmeter reading = 2.7 V

Voltmeter reading = 1.1 V

Cu
Cu
electrode
electrode electrode
electrode

a salt solution
salt solution

apart than zinc and copper in the reactivity

are further
E.g. magnesium and copper
series, so a greater voltage is produced.
most reactive metal

magnesium

-zinc

iron
2.7 volts

1:1 volts tin

lead

copper

silver

least reactive metal

If the electrodes are made of the same metal, no voltage will be produced.

Page 15
© Practice Question on Simple Cells ©

The set up below can be used to generate electricity. The voltage reading for the set-up below was
0.93 V.

magnesium electrode (electrode 1)

lead electrode (electrode 2)

The voltage of the cell was measured when the following metals were used as electrode 2.

copper iron magnesium

Complete the table by entering the metals accordingl

Meter reading/ V Metal

1.10
coppiN
0.33

0.00

Page 16
Name: _ Nean Class: tol Date:

Organic Chemistry Part 1 - The Alhanes

Learning Objectives

Core:

(a) Describe the concept of homologous series as a 'family' of similar compounds with similar
chemical properties due to the presence of the same functional group
(b) Describe the properties of alkanes (exemplified by methane) as being generally unreactive,
except in terms of burning
(c) Describe the bonding in alkanes

Supplement:

(d) Describe the general characteristics of a homologous series

(e) Recall that the compounds in homologous series have the same general formula
(f) Describe substitution reactions of alkanes with chlorine

1. Introduction

Organic Chemistry is the study of organic compounds, which are carbon_-containing

compounds. Most organic compounds also contain _had gon and
If an organic compound contains only carbon and hydrogen, it is known as

Organic compounds can be classified into families. Each family of organic compounds is called
a hamale goue corifs Examples of homologous series are alkanes, alkenes, alcohols
and carboxylic acids.

Organic compounds

alcohols

1.1 Characteristics of a Homologous series

A homologous series is a family of organic compounds with a general formula and similar
chemical properties.
Each member differs from the next consecutive one by

All members undergo similar chemical reactions due to same functional group
The physical properties of the members change gradually as the number of carbon

atoms __ incre ase,

Page 1
 2. Alkanes

Alkanes are a homologous series of hydrocaxinn._ that contains only Angie covalent bonds
around

Alkanes have the general formula

con bol anything

2.1 Names, Formulae and Structures of Alkanes

group
Table below shows the first five members of the series.

cowben maxiaum 4 bondls 1!!

No. of C Name Molecular Full Structural Formula
atoms Formula

cowbon
of nane
Methane CH4

2 carlen
H
Eth one
H H

H H

H
But ome

C5 H

I - c- c-
Pent one
(4 H H

*Note: Co: Hexane, C7: He pt ane, Ce: Oct ane, Co: Non_ane, C10: Dec ane
H22
Names of alkanes end with -ane

Each member differs from the next by a CHa unit.

Alkanes are said to be Saturated _hydrocarbons.

Saturated: all carbon atoms form bonds.
onl4. single covalent

Page 2
 2.2 Physical Properties of Alkanes

1) Melting and Boiling Points

Alkanes have melting and boiling points.

Melting and boiling points increasing_ _dawn_ the series.

Name Melting Point ('C) Boiling Point (°C) Physical State at r.t.p.
Methane -182 -162 Gas

Ethane -183 -89 Gas

Propane -188 -42 Gas

Butane -138 -0.5 Gas

Pentane -130 36 Liquid

2) Density

high Density of alkanes moreaser down the series.

Viscosity
3) Viscosity (thickness of liquid)
Liquid kus
Viscosity of alkanes mescales down the series (flow _ le._ easily).

CENSORED

Oh poor
Profane Brute-ane Spentane
methane

11111/,
COUGH:

Texane Streptane Non-ane

Malkanes, n. Chemical term for an unpleasant family of maladjusted alkanes.

Page 3
2.3 Chemical Reactions of Alkanes

1) Combustion

Alkanes burn readily in alc Casuden ) to produce

carbon dioxide and water vapour.

Examples: Thog mokes the discovery that

CH4 + 202 CO2 +

70, 611,0
5 02 Co, +

•
Carbon dioxide and water would be the only two products obtained when there is
complete combustion taking place i.e. when there is sufficient amount of oxygen.
If there is _ins ufticient amount of oxygen, incomplete_ combustion will take place.
carbon manor don will be produced.

This reaction is highly exothermic. Thus, alkanes make good fuel e.g. methane is used
in cooking gas.

2) Substitution Reaction

A substitution reaction is a reaction in which one alkane are

or
more hydrogen in an

replaced by one or more amor aton.... atoms

Alkanes undergo substitution reaction with _ hal reg1_ such as chlorine and bromine.
Condition required: presence of

• Light energy is needed to tart. the reaction.

Example: reaction of methane with chlorine

Chemical Equations for the Reaction Equation showing structural formula

uv light CI
CH4 Ch2 > +
H
H
H
uv light

H-CI
CH12 C12 .
uv light

H-C-CI* - C. H -CI

uv light

In this reaction, hydrogen atoms in methane are replaced by chlorine atoms.

Page 4
Name: Class: Date: 29/11 /9

Organic Chemistry Part 2 The Alkenes

Learning Objectives

Core:

(a) Describe the manufacture of alkenes and of hydrogen by cracking

(b) Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons from molecular structures and by
reaction with aqueous bromine

Supplement:
(c) Describe the properties of alkenes in terms of addition reactions with bromine, hydrogen and
steam

(d) Describe and identify structural isomerism

Alkenes are a homologous series of hydrocarbons that contain _one caxlan - carhan duble
Alkenes have the general formula Cp. Hy bond Cc=c)

A1. Names, Formulae and Structures of Alkenes

Table below shows the first four members of the series.

No. of C Name Molecular Full Structural Formula

atoms Formula

Does not exist

HH

I- H

prop ene C3 Hb
H

C-C-C-C-H

H
H

Page 1
 carbon atoms are needed
*Note: alkene with 1 carbon atom does not exist as minimum of
two
to form

Names of alkanes end with -ene

Each member differs from the next by a g CH, unit.
Alkenes are said to be _insatarated hydrocarbons.
O Each alkene contains CEC Thus, not all carbon atoms form
only

A2. Physical Properties of Alkenes

The table below summarises the physical properties of alkenes.

Physical Property Comment

1) Melting and boiling points melting and boiling points.

Melting and boiling points mcreates as the number of
carbon atoms in the molecules increase (down the series).
Ethene, propene and butene are gases at r.t.p. Other alkenes
are liquids at r.t.p.

2) Density Density ac ceaser down the series.

3) Viscosity Viscosity indente_ down the series.

*Note: trends are similar to that of alkanes.

A3. Chemical Properties of Alkenes

Alkenes undergo many chemical reactions. Most of the chemical reactions that took place are
due to the presence of
C = C bond is known as

A functional group is the group of atoms in an organic compound which is responsible for the
umical_ reactions of the compound.

1) Combustion

Similar to alkanes, alkenes combust in air (oxygen) to produce carbon dioxide gas and water

Examples:

+ 302 +

C4 He 60, 400,

Page 2
2) Addition Reactions

An addition reaction is a reaction which two substances combine together to form a

single
product.
The substance is added onto the in the unsaturated organic
compound.
General equation for addition reaction of alkene:

H H H H

X-Y

H H

2.1) Addition of Hydrogen

Alkenes react with hydrogen to produce _ lk anas

This reaction is known as

Conditions required: temperature of 150 C .

Example 1: reaction of ethene with hydrogen

Nickel catalyst
150°C

+ H2

H H

H-C-C
H- H
H H

H H

Hydrogen is added _antp the Cec of ethene (unsaturated) to form ethane (saturated).

Example 2: reaction of butene with hydrogen

C-C-C-C-H H- C-C- C-C ~ )

H - H
H

Page 3
2.2) Addition of Halogen

Alkenes react with halogens such as chlorine and bromine to produce _ halagesakanes
The halogen molecule adds onto C C band of the alkene.
This reaction occurs at normal room condition.
tenp

Example 1: reaction of ethene with aqueous bromine

+ Br2

oli bro molthans

+ Br - Br B- C-C-1
Br

H H

Observation: reddish brown bromine solution turns colosles ( dacaaunies).

Example 2: reaction of propene with chlorine gas

C3 16 C12
H

+
H

2.3 Addition of Steam H,o

Alkenes react with steam to produce fl cohol

The water molecule adds_ onto_ Cal of the alkene.
This reaction is known as

Conditions required: temperature of 300° c pressure of 60 and phosphoric(V)

acid, HaP0, _ as a catalyst.

Example 1: reaction of ethene with steam

300°C, 60atm,
HaPO4 catalyst

H H
H
+ H-O-H H-C-C-0-H

Example 2: reaction of propene with steam

H
H H
H
C-C-H + H-10- C : C-C-H
H H H Page 4

(42 c
A4. Testing for Unsaturated Compounds

To test for presence of or to distinguish between an alkane and an alkene, we

make use of

Test Observation & Deductions

add aqueous bromine in the dark If aqueous bromine turns from reddish-brown to
(no UV light) colourless (or decolourises), then the unknown
IS an allene

If the aqueous bromine remains reddish-brown,

then the unknown is an

liquid alkene. bromine

becomes
bromine solution

shake

liquid alkanes remains the same

bromine solution -

shake

Page 5
A5. Fats, Qils and Production of Margarine

Fats are wild at r.t.p. while oils are liqnid at r.t.p.

Two types of fats:
fats fat molecule contains only ciagle bonds.

H H H H H H H H H H H H

H- C- ( the rest of the fat molecule

-I -I H H
-
I H H

Jatuated fats - fat molecule contains doable bonds.

H H H H H H H H H H

H - C - -c - c the rest of the fat molecule

H H H H H

H H H H H H H H H H

the rest of the fat molecule

H H H H

Hydrogenation is used to convert licetable ail which contains C = C bonds into

Nickel
He + 150°C

hydrogen

H H H H H H H H

part of a vegetable oil molecule part of a margarine molecule

B. Industrial Production of Alkenes by Cracking
Alkenes can be produced in the
industry by
Cracking is the process of on hing large alkane molecules into _imaller molecules.

small molecules

Cracking is done by heating the la ar allono_ over a solid catalyst at high

temperature. Catalysts used are usually . aluminmam axid and sillicon diands

Al2O3 and SiO2

catalyst
Products of cracking

Wool soaked in liquid

^
Heat

• The products of cracking can be and alline:.

Examples:

C12H26

C12H26 C5H10 +

The products of cracking can also be

Examples:

C12H26 > C4H8 + CaHi6 + H2

C12H26 7

Cracking is used industrially to produce:

Smaller all ene such as propene and ethene to be used as starting materials
for making ethanol and plastics.
o Smaller which are in higher demand as compared to longer chain

hudmau._, which can be used as fuel)or starting materials from manufacture of

ammonia.

Page 7
C. Isomerism in Alkanes and Alkenes

Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural
formulae.

C1. Obtaining Isomers of Alkanes

Isomers of alkanes are generally obtained by having a carbon 'side chain'.

Example of having a carbon 'side chain':

Organic Molecular Isomers

Compound Formula

Butane

H-C-C-C-C-H

H H H H 4 - C-

Butane
shaight -chain hranched-chain alkane
Because it has
Because carbon atoms as a sido chain.
are joined up in a row.

*Note: Not all organic compounds have isomers e.g. methane, propene.

C2. Naming of Isomers

Steps in naming isomers:

1. Identify the longest carbon chain (parent chain) and name accordingly. Parent chain
should contain the functional group.
2. Identify the side chain and name accordingly. Naming of side chain follows the
number of carbon atoms but end with -y

Example:
Side chain Name
-CH3 Methyl
Ethyl
Propyl

3. Identify the position of the carbon atom where the side chain is linked to parent chain.
(must be smallest number possible).
4. Put steps 3, 2 and 1 together.

Exercise: Name the following organic compound.

3 ethy) pintom.

Page 8
 Exercise: Draw and name two isomers of pentane.

Organic Molecular Isomers

Compound Formula

Pentane

means that
*Note: if two structural formulae of the isomers ended up with the same name, this

the two isomers are actually the same compound. Should consider as only one isomer.

C3. Obtaining & Naming Isomers of Alkenes

Isomers of alkenes are generally obtained by C-C=C-C-H

1. Have a carbon 'side chain'

2. Shift the position of the functional group

Example of shifting position of functional group:

Molecular Isomers
Organic
Compound Formula

H-C: c-C-H
H
H H H~ C-H

methyl propine.

*Note: The number of isomers rnas. as the number of carbon atoms increase for each

homologous series.

Exercise:

(i) Draw and name one more isomer of butene.

(ii) Draw and name two isomers of pentene.

Page 9
Name: Class: c104 Date: w/1/20

Organic Chemistry Part 3 - The Alcohols

Learning Objectives

Core:
ethene
(a) Describe the manufacture of ethanol by fermentation and by the catalytic addition of steam to
(b) Describe the properties of ethanol in terms of burning
(c) Name the uses of ethanol as a solvent and as a fuel

Extended:
(d) Outline the advantages and disadvantages of these two methods of manufacturing ethanol

1. Introduction to the Alcohols

Alcohols are a homologous series of organic compounds which have the hudraxul
functional group
Alcohols have the general formula

1.1 Names, Formulae and Structures of Alcohols

bonds
Table below shows the first four members of the series.

No. of C Name Molecular Full Structural Formula

atoms Formula

moth ano CH3 OH H- C-0-H

H- C
H

0- H
propand
H
-

I H

H-C-C-C-C-O-H
AHAH

Names of alcohols end with -ol.

Each member differs from the next by a CHa unit.

Page 1
X - C
1.2 Physical Properties of Alcohols

The table below summarises the physical properties of alcohols.

Boiling Point (°C) Physical State at r.t.p.

Name Melting Point ('C)
Methanol -127 65 Liquid

Ethanol -117 78 Liquid

97 Liquid
Propanol -98

Physical Property Comment

1) Melting and boiling points melting and boiling points.

All alcohols are generally liquid at r.t.p.
Melting and boiling points as the number of
carbon atoms in the molecules increase (down the series).

2) Density Density down the series.

3) Viscosity Viscosity down the series.

*Note: the trends are similar to that of alkanes & alkenes.

1.3 Chemical Properties of Alcohols

Most of the chemical reactions that alcohols undergo are due to the presence of the hydroxyl
functional group, - OH.

1) Combustion how n.

Similar to alkanes and alkenes, alcohols (completely) combust in air (oxygen) to produce
carbon dioxide gas and water vapour.

Examples:

+ 302 +

302 + 3 H,0

This combustion reaction allows alcohols to be used as e.g. in cars.

Page 2
 2) Oxidation

Alcohols can be oxidised to produce Ladamsalit_ nerd _ and water.

Conditions
required: richit lg d14041 such as potal ium madg anate Loil and wat.

Example: reaction of ethanol with acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII)

+
CH2 COOM

*Note: this oxidation of alcohols is used in breathalyser to test the amount of alcohols consumed

by drivers. Breathalyser contains an oxidising agent. If the breath of a driver contains high level
of alcohol, a colour change will be registered on the device.

*Note: alcohols can also be oxidised to carboxylic acid by (very slow reaction).

Example: + > CH COOH + H2O

111
a191
Addition fermentation

+ fast process
t cheap.
( m ore)
obfulin pure ethanol se Renewable resources
A no need to

continuou procesd. Stop the Mochine / will die.

batch procekd

non- renewable resourves. impure ethanol o neol to do amt elve

ex ponsive O slow proceSS

Page 3
 1.4 Industrial Production of Ethanol

300 c
Ethanol can be used in alcohelic @minks, as a solvesat. for other organic compounds
nud (nt°such as paints, deodorants, perfumes and as a fuel. 4 H2 %
Ethanol can be produced by two processes: 1) fermentation. of
gluces and 2) catalytic
addition of Ste am to ethone.

(211,04
1) Fermentation of Glucose -0 - H
H

Fermentation is the process where yeast act on sugar solution such as glucose in the
of oxygen to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Conditions required: presence of
tenzyme in) parl as catalyst, temperature of 31 C.
+
Yeast, 37°C

cover!

NOM

mixture of
yeast and
glucose glucose
solution

This is y(ost.

shit out C, H,OH

The table below shows precautions to note when setting up the fermentation apparatus.

Precaution Reason
Temperature should be kept at 37°C Enzymes in yeast work at 37°C.
*Note:

If temperature is raised above 37°C,

enzymes will be denatured. and unable
to catalyse the reaction.

If temperature is lowered below 37°C, the

enzymes will be active

Rubber bung is secured tightly to the To prevent the from entering the
flask. flask.
( air)

The product formed is a dilute_ solution of ethanol - up to only about 152_ concentration.
° When ethanol produced exceed this concentration, the yeast dies and fermentation

Ethanol produced can then be obtained from the mixture by imatimal distillatia.

hone
2) Catalytic Addition of Steam to Ethene

Refer to Organic Chemistry Part 2 under Chemical Reactions of Alkenes

Page 4
1.5 Isomerism in Alcohols

Isomers in alcohols are generally obtained by two ways:

1) Rearranging the carbon chain.

Example:

Organic Molecular Isomers

Compound Formula

Butanol H- C- c

H- C-H

2) Shifting the position of hydroxyl functional group. methy proganol.

Example:

Organic Molecular Isomers

Compound Formula

H- C-C-C-C-H
Propanol
H H

2 - butano

Exercise: Draw and name two isomers of organic compound with molecular formula C2H6O and

butan-1-o1

Molecular Isomers

Formula

ethano
H H

H- C-C-O-H

H H

1- ethanol

propanol
I H
C-C-CH
H-C-C-C-O-H -

H 4 H T
H

1- proponal 2- propanol

Page 5
Name: Class: Giel Date: 211/20

Organic Chemistry Part 4 - The Carboxylic Acids

Learning Objectives

Core:

(a) Describe the properties of aqueous ethanoic acid

Extended:

(b) Describe the formation of ethanoic acid by the oxidation of ethanol with acidified potassium
manganate(VII)
(c) Describe ethanoic acid as a typical weak acid
carboxylic acid with an alcohol in the presence of a catalyst to
(d) Describe the reaction of
give an ester

A. Introduction to Carboxylic Acids

bond.

Carboxylic acids are a homologous series of organic compounds which have the carhox IL
functional group ( - COOH_).
Carboxylic acids have the general formula Calanty CQ0H

A1 Names, Formulae and Structures of Carboxylic Acids

Table below shows the first five members of the series.

No. of C Name Molecular Formula Full Structural Formula

atoms

H- C -O-

C - 0-H

H- C-C-C-O-H
propanoic acid C,H, COOH
H H

11 - -C-C-C-O-H

H H H

Names of carboxylic acids end with

Each member is differs from the next by CH,_ unit.

Page 1
B. Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids

The table below summarises the physical properties of carboxylic acids.

Physical Property Comment

1) Melting and boiling points Low melting and boiling points.

carbon
Melting and boiling points increase as the number of
atoms in the molecules increase (down the series).

2) Density Density increases down the series.

3) Viscosity Viscosity increases down the series.

*Note: the trends are similar to that of alkanes, alkenes & alcohols.

C. Chemical Properties of Carboxylic Acids

Most of
the chemical reactions that carboxylic acids undergo are due to the presence of the

carboxyl functional group, - COOH.

(H1)
All carboxylic acids are weak acids. The acid solutions contain

1) Typical Acid Reactions

1.1) Reaction with Metals except

Au
Carboxylic acids react with most metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas.

Example: reaction of ethanoic acid with magnesium

magnesium + ethanoic acid

1.2) Reaction with Carbonates

Carboxylic acids react with carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide.

Example: reaction of propanoic acid with sodium carbonate

sodium carbonate + propanoic acid sodium

propan cate

1.3) Reaction with Bases (Neutralisation)

Carboxylic acids react with bases to form a salt and water.

Examples:

+ water
potassium hydroxide + ethanoic acid

Page 2
2) Esterification ( and - altohol reaction)

A carboxylic acid reacts with an alreha _ to produce an organic compound known as ester
Esters are Sipet -smelling liquids.

Conditions required: presence of contentrated Sulfanic as catalyst and heat.

aud.

Example 1: reaction of ethanoic acid with ethanol

laud left

CH COO C,H5
tud broken
ends joi

H H

H-C-CO-H + 120-C-C-H H H

H alcohol H H
will toke

During the formation of ester, the C-o bond in acid is broken and the 0-H_ bond
in alcohol is broken.

Example 2: reaction of propanoic acid with butanol

H-C-C-C-0-H + H-O-C-C-C-C-H -c-o-C-C-C-C-H

H H

test-tube layer of butyl

holder
concentrated propanoate
sulphuric acid

boiling
tube

propanoic hot water

acid
water
•butanol

Structure of an ester can be seen as

from the acid from the alcohol where -C-0-
is known as

Page 3
 Naming of esters:
Step 1: name the alcohal used with ending changed to
Step 2: Name the cLod used with ending changed to coote

Table below shows the names of some esters, together with the alcohols and carboxylic
acids used to prepare them.

Reactants
Name of Esters formed Smell
Acid Alcohol
Butanoic acid Methanol methyl butanuabe Pineapple

Hexanoic acid Propanol Grapes

Ethanoic acid Octanol Orange

Since esters have sweet, fruity smell, they are used in artificial foad flavoring as
solvents for and cosmetics as well as in production of soap

Exercise: conditions 1: cencentrated cultinc oucid + heat.

1. Draw the full structural formula and name ester formed when methanoic acid reacts with
butanol Also, give the reaction conditions and the chemical formula of the ester.

H2 0 +

H H

H-C-0-H + H-O- C-C-C -C -H H-C-O-C-C-C-C-H

+ but a nol butyl methanoate + water

2. Draw the full structural formula of the two reactants used to produce C3H-CQOC4Hg.)

H-O-C-C-C-C H-C-C-C
H- C-C-C-C-O-H +
H
H H H

water
+ butyl butanootl +

Page 4
D. Industrial Production of Ethanoic Acid

Ethanoic acid is used in food It is a colourless

as poiseduotieel and as

liquid at r.t.p.
Ethanoic acid can be produced by two processes: 1) gxidation_ of ethanol by acidified
potassium manganate(VII) and 2) oxidation of ethanol by D4g04. in the air.

1) Oxidation of Ethanol by Acidificed KMnO4

Refer to Chemical Reactions of Alcohols.

2) Oxidation by Oxygen in Air

certain
Ethanoic acid is produced when ethanol is oxidised by oxygen in the presence of
bacteria in air.

+ 02 + H2O

is left exposed to air.

This change also occurs when alcoholic drinks such as beer or wine
The drinks will have Sour tacke _ due to formation of ethanoic acid.

acid + me thamal water t

C2 Hs COOH + +

H
H
H-0-C
H-c-C-C-o - C - H
c-C-c +
H
T-
H H

Page 5
E. Isomerism in Carboxylic Acids

Isomers in carboxylic acids are generally obtained by two ways:

1) Rearranging the carbon chain.

Example:

Organic Molecular Isomers

Compound Formula

0-H
Butanoic acid
c-c-C-0-H

2) Forming another homologous series.

Example:

Organic Molecular Isomers

Compound Formula

Butanoic acid C-C-C-C-0-H

*Note: is a homologous series that is an isomer of carboxylic acids.

Exercise: Draw and name two isomers of CH&COOH and C2HsCOOH

Molecular Isomers
Formula

Page 6
Name: Class: Date:

Organic Chemistry (Polymers & Macromolecules)

Learning Objectives

(a) Define polymers as large molecules built up from small units (monomers)
(b) Understand that different polymers have different units and/or different linkages
(c) Explain the differences between condensation and addition polymerisation
(d) Deduce the structure of the polymer product from given monomer and vice versa
condensation polymerisation
(e) Describe the formation of nylon (a polyamide) and terylene (a polyester) by
and draw partial structures for the polymers

(f) Namesome typical uses of man-made fibres such as nylon and terylene
(g) Describe the pollution problems caused by the disposal of non-biodegradeable plastics
(h) Name proteins and carbohydrates as constituents of food
and draw
(i) Describe proteins as possessing the same (amide) linkages as nylon but with different units
partial structures for proteins
(j) Describe the hydrolysis of proteins to amino acids
(k) Describe complex carbohydrates in terms of a large number of sugar units joined together by
condensation polymerisation
(1) Describe the hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates by acids or enzymes to give simple sugars
(m) Describe, in outline, the usefulness of chromatography in separating and identifying the produces of

hydrolysis of carbohydrates and proteins

1. Introduction

A is a very large molecule (macromolecule) that is built from many small

units called mmamer joined together.
Examples of polymer in daily life: proteins, carbohydrates, plastics, clothes, silk.
The process of joining together the monomers to form a polymer is called _polumexisntion.
General concept of polymerisation is shown below.

Chemical bond (covalent bond)

00 polymerisation

Monomers Polymer
(of the same type)

Chemical bond (covalent bond)

polymerisation

Monomers Polymer
(of different types)

Page 1
 Two types of polymerisation:
1) Addition polymerisation and
2) Condensation polymerisation

2. Addition Polymerisation

•
Requirement for addition polymerisation:
° monomers must contain
O high temperature, high pressure and a suitable catalyst.
The polymer formed is called an addition palumer.
In addition polymerisation, the polymer is the only pradud.
General concept of addition polymerisation is shown below.

where can be

+ + + hydrogen, halogen, etc.

High temperature, high pressure,

suitable catalyst

00000000
-C-C- C-C C-C-C-C-
06660606
C = C double bond of each monomer breaks and forms single bonds with other monomers to
form a polymer.
The name of the polymer is formed by putting the name of the monomer in brackets and
adding poly- as a prefix.

Page 2
2.1 Addition Polymerisation of Ethene (monomers)

Addition polymerisation of ethene monomers will produce the polymer called _ote _paha Le thene)

H H H H H H H H

+ +
C= C +

H H H H H
H H H H

High temperature, high pressure,

suitable catalyst

covalent.
gant

(the partial structure of poly(ethene))

The repeat unit for poly(ethene) is

Formula of the polymer can also be written using

its repeat unit. Formula of poly(ethene)
can be written as

*Note: Letter n represents large number

The chemical equation for this polymerisation of ethene can be written as:

H
H

Poly(ethene) is most widely used _ alaxtics_ today. The uses include plastic bags, cling
film for wrapping food, plastic bottles, toys, plastic buckets.

Page 3
2.2 Other Common Addition Polymers
Uses
Addition Polymer

Poly(chloroethene) / PVC
H CI
H CI
Water pipes, raincoats,
thin gloves

monomer repeat unit polymer

Poly(vinyl acetate) / PVA

0 COCH; Main constituent in

emulsion paints
-C-C-
H

monomer repeat unit polymer

Poly(styrene)

Disposable containers
c -

monomer repeat unit polymer

Poly(tetrafluoroethene)/PTFE

Used to coat 'non-stick'

C- pots and pans

monomer repeat unit polymer

Poly(methyl methacrylate) / Perspex
H COOCH,, not glass
H
COOCH, Plastic windows,
models of machine

monomer repeat unit polymer

Use for sealing roofs

H-C-C=C-C-H and windows

H H
monomer repeat unit polymer poly but-2-end

All addition polymers are (man-made) polymers.

H
H
CAC-C-C-H
H

Page 4

1 lout in
 ula of an Addition Polymer
2.3 Summary for Deducing Structure and Fo
addition
The table below summarises the steps in obtaining
the structure and formula of an

polymer from a given monomer (using but-1-ene as the monomer).

but-1-ene

Deducing the formula

Deducing the structure
(showing two repeat units)
Step 1
Step monomer such that the side chains
chains Draw the
Draw two monomers such that the side
are all arranged vertically
are all arranged vertically

H -I I-

Step 2
Step 2 a single bond
bond to a single bond Change C = C double bond to
Change C = C double
C245

Step 3
Step 3 Put 'continuation bonds' at both ends of the
Draw single bond between the two repeat units unit
repeat

Step 4
Step 4
bonds' at both ends of the Put brackets through the continuation bonds
Put 'continuation
and put n' at the bottom right
chain

Page 5
24 Summary for Deducing Monomer from the Addition Polymer
addition polymer
table below summarises the steps in obtaining monomer from
an
The

(using poly(ethenol) as example).

H OH OH

Step 1
Identify the repeat unit in the polymer OH

I- H

repeat unit

Step 2
Remove the 'continuation bonds' H

Step 3
Change the C - C single bond into C = C
double bond

Page 6
3. Condensation Polymerisation

Requirement for condensation polymerisation:

Monomers must contain functional growe. at both inds .
Typically involves two different monomers.
The polymer formed is called
Examples of condensation polymer: terylene and nylon.
In condensation polymerisation, other than the polymer, there is other substance formed.
• Examples hydrogen chloride, etc.
of other substance: water,

There are two main groups of condensation polymers: the polyesters and the polyamides.

3.1 Terylene (a Synthetic Polyester)

Terylene is made from two types of monomers - a dicarboxylic acids and a diol.

H- 0- C ZIZZZ-C-0-H

dicarboxylic acid (two - COOH functional group) diol (two - OH functional group)

The monomers combined to form a polymer. At the same time, water. molecules are

eliminated from each pair of monomer molecules.

7-CO-# + H-04 -0-A +

(the partial structure of terylene polymer)

The repeat unit for terylene is

The formula of terylene polymer is

The monomers molecules in terylene are joined by ester linkages,

This is why terylene is classified as a

the ester linkage.

Polyester: a polymer whose monomers are joined to each other by
3.2 Nylon (a Synthetic Polyamide)

Nylon is made from two types of monomers - a dicarboxylic acids and a diamine.

H-O-C-7/7-C-O-H
dicarboxylic acids diamine (two - NH2 functional group)
The monomers combined to form
a polymer. At the same time, molecules are
eliminated from each pair of monomer molecules.

H-0-C-27m-C-041 +
-N-H + H-O-C-777-G-0-H + H- N. N-H

(the structure of nylon polymer)

The repeat unit for nylon is

• The formula of nylon polymer is

In bio

The monomers molecules in nylon are joined by its peptide band.

amide linkages,
This is why nylon is classified as a
Usually lining

Polyamide: a polymer whose monomers are joined to each other by

the amide linkage.

3.3 Uses of Nylon and Terylene

Nylon and terylene are Their uses are mainly in clothing, curtains,
parachutes, fishing lines, sleeping bags, making sails.

Page 8
4. Plastics and Pollution

Advantage of using plastics:

Relatively _ cheap_
Easily mould into various shapes
Light and waterproof
dusalds_ (resistant to decay, rusting and many chemical attacks)

Disadvantage of using plastics:

They are um-hirdsacadable, This means that they panne al. broken
down by bacteria in soil, leading to disposal problem.

Pollution problems caused by disposal of non-biodegradeable plastics:

plastic waste in
land pollution - Since plastics do not decompose, burying
landfills leads to an increasing amount of built-up waste.
e.g.
Air pollution - Upon incineration, they produce
produces hydrogen chloride gas on combustion.
marine animals. Plastics
water . pollution - plastics thrown into the sea endanger
for mosquitos.
may clog up rivers and drains, which might become breeding ground

5. Comparing Addition Polymerisation & Condensation Polymerisation

Addition polymer Condensation polymer

Monomers used Monomers are unsaturated Monomers contain functional

compounds, usually contain C= C group at the ends of molecule

Reaction taking Monomers join together by Monomers join together

place opening the C = C double bond through with loss of a small
molecule such as water

Nature of product Polymer as the only product Two products the polymer
and a small molecule

Non-biodegradable biodegradable

Page 9
6. Natural Polymers

6.1 Proteins
for
need only 1 kind
• Proteins are naturally-occurring Conders adion, polymer that can be found in plants, animals.
Importance of proteins:
° Proteins are needed for growth and other essential functions in the body.
° The enzyme catalysts in our bodies are all proteins.
DNA, which makes life possible and allow living things to reproduce, are made up of
proteins.
Proteins are formed by condensation polymerisation of
Amne ala. monomers.
The structure
below represents a typical amino acid.

amine functional group carboxylic acid functional group

When amino acid monomers combined to form protein,

molecules are eliminated
from each pair of monomers.

H-N- -C-O-H +
+

(the partial structure of protein)

Proteins
are considered as _ pohy Ami do, This is because the monomer units are joined
together by _ ami dan linkages.

Page 10
6.2 Carbohydrates

A carbohydrate is a compound containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only. The general
formula of
carbohydrate is C/(H2O)y.
Carbohydrates are an important source of energy in our bodies and all living organisms.
Carbohydrates are formed by condensation polymerisation of monomers.

The structure below represents a typical sugar molecule. Examples of common sugars are
glucose, C6H12O6 and sucrose, C12H22O11.

H-0--0-H

alcohol functional group alcohol functional group

Unlike protein, carbohydrates are usually made up of the same type of monomers.
molecules are
When sugar monomers combined to form carbohydrate, _ mater
eliminated from each pair of monomers.

0-H
+ H-O-

(the partial structure of carbohydrate)

The linkage found in carbohydrates are known as aluco sidic_ linkages.

Page 11
 can only natural.

6.3 Hydrolysis of Proteins and Carbohydrates

• Hydrolysis is the break down of a compound by

The process IS the reverse of the condensation polymerisation.
Protein can be hydrolysed (broken down) into amino acid monomers by heating_ in
concentrated hydrochloric acid.

H2O

H
H

Similar to protein, carbohydrates can also be hydrolysed into sugar monomers by heating in
concentrated hydrochloric acid.

H -0 (WO-0 -H H-000-0-H

6.4 Identifying Products of Hydrolysis

The components of proteins or carbohydrates can be identified after hydrolysis by _paper

The steps in identifying:
1) Chromatography is carried out in a suitable solvent and allowed to dry.
2) Locating agent is used to spray the chromatogram as both amino acids and sugars are

3) After the coloured spots appear, compare the Rt value of the spots to the reference for
the various amino acids and sugars.

After running the solvent position

reached
and spraying locating agent
by
solvent

start
line line
product sucrose maltose product sucrose maltose glucose

pure sugars as
pure sugars as
reference
reference
Name: Nean Class: Date:

Air, Atmosphere, Pollutions,

Sulfur Compounds & Corrosion of Metals

Learning Objectives

Core:

(a) Describe chemical tests for water using cobalt(II) chloride and copper(II) sulfate
(b) Describe, in outline, the treatment of the water supply in terms of filtration and chlorination
(c) Name some of the uses of water in industry and in the home
21% oxygen and the
(d) State the composition of clean, dry air as being approximately 78% nitrogen,
remainder as being a mixture of noble gases and carbon dioxide
(e) Name the common pollutants in the air as being carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and
lead compounds
(f) State the source of each of these pollutants: carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, lead
compounds

(g) State the adverse effect of these common pollutants on buildings and on health and discuss why these
pollutants are of global concern
(h) State the conditions required for the rusting of iron
0) Describe and explain methods of rust prevention, specifically paint and other coatings to exclude oxygen
State that carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases and explain how they may contribute to
climate change
(k) State the formation of carbon dioxide as a product of complete combustion of carbon-containing
substances, respiration, reaction between an acid and a carbonate, thermal decomposition of a carbonate
State the sources of methane, including decomposition of vegetation and waste gases from digestion in
animals

(m) Name some sources of sulfur

(n) Name the use of sulfur in the manufacture of sulfuric acid

State the uses of sulfur dioxide as a bleach in the manufacture of wood pulp for paper and as a food
preservative (by killing bacteria)

Extended:

(p) Discuss the implications of an inadequate supply of water, limited to safe water for drinking and water for
irrigating crops

(q) Describe the separation of oxygen and nitrogen from liquid air by fractional distillation
(r) Describe and explain the presence of oxides of nitrogen in car engines and their catalytic removal
(s) Describe and explain sacrificial protection in terms of the reactivity series of metals and galvanising as a
method of rust prevention
(t) Describe the carbon cycle, in simple terms, to include the processes of combustion, respiration and
photosynthesis
Describe the manufacture of sulfuric acid by the Contact process, including essential conditions and
reactions

(v) Describe the properties and uses of dilute and concentrated sulfuric acid
A. Air

A1. Composition of Air

Air is a ristuxe. consisting of elements and compounds of the following gases:

Gas Composition by volume
%
Nitrogen , N2

Oxygen, 02 21 %

Noble gases, which include mainly argon 0.9 %

Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.04 %

Water vapour, H2O 0.03 %

A2. Proving the Gases & Composition of Air

Test for presence of water vapour in air:

1. Use anhu drous copper(II) sulfate

colour of copper(II) sulfate will turn

2. Use cobnk chlorids paper.

colour of cobalt(II) chloride paper will turn _ pink

Test for presence of carbon dioxide in air:

Use limewater: limewater (calcium hydroxide) will turn

To prove that the air contains approximately 21% of oxygen by volume, the following
experiment can be set up.
clean dry air
copper (wo

H
N2 , CO2, Ar
syringe A heat syringe
100%

100 cm3 of clean, dry air in syringe A was passed over hot copper. Copper will react with

only the oxygen in the air (to from copper oxide) until the reaction was complete. The
set up is allowed to cool and the remaining volume of air is passed into syringe B.

The volume recorded in syringe B will be cm3.

A3. Separation of the Oxygen and Nitrogen in Air
air.
The components in air can be separated by using
of the various gases.
The separation is based on the different in the boiling points

Gas Boiling point / °C

100
water vapour

carbon dioxide -75 (sublime)

-182
oxygen
-186
argon
-196
nitrogen

The separation process is shown below.

nitrogen

argon

fractionating
column

air
oxygen

pumps
liquery

solid H.O and CO2

removed heater

Step ' Air is first cooled to freeze water and

This is to remove the two substances in form of solid.

Step The remaining gases in air are then Campered to liquid state.

Step The liquid air is then passed in a fractionating column, followed by heating
the air.

The gases are separated according to their difference in boiling painkr.

Nitrogen has the lowest boiling point and it boils first and collected at the top of the
column.

Oxygen has higher boiling point and thus, collected at lower part of the column.

3
B. Air Pollution

Air pollution is a condition when air contains a high concentration of chemicals that
may harm

living things or damage non-living things.

Air pollution is caused by various pollutants such as carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, etc.
The tables below summarise the various pollutants, their sources and harmful effects.

Pollutant Source Effect

exothermic → hotter
Carbon won plete_ combustion of Health Effect
monoxide hydrocarbon fuel in engines
coloun les & of motor vehicles. Normally, oxygen combines with
haemoglobin in red blood cells to form

gas e.g. octanc and oxyhaemoglobin.

The oxyhaemoglobin then moves
(combustion: reaction with oxygen in air) through our bodies, releasing the
oxygen where it needs.

In the presence of CO:

Carbon monoxide prevents uptake of
gas by the blood
as carbon monoxide binds with
in the blood more
readily compared to oxygen gas.

carbon monoxide + haemoglobin -)

Gasome Vehicle

Process is irreversible.

Hence, carbon monoxide gas IS

highly poisonous gas as it can then
lead to brain damage_ and
death.

Prevention of Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide pollution can be reduced by making sure combustion in fuels is

Complete
This can be achieved by fitting the motorcars with

The catalytic converter Converts the harmful carbon monoxide into harmless C02
 Source
Effect
Pollutant

Oxides of 1. High temperature in car Health Effect

nitrogen motor car engines causes 1. Cause irritations of Lut, thraty lungs
hitro ge_ and 2. breathing
e.g. in air to react.
Environmental effect

:
rain.
Nitrogen react with oxygen to 1. Causes
(colourless &
NO form nitrogen monoxide first.
pungent gas) Formation of acid rain:
nitric acid
and Some nitrogen monoxide react nitrogen oxides + water + oxygen 7
further with oxygen to form
nitrogen dioxide. Harmful effect of acid rain:
(brown &
2 N02 * 1. metallic and
pungent gas) Corrodes

structures.
marke limestone.
These two oxides
of nitrogen are 2. Damage crops and _ Megatatim
often described
3. Destroys_aquatin_ life due to
simply as NOx. NO,
acidification of lakes and rivers.

2. Luntinng_ activity causes

nitrogen and oxygen in the air to

react. (Natural source) gases react with

air and water In

sulphuric acid nitric acid

gases damage
green
ACID RAIN

acid corrodes
buildings and
metal
structures

lakes
coal, oll, soils
acidified acld damages
burned trees through
acid
roots
kills
fish

Prevention of Nitrogen Oxides

The production of NO; can be greatly reduced by fitting cars with ratalutin on verter.
In the converter, the oxides of nitrogen are converted to harmless
 Pollutant Source Effect

Health Effect
1. Combustion of fossil hel
dioxide especially . in power 1. Cause irritations of tup., threat Juings.
stations.
& 2.

These fossil fuels contain sulfur as

Environmental effect
gas
1. Causes acid rain.
Sulfur dioxide is produced upon
burning of these fossil fuels: Formation of acid rain:

S+02 > SO2 sulfur dioxide + water + oxygen sulfuric acid

ACID RAIN

2. eruptions. Harmful effect of acid rain:

(Natural source of SO2)
Similar to oxides of nitrogen

A flue gas desulfurisation plant

Prevention of Sulfur Dioxide : Desulfurisation
Mainly carbon _
dioxide and air

Treat acidic sulfur dioxide gas from the

combustion before they are released into the calcium
carbonate
water
atmosphere.

The waste gases known as flue gases are

wet

treated with a wet mixture of

suspension
alcium carbonati chimney
The acidic sulfur dioxide IS removed through
following reaction: calcium

* ( P2 )
SO2 + CaCO:

sulfur dioxide + calcium carbonate > calcium sulfite + carbon dioxide

The calcium sulfite

formed is further convert into _calcium rulfate_ and is then dumped.
 Pollutant Source Effect

Methane, CHA 1. of vegetation Environmental Effect

and organic matter. 1. Methane is a amen hase. gas,
from the
which _ traps heat
gas sun and causes global warming

Harmful effect of global warming

2. waste onL from digestion of
1. sea levels causing
cattles and other ruminant

animals. he> cow

Lldading_ of low-lying lands as
sea water expands. If the polar ice
caps also melt, world-wide flooding
will occur.

2. Big changes in global climate..

More rainfall in some areas and
spread of draughts in other areas.
This will cause a decrease in live
stocks, leading to possible famine.
3. Rice paddy fields

some Infrared radlation

radlation reflected escapes into space

solar

atmosphere absorb infra raglatic

from earth

Prevention of Methane *
Since sources of methane gas are mostly from the nature, it is hard for human to take control.
One possible solution is that cattles and other ruminant animals can be given an improved diet
to prevent excessive methane production.
Yiannis
Pollutant Source Effect

Lead compounds 1. Petrol in racing cars and old Health Effect

engines especially
1. Damage_ norvour sustem
the brain development of infant.

2. Leach from plumbing materials

in old watty piper

3 Deterioration of lead

Prevention of Lead Compounds

1
Replace leaded paint with other materials.
2.
Replace plumbing fixtures that contain lead.
C. Catalytic Converters

* rhodium and palladium catalysts with

Na,H20, C02
honeycomb structure

CO, NOX

to convert the harmful gases

Catalytic converters are attached to the motorcar exhausts
gases.
produced by the motor vehicles are to harmles

react with more OXO01_ to form anthan dias de..

(i) Carbon monoxide is allowed to

200 t 02 2(02

(ii) Oxides of nitrogen are reduced to form nitrogen omd Oxugen

2 NO

2 NO2

(iii) Oxides of nitrogen are allowed to react with robon. to form _-auboondiouidi + nitrigen

2 NO2 + 4 cO

The converter contain and _ palladium_ as catalysts, which helps to

speed up the above reactions.

The honeycomb structure increases the surface
area of the catalyst to increase the speed of
reaction even further, in converting the harmful to harmless gases.

Other Measures to Reduce Air Pollutions by Motor Vehicles

Measure Effect

Use clean fuels, such as hydrogen The products of combustion are

harmless e.g. hydrogen burns, only
water is produced

Use electric cars Battery-powered cars reduce exhaust

gas emissions.
 . Carbon Dioxide and The Carbon Cycle

Carbon dioxide, similar to methane, is a apenhase_ gas which leads

to
gbbal_ warming.

D1. Sources of Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere

environment.
The following gives the main sources of CO2 that released into the

1. Respiration

° All living things (plants and animals) respire. During respiration, glucose are converted
into (ar hon duaxide_ and Energy is released in the process.

Equation:
glucose t water.

2. Combustion of fossil fuels

• Coal, petroleum and natural gas are examples of fossil fuels containing carbon. When
carbon burns in air, carbon dioxide and water is obtained.

Equation (coal) :

Equation (methane):

Equation (petroleum): 2 CaH18 +26O2 ¾

3. Decay and Bacterial Decomposition

O When plants and animals die, their bodies are broken down by bacteria into
carbon dioxide and simpler compounds.

2. Removal of Carbon Dioxide from the Atmosphere

1. Photosynthesis
sunlight

In the presence of chlorophyll and light, plants take in carbon dioxide and water
to produce glucose and oxygen.

Equation:

2. Ocean uptake

The oceans are large reservoirs or 'sinks' for carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide

exists in the oceans as dissolved atmospheric carbon dioxide and as calcium

carbonate shells in marine organism. Without the absorption of carbon dioxide by
the oceans, the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide could be much higher.

10
P3. The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is the circulation of the element carbon in the Earth's ecosystem. The carbon

cycle regulates and maintain the amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's ecosystem to be fairly
constant.

Concerning issue: increasing amount of fossil fuels burned will unbalance the carbon cycle and
increases global warming.

Sunlight Auto and

factory
CO, cycle emissions

Photosynthesis
Plant
respiration

Animal
respiration
Organic carbon

Root
Decay
Dead organisms respiration
organisms
and waste products

Ocean
Fossils and fossil fuels uptake

11
 E. Sulfur, Sulfur Dioxide, Sulfuric Acid & Contact Process

E1, Sulfur & Sulfur Dioxide

The table below summaries the sources and the uses of sulfur and sulfur dioxide.

Substance Source Use

Impurities removed from fossil 1. Making sulfuric acid

fuels such as coal, petroleum 2. Making rubber tyres more flexible

Sulfur dioxide Combustion of sulfur impurities in .'Bleach in manufacture of wood pulp

fossil fuels for paper

2. Preservatives in food and drinks

E2. Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid (Contact Process)

Sulfuric acid has various industrial uses, which
include car batteries, making fertilisers, cleaning
metals and drains
as well as use as catalyst in many organic reactions
Sulfuric acid is manufactured through fontan process.
The raw materials are and

The Contact process in manufacturing of sulfuric acid:

Concentrated
sulphuric acid

Sulphur. Vanadium(V) Waste gas

oxide catalyst
450°(
Dry air

-Oleum,
Furnace Converter Absorber
Water

Sulphuric
acid, H2SO4

12
Stage 1

Sulfur is burned in air and oxidised to sulfur dioxide.

S +
Jo,

Stage 2

o Sulfur dioxide is allowed to react with more oxygen and oxidised further into sulfur
trioxide. This reaction is and it is

Conditions: Mimad inLV) V205 is used as catalyst. Temperature of

can be 400°C
and approximately pressure.
can be 2

Ot mos phonic.
2 SO2 +

C From equilibrium knowledge, pressure is preferred because the

no. of gas molecules) to
equilibrium will shift to the
produce more SO3. However, higher pressure is not used because falely and

C From equilibrium knowledge, temperature is preferred because the

equilibrium will shift to the the temperature) to produce
more SO3. However, 450°C is chosen because the rate of reaction will be foo slaw

Stage 3

Sulfur trioxide is dissolved into sulfuric acid solution to produce a thick liquid called

H2$202

Sulfur trioxide is not dissolved directly to water to form the acid:

SO2 + H2O ≥ H2SO4

This is because the reaction is very exothermic and fumes of sulfuric acid will be
obtained and the fumes are hard to condense.

Stage 4

Oleum is added to water to form sulfuric acid.

Hyo 7 2 H230,

13
F. Rusting & Protection of Metals from Corrosion

Most metals 'comudc when exposed to air and water due to the chemical reactions that
occur on the surface of the metals.
When iron is exposed to air and moisture (water), the iron atoms on the Surface undergoes
oxidation to form a reddish •huwn substance known as rust. Rust IS

iron ox ide
F1. Conditions for Rusting

For rusting to occur, both warey and must be present. Iron will not rust if either
air or water is not
present.
Presence of
increases the speed of rusting.
•Sodium chlorid

Dry air
Oil

Water
Boiled
water
- Rusted
-Anhydrous CaCk
nail
to absorb moisture
TUBE A TUBE B TUBE C

F2. Rust Prevention

Rust isundesirable. When rust flakes away, the new iron surface will
expose to air and moisture
and rusting will occur again. This process repeats until the whole metal is withered.
Two main methods to prevent rusting:

1. Using protective layer

2. Using sacrificial metals

14
E2.1. Prevent Rusting - Using Protective Layer
The surface of
an iron object can be covered with a_ lower of andin substance to form
a protective layer, orvorting_ air and water from
reaching iron.
Some common
substance used as protective layer:
Method Application Remark
Paint Large object such as cars, ships, bridges. Rusting will occur if the
protective layer is broken.
Oil or grease Tools, machineries

Plastic coating Small object such as kitchenware, wires,

metal clips, clothes hangers.
Coat or plate with Food cans, motorcars, parts of bicycles
less reactive metal

F2.2. Prevent Rusting - Using Sacrificial Protection

When iron is placed in contact with (attached to / connected to / coated by) a _more nactive
metal such as magnesium or zinc, no rusting would occur.

This method is known as sacnihcia protectin

zino coating
broken surface

oxygen reacts with

zinc instead of iron
- no rusting

Sacrificial protection prevents rusting in two ways:

1. For coating case: prevent air and water from reaching iron.
2. For attaching / connecting and even if coating layer is broken: more reactive metals will

react instead of iron.

Zinc is more reactive than iron.

Thus, zinc will react with and oxygen and conode, in place of iron.

As long as the more reactive metal is still present, iron will not rust even when the layer is broken
and air and water reach the iron.

15
 Applications of sacrificial protection is shown below:

Application of Comment Concept involved

sacrificial protection

Galvanised iron with zinc metal.

Iron piece are coated
Zinc will corrode
Generally used to make roofs of houses.
steel /
in pace
iron
Protecting ships Steel hulls rust rapidly in seawater.
Thus, blocks of zinc are attached to the hulls.

Underground steel Pipes are attached to blocks of magnesium Magnesium will corrode in

pipes metal. place of steel

**Note: Coating an object with a zinc is called galvanizing.

ground level
_steel
pipeline
insulated
copper cable
block of
magnesium

Block of zinc

16
Name: Nean Class: Date:

Reversible Reactions & Ammonia

Learning Objectives

Core:

(a) Understand that some chemical reactions can be reversed by changing the reaction conditions
(limited to the effects of heat and water on hydrated and anhydrous copper(II) sulfate and
cobalt(II) chloride.)
(b) Describe the need for nitrogen-, phosphorus- and potassium-containing fertilisers
(c) Describe the displacement of ammonia from its salts

Extended:

(d) Predict the effect of changing the conditions (concentration, temperature and pressure) on
other reversible reactions

(e) Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the concept of equilibrium

(f) Describe and explain the essential conditions for the manufacture of ammonia by the Haber
process including the sources of hydrogen and nitrogen, i.e. hydrocarbons or steam and air

A. Reversible Reaction

1. Reversible reaction is a reaction that can goboth..direction...(...forward........

and .bachw.ord.....) at the same time. Reactants first react to form products. Once

sufficient amount of products are formed, some of them react to give back reactants.

The reaction from left. to .bight... is called a forward reaction.

The reaction from r.ight... to is called a backward reaction.

2. Only a small number of reactions are reversible.

is used to indicate a reversible reaction.

An example of reversible reaction is decomposition of ammonium chloride by heating.

Ammonium chloride = ammonia + hydrogen chloride

ammonium
chloride

ammonia and
hydrogen chloride
gas

-ammonium
chloride

Page 1
 3. Decomposition of hydrated copper(II) sulfate is another example of reversible reaction.

The heat causes the hydrated CuSO4.5H20 salt to change from blue crystals to white powder,
CuSO4. can be slowly added back to the white powder CuSO4 to form back
blue CuSO4.5H20 crystals.

hydrated copper sulfate anhydrous copper sulfate water

Cuso,.5H,0 + SH,O

Heat

dd water
blue white powder
crystals

B. Equilibrium & Shifting of Equilibrium

In a reversible reaction, the forward and backward reaction reactions are occurring
....4ll..the..time..... The reaction does not go to ....completi.on.....
There are always .. ants... and ..prousts..... present.

2. The reaction will continue until the rate of forward reaction is

.....2q.1.a..... to that of a
backward reaction, which is known as .Pmi..lpYiam.....
At equilibrium, concentration of reactants and products...do.n.dt...chang.k........
hv is there
3. Three main factors affecting the equilibrium position:
1) concentration (amount) of reactant and product
2) temperature
3) pressure

***Once there is a change in the above conditions after equilibrium is reached, the
reaction will go .....2pp2.r.e......... to the change.*** what

This is known as the..shif1i.ng..... of equilibrium position (......k2f........ ...rigbt......

or ...hoe......)

If pressure is increased, equilibrium will shift to the side to.... lower... pressure.
If temperature is increased, equilibrium will shift to the side to ....lower.... temperature.
If concentration is increased, equilibrium will shift to the side to....lawex...... concentration.
The amount of products and reactants will ... o ... accordingly.

4. Example 1: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) - 2SO3(g) the forward reaction is exothermic

of
left side react mort, produce more right Side
Change: SO3 is removed after equilibrium is reached.
Explain: The equilibrium will shift to the...r..g.h.t......... to..repla ced.. .$0.... that are being
removed.

Result:...hignor.. yield of ...$.0g.... is obtained (.....less.......... of..S0y. und..Q.....).

Change: If the pressure is increased after equilibrium is reached.

Explain: The equilibrium will shift to the ...Y..ht...... because there are .............. no. of

moles of gas on the ..o....the.n.ght.

(........ moles on the left vs .2..... moles on the right)
Result: .....high/?..... yield of ..........0... is obtained (........lef.t.....of.......and.....).

Page 2
 **Note: Look at the ...numb....in....nt.... of the gaseous substance to tell which side has

greater no. of moles of gas

Change: If the temperature is increased after equilibrium is reached.

Explain: The equilibrium will shift tc the ..........f....... because backward reaction
is ..endathermis...., which will ... lO.wen........ the temperature.

Result: ...low?Y......... yield of .. . . . . . . . . .$9 2.

ends - cooler

Example 2: PCl5(g) _PCI(g) + Cl2(g) forward reaction is endothermic

Change: If more PC/s is added after equilibrium is reached.

Explain: The equilibrium will shift to the ng...igm.to....emant.th...odded..Plls....
obtained.
Result:....hlqhy... yield of....P.Clz.t,. C.l2...

Change: If the pressure is increased after equilibrium is reached.

are ............ no. of
Explain: The equilibrium will shift to the ....loft....... because there
moles of gas on the .......le..t......
obtained.
Result:.....hughe..... yield of
cool
Change: If the temperature is increased after equilibrium is reached.
Explain: The equilibrium will shift to the......ghr........because...frwroret
is .en.dothorm.l....., which will .lann... the temperature.

C. Introduction to Manufacturing Ammonia by Haber Process

1. In industry, Ammonia is manufactured industrially by ..... laber.... process.

2. Two raw materials required for the production of ammonia:

Raw materials Properties Source

Nitrogen gas Colourless, odourless

Hydrogen gas Colourless, odourless steam or

The equation for the production of ammonia from nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas:

The reaction is a reversible reaction.

Nitrogen and hydrogen will react under certain conditions to form ammonia.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH (g)

At the same time, some ammonia formed decomposes and convert back to nitrogen and
hydrogen

2NHa(g) N2(g) + 3H2(g)

Page 3
D. Conditions Required for Manufacturing Ammonia by Haber Process

1. The graph below shows how pressure and temperature effect the yield (amount) of ammonia
in Haber process.

70

60 ,

50 400 oC

amonia 40 450 •C

of 30

Yield 20

100 200 300 400

Pressure (atmospheres)

2. The actual conditions used in manufacturing of ammonia in Haber process are:

Ratio of N2 to H2 are 3: 1
Ratio of volume of N2 to
H2 is 1 : 3 because according to the equation, 1 mole
of nitrogen reacted with 3 moles of hydrogen.

Pressure of 200 atm (or 250 atm)

From understanding of equilibrium, the higher the pressure, the yield of

ammonia will be ....ghev.. as the equilibrium shifts to the ..right.........
However, to maintain high pressure, expensive equipment is needed. Thus, it
will be very ...co.sfl.y.... if too high pressure is used. Thus, 200
atm is chosen.

Temperature of 450°C
Since the reaction is exothermic, the higher the temperature, the yield of
ammonia will be....Jo.wer.. as the equilibrium shifts to the ...teftex..left.
However, if the temperature is too low, the rate of reaction will be ....lo. ........
and thus, 450°C is chosen.

IV. Finely divided iron catalyst

Iron catalyst is added to ....peed...o........... the reaction.
Finely divided iron catalyst is used to increase the surface area of the catalyst
for leading to even faster rate of reaction.

Page 4
 The diagram below shows the Haber process in making ammonia.

IN

N, and H.
compress gases to 200 atm
ratio 1:3
and heat to 450°C
by volume

converter

beds of finely
divided catalyst
N, and Ho
recycled to
top of mixture of N2, H2 and
converter

cooler

OUT

liquid ammonia

4. In the cooler, only ammonia condenses to liquid due to higher boiling point.

Boling poing (°C) State of the gases if cooler

Gas
temperature is -100°C
Ammonia -78 Liquid

-253 Gas
Hydrogen
-196 Gas
Nitrogen

5. Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen remain as gases and pumped back in the converter for
recycle.
and hydrogen helps to save cost and produce more
Recycling unreacted nitrogen
ammonia gas for use.

E. Formation of Ammonia from Ammonium Salts

1. Ammonia can also be prepared in the laboratory by reacting ammonium salts with .. a.hali...

Example:

ammonium salt + alkali - ammonia + salt + water

(NH4)2SO4 K,304 1 H20

Page 5
 F. Uses of Ammonia

1. Ammonia is used in making fertilisers such as ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate,

ammonium phosphate, to provide nitrogen elements for plants.

NH3 + HNO3 > NH4NO3

3NH3 + H3PO4 > (NH4)3PO4

2. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are three most essential elements that plants need.
Nitrogen (N) - important for healthy leaves
Phosphrous (P) - important for healthy roots
Potassium (K) - important for production of flowers and fruits.

My
Ex

band forming
is

Really ~ releam hant

Hot hot

Page 6
 Name:_ Mean Date: 22/2/20

Petroleum (Fractions) & Natural Gas

Petroleum and Natural Gas of org. chem.

Three fossil fuels:

mixtureg of
O
petroleum alkal nes

natural gas a
Petroleum and natural gases are formed from remains of plants and sea animals. They sink
to the seabed when they die. Over million years, these organisms are subjected to heat from
Earth and high pressure, forming petroleum and natural gas.
Petroleum and natural gas are extracted from the earth using oil rig.

Oil rig

Drilling pipe-

Natural gas•

Petroleum-
Oil refinery

Petroleum (Crude oil)

Natural gas is a calotarless gas. It is mostly made up of meth ane (about 70 - 90%).
CH4

Petroleum (crude oil) is a viscous, foul-smelling black liquid.

Vehicles petrol that IS used in our daily lives came from petroleum as well as petrochemical
products such as fertilisers, medicines, etc.

Petroleum is a mixture of alk anes

Alkanes that made up petroleum:

CHA, C2H6, CaHs, C4H1o,... CroH22, C14H24, C12H26,... C24H42, C25H52,... C35H72,... C50H102,... C70H142,...

Fewer carbon atoms Many carbon atoms

(smaller lower boiling points) Liarger_._ higher_ boiling points)

Page 1
 Fractional Distillation of Petroleum

to be refined or
Petroleum obtained (extracted) by oil rig is of little use. It needs
can be useful.
into fraction: _ (or parts) before
shown below.
Petroleum can be separated into useful fractions by fractional ditillatus as

Refinery gas

cooler Petrol (gasoline)

all diff
temp.
Naphtha

Fractionating
column Kerosene (paraffin)

Furnace Diesel

Fuel oil

Lubricating Oil

Extracted
petroleum
(crude oil)
Bitumen

The petroleum is heated in a fura ce

The crude oil boils and the gases go into fractanoting column.
their
The gases rise up the column, cool and condense at different heights depending on

boiling points and thus, separate into fractions.

lighter fractions LUNT number of carbon atoms) have lower boiling

of the
point and thus, able to rise higher up and are collected nearer to the Too
column. higher
heavier_ fractions number of carbon atoms) have higher boiling
point and are collected nearer to the bottom of the column.

Page 2
 Properties and Uses of Petroleum Fractions

The properties and uses of each fraction are summarised in the table below.

Fraction Boiling point No. of carbon Uses

range ('C) atoms

rich (Refinery gas Below 25 Gas for cooku ng_ and heating_

pon Petrol (gasoline) 40 - 100 5-10 Fuel for

chemical stockd such

never
Naphtha 90- 150 7- 14 For making

L Ure for
as plastics, detergents, medicines, etc.

keep Kerosene (paraffin) 150 - 240 11 - 16 Fuel for net engines

dirty Diesel oil (gos Gil) 220 - 300 16-20 Fuel for diesel engine such as
trucks hue and trouns

filthy Fuel oil 250 - 320 19-25 Fuel for Chips

Lubricating oil 300 - 350 20 -40 For _lubricating machines, making

(faction) waxes and polishes

bag Bitumen Above 350 More than 70 For making road Sur fa RS

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