Visit ebookmass.

com to download the full version and

explore more ebook or textbook

Foundation Engineering: Geotechnical Principles

and Practical Applications 1st Edition Handy

_____ Click the link below to download _____

https://ebookmass.com/product/foundation-engineering-
geotechnical-principles-and-practical-applications-1st-
edition-handy/

Explore and download more ebook or textbook at ebookmass.com

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

Foundation Engineering: Geotechnical Principles and

Practical Applications 1st Edition Richard Handy

https://ebookmass.com/product/foundation-engineering-geotechnical-
principles-and-practical-applications-1st-edition-richard-handy/

Principles of Geotechnical Engineering 9th Edition Braja

M. Das

https://ebookmass.com/product/principles-of-geotechnical-
engineering-9th-edition-braja-m-das/

Principles of foundation engineering Ninth Edition Braja

M. Das

https://ebookmass.com/product/principles-of-foundation-engineering-
ninth-edition-braja-m-das/

Principles of Foundation Engineering 9th Edition Baraja M.

Das

https://ebookmass.com/product/principles-of-foundation-
engineering-9th-edition-baraja-m-das/
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering: Fundamentals
and Applications Nagaratnam Sivakugan

https://ebookmass.com/product/soil-mechanics-and-foundation-
engineering-fundamentals-and-applications-nagaratnam-sivakugan/

Principles of Foundation Engineering, 9th Edition, SI

Edition Braja M. Das

https://ebookmass.com/product/principles-of-foundation-
engineering-9th-edition-si-edition-braja-m-das/

Audio Production Principles: Practical Studio Applications

1st Edition Stephane Elmosnino

https://ebookmass.com/product/audio-production-principles-practical-
studio-applications-1st-edition-stephane-elmosnino/

Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering 7th

Edition Giorgio Rizzoni

https://ebookmass.com/product/principles-and-applications-of-
electrical-engineering-7th-edition-giorgio-rizzoni/

Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering 7th

Edition Giorgio Rizzoni

https://ebookmass.com/product/principles-and-applications-of-
electrical-engineering-7th-edition-giorgio-rizzoni-2/
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
 Foundation
Engineering

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
About the Author
Richard L. Handy is a Distinguished Professor Emeritus in the
Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering
at Iowa State University. A sought-after teacher, he served as the
major professor for over 60 graduate students, many of whom have
gone on to make major contributions in geotechnical engineering. A
large number of former students and associates recently collaborated
to endow a Professorship in his name, and a book of collected papers
was issued in his honor.
Dr. Handy may be best known as the inventor of Borehole Shear
Tests that perform in-situ measurements of cohesion and friction in
soils and rocks. The soil test was used in snow when he and six engi-
neering students were conducting research on an epic voyage of a
large ship in the ice-bound Northwest Passage. They also observed
the catenary shape of an igloo, which he later adapted to solve a
problem that had intrigued Terzaghi, to mathematically define arch-
ing action in soils. The analysis revealed that conventional analyses
are on the unsafe side and explained a wall failure where there were
four fatalities. It received the Thomas A. Middlebrooks Award of the
American Society of Civil Engineers.
Dr. Handy also was active in geology. He proposed a variable-
wind hypothesis to explain the distribution of wind-blown silt
(loess), and showed that the rate of growth of a river meander slows
down in time according to a first-order rate equation. He then applied
the same equation to rates of primary and secondary consolidation
in engineering. In recognition of his contributions to geology he
was elected a Fellow in the Geological Society of America and the
American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Known for his sense of humor, Dr. Handy liked to point out that it
is better to have a joke that turns out to be an invention than an inven-
tion that turns out to be a joke. His The Day the House Fell, published
by the American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, for non-engi-
neers, became a best-seller. His book FORE and the Future ofPractically
Everything published by Moonshine Cove Publishing, Abbeville, SC,
adapts first-order rate equations to practically everything, including
track world records and baseball home runs.
Dr. Handy also founded and is the Past President of a company
that bears his name. The company manufactures and sells geotech-
nical instruments, with emphasis on in-situ test methods that were
created and developed under his direction.

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
 Foundation
Engineering
Geotechnical Principles
and Practical Applications

By Richard L. Handy, Ph.D.

Distinguished Professor Emeritus
Iowa State University

New York Chkago San Francisco

Athens London Madrid
Mexico City Milan New Delhi
Singapore Sydney Toronto

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Copyright© 2020 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of
1976, no part ofthis publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval
system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN: 978-1-26-002604-7
MHID: 1-26-002604-3

The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-1-26-002603-0,
MHID: 1-26-002603-5.

eBook conversion by codeMantra

Version 1.0

All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trade-
marked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringe-
ment of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps.

McGraw-Hill Education eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions or for use in
corporate training programs. To contact a representative, please visit the Contact Us page at www.mhprofessional.com.

Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw-Hill Education from sources believed to be reliable. However,
neither McGraw-Hill Education nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and
neither McGraw-Hill Education nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of
this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill Education and its authors are supplying infor-
mation but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of
an appropriate professional should be sought.

TERMSOFUSE

This is a copyrighted work and McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work
is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act ofl 976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the
work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit,
distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part ofit without McGraw-Hill Education's prior consent. You
may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to
use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms.

THE WORK IS PROVIDED "AS IS." McGRAW-HILL EDUCATION AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES
OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED
FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA
HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUD-
ING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will
meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill Education nor its licensors
shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages
resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill Education has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work.
Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill Education and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive,
consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of
the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or
cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
 Contents
Preface....................................................... xv
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
1 Defining What Is There . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 The Three Most Common Construction Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Two Classes of Foundations............................ ... 2
Support of Deep Foundations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Expansive Clays Can Be Expensive Clays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
End Bearing on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Ground Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Residual Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Travel Is Wearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Soil Layers Created by Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Topsoil "A Horizon". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Subsoil "B Horizon" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Shrinkage Cracks and Blocky Structure in Expansive Clays . . . . 5
1.5 Vertical Mixing in Expansive Clay.......................... 6
1.6 Influence from a Groundwater Table (or Tables). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Groundwater Table and Soil Color. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
A Perched Groundwater Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Intermittent Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8 Soil Types and Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Influence of a Groundwater Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Pull-up of Deep Foundations by Expansive Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.9 Agricultural Soil Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
The Soil Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.10 Distinguishing between Alluvial Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Rivers and Continental Glaciation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Meanders and Cutoffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Oxbow Lake Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Alluvial Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Natural Levees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Slack-Water (Backswamp) Floodplain Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Air Photo Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.11 Wind-Deposited Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Sand Dunes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Eolian Silt Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.12 Landslides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Landslide Scarps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
A No-No! Landslide Repair Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
When Landslides Stop.................................... 16
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation y
Yi Contents

Recognizing Landslides................................... 16
Not a Good Place for a Patio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.13 Stopping a Landslide..................................... 16
Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Structural Restraints: Piles, Stone Columns, and
Retaining Walls........................................ 17
Chemical Stabilization.................................... 17
Drilled Quicklime............................. ......... .. 17
1.14 Rock That Isn't There . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Near-Surface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Shallow Caverns and Sinks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Locating Underground Caverns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Abandoned Mine Shafts and Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Tunneling Machines and the Rock That Isn't There . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.15 The Big Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Mountain Ranges, Volcanoes, and Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Soil Responses to Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Earthquake Recurrence Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.16 The Walkabout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Getting along with Classification. . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . 25
2.1 A Hands-On Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 An Engineered Soil Moisture Content....................... 25
2.3 Standardizing the Plastic Limit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The Plastic Limit in Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Going from Plastic and Remoldable to Liquid and Flowable . . . 27
Standardizing the LL Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
The Fall Cone Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 The Plasticity Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6 Atterberg Limits in Soil Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.7 WWII and New Rules for Soil Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.8 Atterberg Limits and Criteria for Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.9 Kinds of Clay Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
A Layered Crystal Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
An Expansive Crystal Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Going Tribal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
When Sodium, Na+, Replaces Calcium, Ca++ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Drilling Mud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.10 A Hands-On Test for Expansive Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Field Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.11 Some Clues to Expansive Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.12 Measuring Soil Particle Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Statistical Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Defining Clay Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
 Ca nt ent s vii

2.13 Particle Sizes Determined from Sedimentation Rates in Water. . 36

Performing a Sedimentation Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Defining Clay Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.14 Some Soil Characteristics Related to Grain Size
Distribution Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.15 Defining Size Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Gravel/Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Sand/Silt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Clay and Silt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Expansive versus Non-expansive Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Salt versus Fresh Water Clay Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3 Foundation Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1 Castles and Cathedrals.................................... 41
Cathedrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 A Scientific Approach to Foundation Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
The Test................................................. 42
A Eureka Moment! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 Influence of Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 Amount of Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Void Ratio and Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Calculating a Void Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5 Overconsolidation and the Compression Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6 Consolidation Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Defining a Drainage Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.7 Pore Water Pressure and Foundation Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . 48
Field Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.8 Pore Water Pressure Dissipation and Rate of Primary
Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.9 Evaluating Cv . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 49
3.10 A Reference Time for 90 Percent Primary Consolidation. . . . . . . 50
3.11 It's Not Over Until It's Over: Secondary Consolidation . . . . . . . 50
3.12 First-Order Rate Equations......................... ....... 50
3.13 Field Time for Secondary Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Field Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.14 Defining a Preconsolidation Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Casagrande Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Correcting for Sample Disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Use and Misuse of OCR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.15 Lambe's Stress Path Approach to Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.16 Differential Settlement.................................... 55
Problems with Building Additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.17 The Other Shoe.......................................... 56
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
viii Contents

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Further Reacting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4 Soils Behaving Badly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1 Expansive Clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Expansive Clay in a Consolidation Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Two Classes of Expansive Clays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Type G Clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Type P Clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
How a Layer of Expansive Clay Can Cause Trouble. . . . . . . . . . . 60
Nature's Color Coding... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.3 Sorting Out Floodplain Clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
What Makes River Floodplains Wide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Braided Rivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Meandering Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
A Shift from Braided to Meandering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.4 Floodplain Soils of Meandering Rivers................ ...... 62
Oxbow Lake Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Depth and Shape of an Oxbow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Slack-Water or Backswamp Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.5 Deep Tropical Weathering and Expansive Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.6 A Guide to Expansive Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Crystal Structure in Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.7 Field Evidence for Expansive Clay.......................... 64
More Bad Karma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.8 Managing Expansive Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
The Chainsaw Method. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 65
Structural Slabs, Grade Beams, and Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Stripping off the Active Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Observations of Strange Field Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.9 The Replacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
How Does It Work?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
New Rule for Control of Expansive Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Clues to Between-Layer Stacking of Water Molecules . . . . . . . . . 68
Hypothesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Why Does Clay Expansion Stop at 3 Layers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
What's in a Name? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.10 Chemical Stabilization of Expansive Clay with Lime . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.11 Collapsible Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 70
Delayed Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Collapsible Alluvium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.12 Regional Changes in Properties of Wind-Deposited Soils . . . . . . 71
4.13 Quick Clays!. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Vane Shear Does Not Just Measure Soil Cohesion. . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.14 Liquefaction! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Identifying Vulnerable Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Visit https://ebookmass.com today to explore
a vast collection of ebooks across various
genres, available in popular formats like
PDF, EPUB, and MOBI, fully compatible with
all devices. Enjoy a seamless reading
experience and effortlessly download high-
quality materials in just a few simple steps.
Plus, don’t miss out on exciting offers that
let you access a wealth of knowledge at the
best prices!
 Contents ix

Earthquakes, Volcanoes, and the "Ring of Fire" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Made Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.15 Pretreatment to Prevent Liquefaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.16 Earthquake Dynamics.................................... 75
Recurrence Intervals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.17 Quicksand.............................................. 76
4.18 Blessed Are the Computers But Will They Really
Inherit the Earth? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5 Stresses in Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.1 Concentrated Stresses..................................... 79
5.2 Adapting Boussinesq Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.3 A Snag in the Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.4 Approximating the Pressure Distributions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.5 Preloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.6 A Plate Bearing Test as a Model Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.7 Performing a Plate Bearing Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.8 The Progressive Nature of a Bearing Capacity Failure . . . . . . . . . 86
5.9 Plate Bearing Tests on Weathered Soil Profiles................ 86
5.10 Foundation Stresses Transferred to Nearby Unyielding Walls.. . . 88
5.11 Strength Gains from Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Interruptions during Pile Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.12 A Convenient Maximum Depth for Pressure Calculations . . . . . 90
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6 Evaluating Soil Shear Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.1 Bearing Capacity and Settlement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.2 Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Friction Angle and Slope Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
J\tnontons'SecondLa'W................................... 94
The Greek Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Coulomb's Equation.............................. ........ 95
6.3 Friction Angle in Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Dilatancy in Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.4 A Direct Shear Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Influence of Layering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
The Borehole Shear Test (BST) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.5 Unconfined Compression Test..................... ........ 100
6.6 Mohr's Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Pore Water Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.7 A Difficult Problem............................... ........ 102
Stage Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Lambe's Stress Path Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
What about the Intermediate Principal Stress? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
x Contents

6.8 Statistical Analysis of Test Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

R2 (R squared) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Triaxial Shear Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7 Shallow Foundation Bearing Capacity........................... 107
7.1 Bearing Capacity versus Settlement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Temporary Excess Pore Water Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Unanticipated Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.2 Fair Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Two Kinds of Decrease in Pore Water Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Sensitive Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.3 Foundations on Compacted Soil Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Procedure and Performance Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Cut-and-Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.4 Bearing Capacity Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Equation Development............................ ....... 109
7.5 Prandtl-Terzaghi Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Rough Base, Smooth Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Meyerhof's Modification........................... ....... 112
7.6 Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Factors.......................... 112
Local Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Alternative Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
7.7 What Is the Real Factor of Safety?........................... 115
7.8 Bearing Capacity in 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.9 Eccentric Loading................................. ....... 117
Foundations for Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.10 Mine Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Shallow Mines.................................... ....... 119
Deep Mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Dangers of Vertical Mineshafts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Longwall Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.11 A Natural History of Caverns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.12 Frost Heave and Footing Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Arctic Permafrost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Polygonal Ground. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Elongated Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Some Practical Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Methane Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.13 When Things Go Wrong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
 Contents xi

8 The Standard Penetration Test in Foundation Engineering. . . . . • . . . 125

8.1 The Empirical Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.2 Soil Penetration Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Selective Test Depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Groundwater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Sample Disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
The "Pocket Penetrometer". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Shelby Tube Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.3 SPT in Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Depth Correction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
A General Depth Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
8.4 Soil Mechanics of the SPT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
What Might Be Achieved by Subtracting Blow Counts? . . . . . . . 130
8.5 The SPT Hammers' Biggest Hits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Adjusting the N Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.6 SPT "N" Values and Settlement of Foundations on Sand....... 132
A Shallow Depth Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.7 Pressure Bulb Correction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
8.8 Bearing Capacity of Sand Based on an Estimated
Friction Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.9 Comparisons with Measured Settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.10 Foundation Bearing Capacities on Clay Based on SPT
or Unconfined Compressive Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Theoretical Foundation Design on Clay Based on Unconfined
Compressive Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Net Bearing Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Reducing Settlement with a Mat Foundation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9 Probing with Cone Penetration Tests and the
March.etti Dilatometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.1 A Classical Approach.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.2 Pushing versus Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.3 A "Friction Ratio" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.4 Mechanical versus Electrical Cones................... ...... 143
The Piezocone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Decision Time: What Are Advantages/Disadvantages of
Cone and SPT?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cone Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Piezocone and Groundwater Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.5 Fracking (Hydraulic Fracturing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.6 Example of Cone Test Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
xii Contents

9.7 Normalizing Cone Test Data for Test Depth... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Dealing with Dimensions....................... ......... . 147
9.8 Cone Test Data and Setilement of Foundations on Sand . . . . . . . 148
9.9 Cone Tests and Foundations on Saturated, Compressible Clay. . . . . 148
9.10 Precaution with Empirical Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.11 Trme-outs for Pore Pressure Dissipation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.12 Supplemental Cone Test Data.............................. 149
9.13 The Marchetti Dilatometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Preparation for Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Soil Identifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.14 Predicting Settlement........................... ......... . 152
9.15 A Key Question: How Can Lateral Yielding
Predict Vertical Setilement?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Aging........................................ ......... . 153
A Dilatometer Shilt in Direction of the Major Principal Stress. . . . 154
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10 Focus on Lateral Stress . . • • . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . • • . 157
10.1 Lower Cost, More Convenient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.2 The Pressuremeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Soil Disturbance from Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Self-Boring Pressuremeters................................ 158
10.3 Interpretation of Pressuremeter Test Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Lateral In Situ Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
The Limit Pressure in Foundation Engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A Theoretical Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Use in Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Soil Identifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
10.4 The K 0 Stepped Blade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
The TwcrChambered Pressure Cell................... ...... 162
Test Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
10.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11 Design of Deep Foundations . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . 167
11.1 Transferring a Foundation Load Deep to Reduce Settlement . . . . 167
11.2 When Pile Foundations Became a Matter of Necessity. . . . . . . . . 167
11.3 Soils and City Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Cities and Rivers...................................... ... 168
11.4 Lowering of Sea Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
11.5 End Bearing............................................. 169
11.6 Pile Driving.......................................... ... 169
Wood Piles.............................................. 169
@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
 Ca nt ent s xiii

The Science of Hammering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Hard Driving and Brooming of Wood Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
No Lunch Breaks!........................................ 170
11.7 Tension Breaks in Concrete Piles Caused by Pile Driving? . . . . . 170
Piles Doing a U-tum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
11.8 The Engineering News Formula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
11.9 Pile Bearing Capacities and Load Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Strength Gains and Slow Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Anchor Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Conduct of a Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Criteria for Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Marginal Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
11.10 Analyzing Hammer Blows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
A Wave Equation for Driven Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
A Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Measuring Setup with PDA and Restrike. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
11.11 Citizen Complaints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
11.12 Pile Load Capacities: End Bearing.......................... 175
End Bearing on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Rock Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Rock Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
End Bearing on Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
A Critical Depth for End Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
11.13 Skin Friction and Adhesion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Depth and Differential Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Negative Skin Friction (Adhesion).................... .... .. 179
End Bearing and Skin "Friction" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Uplift from Expansive Clay................................ 179
11.14 Drilled Shaft Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
A Bad Scene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Slow Demise of the Belled Caisson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
11.15 Saving Time and Money on Load Tests with
the Osterberg Cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Representative Test Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Comparisons with Top-Down Load Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
11.16 Franki Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
11.17 Augercast Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Jet-Grouted Micropiles............................ ..... ... 184
11.18 Common Piles Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Definitions of a Factor of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
11.19 Preliminary Estimates for Deep Foundation
Bearing Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
11.20 Pile Group Action........................................ 188
Pile Separation Distances............................ .... .. 189
Pile Group Action Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Batter Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
xiv Contents

Questions............................................... 190
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
12 Ground Improvement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
12.1 What Is Ground Improvement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
12.2 Preloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Enhancing and Monitoring the Rate of Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
A Complex System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
12.3 Compaction............................................. 194
Vibratory Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Deep Dynamic Compaction (DOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Blasting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Side Effects from Compaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
12.4 Soil Replacement or Improvement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Stone Columns, Aggregate, and Mixed-in-Place Piers . . . . . . . . . 195
12.5 Grout Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
12.6 Grout "Take" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
12.7 Rammed Aggregate Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
A "Saw-Tooth" Stress Pattern........................ ...... 199
Temporary Liquefaction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Tension Cracks Outside the Liquefied Zone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
12.8 A Hypothesis of Friction Reversal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Friction Reversal and Overconsolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
12.9 Advanced Course: Application of Mohr's Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Lateral Stress and Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Is Excavation Permitted Close to RAPS?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
12.10 Further Developments.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
RAPS as Anchor Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
When Soil Does Not Hold an Open Boring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Low-Slump Concrete Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Sand Piers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Appendix: The Engineering Report and Legal Issues.................. 205
Index............................................................. 207

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
 Preface
The thread of learning is strengthened through understanding.

oil is the most abundant construction material, and also the most variable. Early

S engineering tests of soils involved the resistance to jabbing with a heel or probing
with a stick. Probing then developed along two different approaches, hammering
and pushing. Both can provide useful information, but the tests do not accurately simu-
late soil behavior under or near a foundation.

Targeted Tests
A targeted test is one that is directly applicable for design. An example is a pile load test
that relates settlement to the applied load. A load test also can be continued to deter-
mine an ultimate bearing capacity. A plate bearing test can similarly model a shallow
foundation, but scaling down makes the results less directly applicable.
A third approach is to obtain and preserve soil samples in their natural state and
test them in a laboratory. The problem then becomes how to collect a soil sample with-
out disturbing it, as even the removal of a confining pressure can effect a change.

An Early Targeted Test

The laboratory consolidation test devised by Karl Terzaghi was targeted to measure soil
behavior as it may influence foundation settlement. Observations and measurements
made during the tests then led to an important spinoff, the concept that pore water
pressure subtracts from normal stress and therefore from friction. That now is consid-
ered by many to be the entry point for modern soil mechanics.

A Slmple Targeted Test

The plastic limit test must be one of the simplest soil tests ever devised, and results are
part of most engineering soil classifications. The test uses hand power to roll out, bunch
up, and re-roll threads of soil until it dries out and crumbles. The transition moisture
content is the plastic limit. It not only depends on a soil clay content but also on its clay
mineralogy, and the test was devised long before it became recognized that there is a
clay mineralogy.

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation xv
xvi Preface

1\vo Requirements In Foundation Design

Requirements are as follows: (1) Settlement must be uniform and must not be excessive,
and (2) a foundation must not punch down into the ground in a bearing capacity failure.
If a near-surface soil is not adequate, deep foundations can transfer loads downward to
bear on rock or in more competent soil. A complication for deep foundations is that they
can derive support from two sources, end-bearing and side friction, and the two contri-
butions are not separated with ordinary top-load tests. They can be isolated by using an
expandable Osterberg cell to push up from the bottom. Pile behavior and integrity also
can be examined with impacts and sound waves.

A New Role for Lateral Soll Pressure

Laboratory triaxial shear tests define relationships between lateral confining pressure
and soil strength and bearing capacity. Field tests have led to the discovery that a high
lateral pressure imposed on saturated soil can work a temporary change in the soil
behavior, and the change can be an important factor affecting foundation settlement.
That development is given special attention in the last chapter of this book.

Soil Origins and Clay Mineralogy

One mistake is one too many, but mistakes happen. In foundation engineering a mis-
take sometimes can be attributed to a disconnect between engineering purpose and
site geology. Most soil is hidden away, and geology and soil science, which emphasizes
changes caused by weathering, can reveal where and what to look for. For example,
expansive clays that cause no end of engineering problems are far more common than
can be shown on small-scale engineering soil maps. The geotechnical engineer who is
not cognizant of geological relationships and engineering consequences is riding on
one wheel.

Tbe Engineer as Teacher

Case history. An architect designed a building with exterior walls of Italian marble, and
was in no mood to spend money for deep foundations or anything else that "would
not show." He had to be convinced that without deep foundations, the consequences
would show.

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
 Introduction
Some Heroes In Geotechnlcal/Foundatlon Engineering
Archimedes (287-212 BC) famously discovered Archimedes Principle" of buoyancy,
11

which affects soil weight and frictional resistance to sliding. He was killed by a Roman
soldier who had no appreciation.
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806) was a French military engineer, and
while being in charge of building a fort on the island of Martinique he observed that
sand grains must have friction or they would not make a respectable pile. He also
reasoned that clay must have cohesion or it would not stand unsupported in a steep
bank. Those observations led to the "Coulomb equation" for soil shear strength. Over
100 years later, Karl Terzaghi added the influence from pore water pressure that tends
to push grains apart.
Coulomb also derived an equation for the lateral force from soil pushing against
a retaining wall. The equation, and a later equation proposed by Rankine, puts the
maximum soil pressure at the base of a wall but tests conducted by Terzaghi indicate
that it is more likely to be zero. That is no small error because raising the height of
the center of pressure increases the overturning moment, which makes the Coulomb
and Rankine solutions the unsafe side.

Coulomb's Law
After retiring from the Army, Coulomb entered a contest to invent a better marine
compass. He did not win the contest but invented the torsion balance that substitutes
twisting of fine wires for knife edges. Coulomb then experimented with his instrument
to measure tiny forces from electrical charges, electricity being big at the time, and dis-
covered that forces between two electrically charged particles depend on square of the
separation distance. Coulomb's Law also governs space travel and orbiting distances
of satellites.
William John Macquom Rankine (1820-1872) was a professor at the University of
Glasgow. He was most famous for his analysis of the thermodynamics of steam engines,
but he also had a simple solution for soil pressures against retaining walls. He defined
an active state for soil that is acting to retain itself, and a passive state for soil that is being
pushed. Rankine's and Coulomb's analyses can give the same answers, but both have
a limitation.
Christian Otto Mohr (1835-1918) was a German bridge engineer and a professor of
mechanics at Stuttgart and Dresden. He devised the "Mohr circle" graphical method

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation xvll
xviii I nt rod uct I on

for depicting soil stresses, and the ''Mohr envelope" defines stress conditions for shear
failure. It supports Coulomb's soil shear strength equation.
Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953) was a professor at the University of Hanover, most
famous for his contributions to aerodynamics. He also developed a theory for the resis-
tance of metal to penetration by a punch based on a curved failure surface called a log
spiral.
Karl Terzaghi (1883-1963) was from Austria and was educated in mechanical engi-
neering. However, he also was interested in geology and became a professional geolo-
gist. He then used an engineering approach for soil problems, for example, by applying
Prandtl's log spiral to shallow foundation bearing capacity, a theory and approach that
still are widely used. As a professor at Robert College in Turkey, Terzaghi devised the
consolidation test and theory for predicting foundation settlement. Those observations
led to defining soil shear strength in terms of effective stress that takes into account the
influence from excess pore water pressure.
Terzaghi also observed that because clay particles must be soft and yielding, contact
areas between particles can be expected to vary depending on the contact pressure,
which might explain the linear relationship between friction and normal stress. It is the
concept that made its way back into mechanical engineering to explain friction. It also
can explain the function of a lubricant, to keep surfaces separated.
Geotechnical engineering has grown and continues to grow, and many investigators
and practitioners continue to make important contributions. Broad interests, curiosity,
imagination, and an interest in working with a complex and somewhat unpredictable
natural material are part of the toolkit.

Further Reading
Bowden, F. P., and Tabor, D., The Friction and Lubrication of Solids, Oxford University
Press, Oxford, UK, 1950.
Casagrande, A., "Karl Terzaghi-His Life and Achievements," In From Theory to Practice
in Soil Mechanics, L. Bjerrum, A. Casagrande, R. B. Peck, and A. W. Skempton, eds.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1960.
Handy, R. L., "The Arch in Soil Arching," ASCE Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering
Division, 111(GT3):302-318, 1985.
Terzaghi, K., Theoretical Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1943.

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Visit https://ebookmass.com today to explore
a vast collection of ebooks across various
genres, available in popular formats like
PDF, EPUB, and MOBI, fully compatible with
all devices. Enjoy a seamless reading
experience and effortlessly download high-
quality materials in just a few simple steps.
Plus, don’t miss out on exciting offers that
let you access a wealth of knowledge at the
best prices!
Other documents randomly have
different content
numbers of the bacillus causing this disease for several months after
the patient is well (page 301).
The contamination of water with sewage may occur in various
ways. In country places surface wells and small streams commonly
supply the drinking water, and these are frequently contaminated.
The illustration (Fig. 9) shows the percolation of excretory matters
from an out-door closet through the porous gravel, into a
neighbouring well; the result being an epidemic of enteric fever
among those who drank the water of the well. Alterations in the
level of the subsoil water are sometimes followed by an outbreak of
enteric fever (p. 70). A sudden fall of rain occurs, and the excess of
water in the soil absorbs the soakings from country privies or
cesspools, and carries them into the nearest well. The percolation of
tainted water through a considerable tract of land, possibly along
fissures, is sometimes insufficient to purify it, as proved by a
remarkable epidemic in the small village of Lausen, in Switzerland.
In other cases sewage gains access into leaky water-pipes.
Formerly contamination was occasionally due to improper connection
between the overflow pipe of the cistern and the soil-pipe, or to the
water-closet being flushed by a pipe directly connected with a water-
main (as in the Caius College outbreak at Cambridge), or connected
with the drinking-water cistern (page 76).
Milk may, by the admixture of water, become contaminated with
enteric matter, and produce widespread epidemics. Where the water
is very impure, the small amount used in washing cans may suffice
to cause infection.
Cholera was first proved by Dr. Snow, in 1849, to be due to the
specific contagium of cholera gaining an entrance into drinking
water. This contagium is derived as in enteric fever from the
intestinal evacuations, the urine, and the vomit of patients suffering
from the same disease.
 Fig. 9.

The close connection of the spread of cholera with an impure

water supply has been repeatedly shown in this country. The cholera
epidemic of 1854 was very severe in the southern districts of
London. At that period these districts were supplied with water by
the Southwark and Vauxhall Company, deriving its water from the
Thames at Battersea, and by the Lambeth Company, having its
intake at Thames Ditton, where the water was purer. The two
companies were acting in rivalry, so that in many streets their mains
ran side by side; and houses in the same street similar in all other
respects, received a different water supply. An investigation of the
distribution of cholera in these districts gave the following results:—
CHOLERA CHOLERA DEATHS
POPULATION
DEATHS IN PER 10,000
IN 1851.
14 WEEKS. OF POPULATION.
Houses supplied by Southwark Co. 266,516 4,093 153
Houses supplied by Lambeth Co. 173,748 461 26

The facts, when examined in detail, brought out still more

strikingly the exemption of the houses supplied by the Lambeth
Company; the infection picking out in a given street the houses
supplied by the Southwark Company. The great epidemic of cholera
at Hamburg in 1892 proves the same point. Hamburg, Wandsbeck
and Altona are three towns adjoining each other, and really forming
one large community; but while Hamburg suffered terribly, the two
other towns had no cases of cholera, except the few that were
brought into them. In all respects except water-supply the conditions
were alike; but Wandsbeck obtained filtered water from a lake,
Altona obtained filtered water from the Elbe below the town, while
Hamburg was supplied, previous to the epidemic, by unfiltered water
from the Elbe just above the town.
Diphtheria and scarlet fever have never been traced to polluted
water.
Effects of an Insufficient Supply of Water.—The influence on
personal health is most baneful. Water is used sparingly for purposes
of cleanliness, with the necessary results that cutaneous diseases
become more common, and the whole body suffers; the linen is
imperfectly and infrequently washed; the house becomes dirty;
drains are imperfectly flushed; the streets are not cleaned; and the
whole atmosphere becomes loaded with impurities. According to
Parkes, it is probable that the almost complete disappearance of
typhus fever from civilized and cleanly nations, is not merely owing
to better ventilation, but also to more frequent and thorough
washing of clothes.
Insufficient cleansing of the surfaces of streets and of sewers,
owing to a deficient supply of water, has a very important influence
on the spread of enteric fever and epidemic diarrhœa. A heavy fall of
rain often causes a rapid diminution in the prevalence of the latter
disease.
 CHAPTER XIII.
THE PURIFICATION OF WATER.

When a public water-supply is provided, it may reasonably be

expected to be furnished pure and fit for use; but this, occasionally
is not so. The reports, for instance, of the condition of the London
Water Supply, occasionally show that it is turbid and contains a slight
excess of organic matter. This is especially the case when, after
heavy rainfall, storm-water is brought into the reservoirs, and owing
to deficient storage, sufficient time is not allowed for deposit. Rain-
water always and other waters frequently require to be purified
before use.
Methods of Purification.—The only certain way of obtaining
pure water is by Distillation; but this plan is scarcely applicable to
water on a large scale. Furthermore distilled water is not so
palatable as ordinary water. The distillation of water is more
especially required on board ship, during long voyages. It should be
followed by the use of some measure to secure efficient aeration.
2. Boiling water serves to remove the temporary hardness, and
the chalk carries down with it a large proportion of any organic
matter that may be present. Boiling deprives the water of its
dissolved gases, and renders it flat; it is desirable, therefore, to
aerate it by filtration or from a gazogene after boiling. All the
microbes which are known to produce disease are destroyed by
efficient boiling. Certain putrefactive microbes are more persistent of
life, owing to the fact that they form spores, which are not killed at
the temperature of boiling water. Tyndall showed that by boiling the
liquid containing these spore-forming microbes on three successive
days, thus giving time for the spores to develop into less resistant
microbes, they could be effectually destroyed. Boiled water will not
cause enteric fever or cholera, the two chief water-borne diseases.
3. The exposure of water in divided currents to the air by passing
it through a sieve has been proposed as a means of purifying water,
but it is inefficient when trusted to alone. Plants in reservoirs help to
absorb organic matter; and fish, by destroying small crustaceans,
have been found useful. Hard waters do not bear exposure to light,
as a thick green growth of chara occurs, which may block pipes, and
give a bitter taste to the water.
4. The Addition of Chemical Substances.—(1) Clarke’s process
consists in adding milk of lime, i.e. an emulsion of quicklime with
water, to the water in the reservoir on a large scale. By this means
calcium carbonate is precipitated, but no effect is produced on
calcium and magnesium sulphates and chlorides. The hardness of
the Thames water can thus be reduced from 16° to 3° or 4°
(Clarke’s scale). The calcium carbonate carries down with it
suspended and possibly dissolved organic matter. In the Porter-
Clarke process lime-water, i.e. milk of lime diluted, and the excess of
lime separated by settlement or filtration, is mixed with the water to
be purified, the water being freed from the precipitated calcium
carbonate either by subsidence or by being forced through a filter of
stretched canvas.
(2) Carbonate of Soda added to boiling water throws down
calcium carbonate, and possibly lead if present. Much less is
required when added to boiling than to cold water. Maignen’s
process consists in adding anti-calcaire powder, containing chiefly
carbonate of soda, lime, and alum.
(3) Aluminous salts are very effectual in removing suspended
organic matter, if the water contains calcium carbonate. On the
addition of alum, calcium sulphate and aluminium hydrate are
formed, both of which fall to the bottom, carrying with them other
impurities. The amount of alum required is about 6 grains per gallon
of water. If the water is not hard, a little calcium chloride and
carbonate of soda should be put in before the alum is added, in
order that a precipitable substance may be formed.
(4) Potassium permanganate readily removes the offensive smell
of stagnant water, but it gives a yellow tint to the water. The
addition of a little alum will help to carry down the decomposed
permanganate.
(5) Perchloride of Iron, in the proportion of 2½ grains to a gallon
of water, has been found to completely purify water from finely
suspended organic matters and clay.
(6) More recently, other substances, such as iodine and
hyposulphite of soda, have been recommended. These are supposed
to act by sterilizing the water, and iodine in suitable quantities
undoubtedly effects this.
Chemical processes for the purification of water, with the
exception of the softening process, are not to be recommended for
general use. Efficient filtration, or boiling, is safer than chemical
treatment; and it would only be justifiable to trust to the latter,
when, as in a military campaign, an attempt at purification was
necessary, and no means were available for filtering or boiling water.
7. Filtration.—The object of filtration is to remove the impurities
of water. The most dangerous impurities are suspended in it,
especially the microbes causing infectious diseases. Hence the most
perfect filter is the one which most completely prevents the passage
through it of microbes. If the water supply is pure, domestic
filtration is not only useless, but likely to do more harm than good.
This is true for such upland surface waters as those supplied to
Liverpool, Glasgow, and Manchester; for such deep well-water
supplies as those of Brighton (deep chalk), of Nottingham (new red
sandstone), and others, when pumped from wells remote from
inhabited houses. For upland surface waters known to attack lead
pipes, filtration through charcoal or spongy iron may be advisable;
for river water, filtration through a germ-proof filter is best.
 Filtration on a large scale is generally carried on as follows:—A
preliminary step consists in collecting the water into settling
reservoirs, wherein the more bulky substances subside. The water is
then filtered through beds of gravel and sand, containing perforated
tubular drains below, into which the filtered water flows. The drains
are covered by a bed of gravel about 3 feet deep, over which is
spread a layer of sand about 1½ to 2 feet deep. Sharp angular
particles of sand are the best; and the gravel should gradually
increase in its coarseness as it descends.
The effect of this filtration is chiefly mechanical; it separates any
suspended matter, whether organic or inorganic. A certain amount of
biological action possibly also takes place. Piefke found that a
perfectly cleaned and sterilised filter when first used, increases the
microbes in water, instead of decreasing them. Gradually a
gelatinous layer of slimy matter is formed on the top of the sand;
the water now filters through much more slowly, but it gradually
becomes freer from microbes, these being intercepted by the slimy
layer. It is important that this layer should not be disturbed by too
rapid or forced filtration, and that when the surface layer requires to
be removed, because the filter has become impervious, time should
be allowed for another thin film to form before the filtered water is
again utilised. Koch concluded that the rapidity of filtration should
never be allowed to exceed 100 millimetres (about 4 inches) per
hour; and that the number of microbes per c.c. in the filtered water
should never exceed 100. Some oxidation of organic matter, as well
as detention of microbes, may take place during the filtration of
water, nitrates being formed by the vital activity of certain “nitrifying”
microbes in the filter. (On nitrification, see pages 195 and 274.) P.
Frankland’s observations show that the number of microbes in
Thames water is reduced by filtration through sand and gravel beds,
as practised by the London Water Companies, so that only 3·4 per
cent. of those originally present remained. He also concludes that
the majority of the microbes present in filtered water are derived
from post-filtration sources. Thus the number is greater in tap-water
than in water derived from near the reservoirs.
 Other materials besides sand have been used for filtration on a
large scale, but none with proved success.
Domestic Filtration ought, as already explained, not to be
needed, but circumstances often arise in which the public supply is
open to suspicion, and a second domestic line of defence against
infection through the water supply is desirable. When this is so, the
form of filter which will best protect the household is one attached to
the house-tap, so that all drinking-water is perforce filtered. When
filtering involves the transfer of water from the tap to the interior of
the filter, opportunity is left for carelessness or forgetfulness. The
one essential point of a domestic filter is that it will prevent the
passage through it of microbes. Every filter must be tested from this
standpoint.
On this point the experiments of Woodhead and Cartwright Wood
are conclusive. They first of all experimented on various filters with
fine artificial ultramarine containing particles 16 µ to 0·6 µ or even
less in diameter in suspension; and milk containing granules and
globules of fat 0·5 µ to 30 µ or more in diameter, freely diluted with
water.
TIME IN
PRESENCE OR
MINUTES PRESENCE OR
ABSENCE OF
REQUIRED FOR ABSENCE OF
ULTRAMARINE
FILTRATION OF MILK
IN
1 IN FILTRATE
FILTRATE.
PINT OF WATER.
Silicated carbon filter 68 ++ +++
Carbon filter 18 + +++
Maignen’s Filtre Rapide 4 0 ++
Spongy iron filter 14 0 +++
Pasteur-Chamberland
420 0 0
filter
Berkefeld filter 140 0 0

The number + indicates the relative amount of the experimental

substances that made their way through the filtering medium.
 Experiments were then made with the actual microbes of certain
infectious diseases, and it was found that certain filters allow these
to pass. Thus a silicated carbon filter allowed 1,000 out of 15,000
typhoid bacilli suspended in water to pass through its substance; a
manganous carbon filter allowed 600 to 800 out of 10,000 cholera
vibrios to pass through; Maignen’s filter on the second day of
experiment allowed 150 out of 5,000 cholera vibrios to pass
through; Lipscombe’s charcoal filter experimentally only reduced
typhoid bacilli from 20,000 to 5,000; the magnetic carbide filter only
reduced them from 20,000 to 10,000; the spongy iron filter from
20,000 to 3,000; while, on the contrary, the Pasteur-Chamberland
and the Berkefeld filter completely stopped all microbes and
produced a sterile water. (As to these two, see page 98.)
Of the materials enumerated animal charcoal was formerly
regarded as an excellent filtering medium. It is capable of oxidising
organic matter dissolved in water, but so far from sterilizing water, it
favours the growth of microbes in it. Water filtered through charcoal,
after the first few days of use of the charcoal, deteriorates, as the
charcoal yields up impurities to it.
Manganous Carbon consists of animal charcoal and black oxide
of manganese mixed with oil, and heated strongly together out of
contact with the air. The oxidising power of the carbon is said to be
thus greatly increased. It shares the objections to carbon.
Silicated Carbon consists of 75 per cent. of charcoal and 22 per
cent. of silica, with a little oxide of iron and alumina. It is not an
efficient filtering medium.
Spongy iron is prepared by the reduction of hæmatite ore with
fusion, so that the iron is obtained in a porous and finely-divided
condition. The Rivers Pollution Commissioners found spongy iron to
be “a very active agent, not only in removing organic matter from
water, but also in materially reducing its hardness, and otherwise
altering its character.” It is a powerful oxidising agent, some of the
water being decomposed, and hydrogen set free, and the oxygen
acting upon any organic matter present. It also removes lead from
water. As already seen, it does not, however, fulfil the primary object
of water, by depriving it of any microbes contained in it.
Magnetic carbide of iron is obtained by heating hæmatite ore
with sawdust. Its action is similar to that of spongy iron.
The Pasteur-Chamberland filter consists of a cylinder of
unglazed fine porcelain made from a well-baked Kaolin of a certain
degree of porosity and hardness. (Fig. 10.)
The water passes through the porcelain from without inwards, and
with the pressure of 1½ to 2½ atmospheres which is usually
present in the pipes of a water-service, passes through at the rate of
about three quarts per hour. The filter can easily be cleaned by
brushing it in a stream of hot water, or by subjecting to the heat of a
Bunsen burner. The filtration is entirely mechanical, the filtered
water being quite freed of microbes. No chemical action takes place.
The Berkefeld filter is cylindrical like the Pasteur-Chamberland
filter, and is used in the same way. It is made of infusorial earth,
which is soft and friable and liable to break. The cylinder becomes
gradually worn thin by cleaning, and it then ceases to filter
efficiently. Its sole advantage over the Pasteur-Chamberland filter is
the more rapid rate of filtration; and against this is to be set the
greater liability to fracture and the lack of continuance of efficient
filtration. Woodhead and Wood in the report already quoted, state:
“The Berkefeld filter appears to have the largest pores among the
efficient filters, as is evidenced by the fact that the water organisms
were not apparently weakened, that more species of organisms
appeared in its filtrate, and that lowering the temperature to 11° C.
did not prevent their appearance. The Pasteur-Chamberland filter, on
the other hand, at 11° C. was able to give an apparently sterile
filtrate for a prolonged period.” More recent experiments have shewn
that pathogenic (disease-producing) microbes contained in water
after awhile grow through the substance of a Berkefeld filter, and
 that this does not happen with a
Pasteur-Chamberland filter. The latter is
therefore preferable.
In determining the number of bougies
required for any filter to secure a given
amount of pure water, it is necessary to
calculate on the basis of the output after
several weeks’ use, not on the original
output. If this is done, pure water will be
secured without disappointment as to
the amount supplied.

Fig. 10.
Pasteur-Chamberland
Filter.

A.—Outlet of filtered water.

B.—Pasteur tube. C.—
Metal tube containing
unfiltered water. D.—
Unfiltered water delivered
through tap.
 CHAPTER XIV.
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF AIR.

An abundant supply of fresh air is necessary at all times. And yet

its importance is commonly ignored in practical life. Strenuous
efforts are made to ensure a supply of food, and water is commonly
filtered or otherwise purified before drinking; but many are content
to live in an impure atmosphere, which hardly suffices for the
preservation of life, and certainly not of health. Deprivation of food,
or even of water, only kills after several days or weeks; deprivation
of air kills in a few minutes. Only about three pints of water are
required daily, while at least 1,500 gallons of air are necessary every
day for carrying on the vital functions.
Composition of Air.—The air constitutes a gaseous ocean in
which we live, as fishes live in water. In virtue of its weight, it exerts
a pressure of about 15 lbs. on every square inch. This pressure is
usually measured by the barometer, and is equivalent on an average
to that of a column of 30 inches of quicksilver. (See page 331).
Chemically, air consists of a mixture of various gases and vapours.
These are chiefly Oxygen and Nitrogen; but in addition, there are
minute quantities of carbonic acid, argon, hydrogen, water vapour,
ammonia, ozone, and suspended matters.
The oxygen and nitrogen exist, in the proportion by volume of
20·9 of oxygen to 79·1 of nitrogen, or of 23·16 grains of oxygen to
76·84 of nitrogen, by weight.
These two gases do not exist in chemical combination, but
mechanically mixed. This is proved by the fact, that they do not exist
in air in the proportion of their combining weights, or any multiple of
these; that the proportion varies slightly at different parts; and that
the air which is dissolved in water does not contain the nitrogen and
oxygen in the proportion 4 to 1 (as in the atmosphere), but in the
proportion 1·87 to 1. This means that oxygen, being more soluble in
water than nitrogen, has dissolved in a larger proportion; as it
certainly would not have done, had the oxygen and nitrogen been
chemically combined. The oxygen dissolved in water supplies fishes
with the necessary oxygen for their respiratory processes. Similarly
the oxygen in the atmosphere is its most essential constituent, being
required in all processes of oxidation (i.e., combustion), whether in
living organisms or in the inanimate world. Nitrogen serves as a
diluting agent. It is incapable of supporting life alone; and many of
the fatal accidents which have occurred through men descending
deep wells without first testing, by means of a lit candle held well
below them, the quality of the air near the bottom, have been due
to an accumulation of nitrogen in the well.
Ozone is a condensed form of oxygen, which is present in minute
quantities in pure air, and especially during a thunder-storm or after
a fall of snow, and in the air near the sea. In it three volumes of
oxygen are condensed so as to occupy two volumes. In this
condensed condition it has powerful chemical affinities; often
oxidising substances which oxygen cannot attack. It is generally
absent from the close air of towns and dwelling houses, having been
used up to oxidise the organic matter present in these places. Air
without it is said to be “devitalised”; and ozone has been described
as the scavenger of the air.
Ozone can be produced by hanging a piece of moist phosphorus in
a room; and it is stated by Dr. Daubeny, that part of the oxygen
given out by plants, especially by scented flowering plants, is in the
condition of ozone. A small quantity is produced when an electrical
machine is worked; its presence is evidenced by a peculiar smell (the
name ozone is derived from the Greek word for smell).
Test of Ozone in Air.—Traces of ozone in air are detected by exposing strips
of blotting paper moistened with a mixture of a solution of potassic iodide and
starch. If ozone is present, the paper assumes a blue tint, due to the liberation of
iodine, and its combination with the starch. Other acid gases may, however,
produce the same effect. A second test should, therefore, be tried. Soak red litmus
paper with a very dilute solution of potassic iodide, and expose as before. Potassic
oxide is produced if ozone is present, and this turns the litmus blue.

Aqueous Vapour is always present in air, though the amount

varies greatly. It is invisible in the ordinary condition, but by
condensation becomes cloud or fog, rain, snow, or hail. The quantity
of moisture present varies with the temperature of the air; the
higher the temperature, the more water can be vaporised, without
the point of saturation being reached. An increase of 27° Fahr.
doubles the capacity of air for moisture. The amount of moisture
that would saturate air at 50° Fahr. only gives 71 per cent. of the
saturation amount at 60° Fahr. The amount of moisture is estimated
by the hygrometer (page 240).
Air saturated with moisture at 32° Fahr., holds vapour equal to
1
∕ 160 of its weight; at 59° it holds 1 ∕ 80, at 86° 1 ∕ 40, at 113° 1 ∕ 20, and
at 140° 1 ∕ 10.

Ammonia in normal air does not exceed one part in a million of

air; but it is always present—either as free ammonia or as sulphate,
chloride, carbonate, or sulphide of ammonia. From this source,
plants derive some of the nitrogen they require as food; some also
from the free nitrogen, which is fixed by certain microbes, growing
in the nodules connected with the roots of peas, lentils, and other
plants (page 274).
Traces of nitrous and nitric acid are also present in the air,
produced by the direct combination of nitrogen and oxygen
occurring as the result of the electric spark during lightning.
Carbonic Acid or carbon dioxide is always present in air, in the
proportion of 3·36 to 4 parts in 10,000; but in impure air may be
present in much larger amount. It is a heavy gas, incapable of
supporting combustion, and therefore of supporting animal life.
Being a heavy gas, it tends to accumulate where it is produced, as
about lime-kilns by the heating of chalk. Thus CaCO₃ (chalk)
(heated) = CaO (lime) + CO₂ (carbonic acid). Tramps have
occasionally died of carbonic acid poisoning through sleeping near
lime-kilns.
It is produced by the oxidation of carbonaceous matters, hence in
all ordinary combustion, in many cases of putrefaction and
fermentation, and in the respiratory processes of all animals.
Plants diminish the amount of carbonic acid in the atmosphere.
Two processes occur in most plants: a process of respiration, as in
animals; and a process of assimilation, by which the leaves and all
other green parts of a plant under the influence of sunlight
decompose the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, fixing its carbon
and liberating its oxygen. Plants such as fungi, which are destitute of
green colouring matter, cannot decompose carbonic acid; nor can
any plants during the night. During the day green plants are air
purifiers; during the night all plants vitiate the air to a slight extent.
The Air in Relation to Respiration.—The oxygen of air is
absolutely essential for the continuance of life. In every organised
animal, lungs or analogous organs are provided, in order to supply
the necessary oxygen to the system, and to remove the impure air
from it.
The act of breathing occurs in man about seventeen times per
minute. While the inspired air is in contact with the interior of the
lungs, it undergoes important alterations. It comes into contact with
the five or six millions air-vesicles which form the minute dilated
terminations of the windpipe, and have an aggregate area of ten to
twenty square feet. Each of the air-vesicles has extremely thin walls;
and outside these delicate walls lie capillary blood-vessels, full of
impure blood. An active interchange now occurs between the air and
the gases dissolved in the blood. Oxygen passes through the
intervening membrane into the blood, while carbonic acid and other
impurities of the blood pass into the air-vesicle. The consequence of
this is that the impure dark-coloured blood becomes bright scarlet
and pure. This purification is not confined to any one portion of the
blood; for the heart contracting 60 or 70 times per minute, pours
successive portions of blood into the capillaries surrounding the air-
vesicles; while at the same time, pure air is brought into the air-
vesicles seventeen times per minute, and so the interchange is
constantly kept up.
In view of the incessant character of respiration and circulation, it
is clear that all the blood will be purified if the external air is pure;
and that if there is any detrimental matter in the air, it probably will
come into contact with the blood in the lungs.
The amount of air taken in with each inspiration is about thirty
cubic inches. This is called the tidal air, as it is constantly ebbing and
flowing from and to the lungs. By means of a very forced inspiration,
about 100 cubic inches of additional air can be inspired; and similarly
after an ordinary inspiration, one can expire forcibly an additional
100 cubic inches, though there will still be left in the lungs another
100 cubic inches of air. Thus:—

Tidal air 30 cub. in.

Complemental air 100 „
Supplemental air 100 „
Residual air 100 „
——
Total capacity of lungs 330 „

Corresponding to the respiratory changes in the lungs, there are

changes in the tissues throughout the body. The pure and
oxygenated blood leaving the lungs, is carried to all parts of the
system. Oxidation and allied processes are actively carried on, the
result of which is the formation of urea, carbonic acid, and smaller
quantities of other effete matters. These are then carried by the
blood to the excretory organs, urea being chiefly eliminated by the
kidneys, and carbonic acid by the lungs.
Examination of Expired Air shows that—1. It is heated; in its
passage through the nose and deeper respiratory passages it has
acquired a temperature approaching that of the blood.
2. Its moisture is increased. By the skin and lungs from 25 to 40
ounces of water pass off in the twenty-four hours; the relative
amount varies somewhat.
3. It contains 4 to 5 per cent. less oxygen, and 4 per cent. more
carbonic acid than inspired air. The carbonic acid, instead of being 4
parts in 10,000 of air, becomes over 400 in 10,000, while the oxygen
is diminished in a somewhat larger proportion. Thus:—

CARBONIC
OXYGEN. NITROGEN.
ACID.
Inspired air contains 20·81 79·15 ·04
Expired air contains 16·033 79·557 4·38

The amount of carbonic acid expired varies under different

circumstances. It is increased by active work, by an increase of food,
by a diminution of the external temperature; it is greater when the
surrounding air is pure, and when it is moist; and it varies with the
season, being greatest in spring, and least in autumn.
Children require more oxygen, and expire more carbonic acid than
adults, weight for weight. A child six or seven years old requires
nearly as much oxygen as one twice that age. Boys usually require
more air than girls, as they are more active and exhale a larger
amount of carbonic acid and other impurities.
The average amount of carbonic acid eliminated by a healthy adult
is at least 0·6 cubic foot per hour, or 14·4 cubic feet per day. This
reckoned as carbon is equivalent to 160 grains per hour, or half a
pound of carbon in the twenty-four hours. Liebig gives the amount
of carbonic acid expired as 0·79 cubic foot per hour, or 19 cubic feet
per day.
4. It contains organic impurities. These are chiefly gaseous, solid
particles only being expired during coughing, or possibly during
conversation. The danger from the “breath” of patients in infectious
diseases is really associated rather with the dried discharges on
handkerchiefs, etc., than from the “breath” itself; unless droplets of
saliva discharged during speaking, or mucus during coughing, are
directly inhaled.
 CHAPTER XV.
SUSPENDED IMPURITIES OF AIR.

Pure air being essential to life and health, it is important to

ascertain the character and origin of the impurities of air.
Innumerable substance—in the condition of gases, vapours, or solid
particles—constantly pass into it, and deteriorate its quality. To
counteract this, certain purifying agencies are at work, the
mechanism of which will be considered hereafter.
Impurities are much commoner and more abundant in the air of
enclosed spaces than in the external air, as the natural processes of
purification cannot be brought to bear so efficiently in the former
case. In sick rooms, hospitals, etc., impurities arise, which are not
present where only healthy people are collected. The most important
impurities are derived from the respiration of animals, and the
combustion of gases, candles, or lamps in rooms, from sewage
emanations, from various occupations, and the air of marshes,
mines, church-yards, etc. These may be classed under two heads—
solid and gaseous; the solid being simply suspended in the air in a
finely divided condition, or floated about in a coarser condition by
currents of air. They are revealed in an atmosphere in which one did
not previously suspect their existence, by the passage of a beam of
sunlight. Light itself is invisible, but its course is rendered visible by
the particles from which its rays are reflected. Tyndall demonstrated
the presence of minute particulate matter in the air of all ordinary
situations, and showed that a large proportion of this matter consists
of germs (microbes). In his experiments with vapours in closed
tubes, floating matter was always revealed by a concentrated beam
of light, even though the air entering the tube had been first drawn
through sulphuric acid and through a strong solution of caustic
potash. If this air was then passed through a red-hot platinum tube
and across folds of red-hot platinum gauze, it became optically
empty; the floating matter had been burnt, and disappeared. It was
therefore organic. In subsequent experiments, he took organic
solutions, as of meat, turnip, and the like, and rendered them sterile
by repeated boiling. They remained sterile when kept in air-tight
vessels or in vessels covered with a thick layer of cotton-wool, which
would efficiently filter any entering air; but when exposed to the air,
they invariably became turbid, owing to an enormous multiplication
of germs. Clearly, therefore, air contains organic, matter, and much
of this organic matter consists of living germs. Most of these germs
are comparatively harmless under ordinary conditions. They are,
however, the causes of fermentation, putrefaction, and all the
processes of decomposition which occur in organic substances. The
importance of the exclusion of the dust of air has received an
important application in Lister’s antiseptic and in the aseptic system
of treatment of wounds. Formerly accidents and operations were
frequently fatal; now vast numbers of lives are saved by improved
surgical methods. The original antiseptic method acted on the
supposition that some germicidal application to the wounds was
necessary; now it is realized that if, during the operation, germs are
not allowed to remain in the wound, all that is afterwards necessary
to insure rapid recovery is that they shall be prevented from entering
the wound from the external air during its process of recovery. By
the adoption of such means, large wounds can be made to heal,
without the formation of a drop of “pus” or “matter.” (See also page
110.)
Suspended Matters are mineral or organic, the two being
commonly associated together. The mineral matters consist largely
of fine particles of common salt, silica, clay, iron rust, dried mud,
chalk, coal, soot, and similar substances. Not uncommonly the
mineral particles are coated by, or mixed with, organic matter, the
comparative lightness of the organic matter enabling the mineral
matter to float about more easily. The objection to dust is thus
intensified, for not only is it irritating to the respiratory passages and
generally disagreeable, but it carries with it putrescent and possibly
morbific particles. The prevention of infectious diseases resolves
itself largely into means for preventing the inhalation of dust.
Organic Suspended Matters in the open air are, most
commonly, minute fragments of wood and straw, dried horse litter,
fragments of insects, the spores and pollen of plants, and
microscopic plants and animals. In addition, there is the putrescent
organic matter resulting from respiration and other organic
functions.
Indoors, the air commonly contains, in addition, fragments of
cotton, linen, silk, or other fibres, fragments of vegetables, starch
cells, soot, charred wood, splinters from floors, etc.
In Sick Rooms, products of the morbid conditions may be
evolved; thus, pus-cells, particles from the expectoration, blood
cells, fat particles, epithelium, or the special germs or microbes to
which infectious diseases are due. These are disturbed by the
movements of persons, causing the dust to rise; and thus the
infection of consumption, and of the acute infectious diseases, is
frequently spread.
Flies and other winged insects are important auxiliaries in the
diffusion of disease-carrying particles. Receiving some morbid
secretions on their limbs, or other parts of their bodies, they have
occasionally been the means of spreading erysipelas in hospitals,
and glanders in veterinary stables. The specific contagia of cholera,
enteric fever, and summer diarrhœa are occasionally conveyed to
food by flies which have previously alighted on latrines or privies or
other places where the stools of such patients have been deposited
(page 281). The excreta of flies, which are not uncommonly
deposited on food, or on articles of furniture, have occasionally
being found to contain the minute ova of intestinal worms.
Effects of Suspended Matters.—The inhalation of dust is
followed by deleterious effects. We may divide the solid substances
inhaled as dust into three kinds:—dead substances, living
substances, and the contagia (microbes or germs) of various
diseases.
1. Dead Substances inhaled for a prolonged period in various
occupations are a common cause of premature death. The potter
draws into his lungs a fine silicious dust, which irritates his lungs,
and finally produces a fatal disease, known as potter’s asthma.
Mill-stone Cutters and Stone Masons inhale the fine particles
of stone given off from the material which is being chiselled. These
produce serious disease of the lungs.
Pearl Cutters inhale fine particles of pearl-dust, and as they
generally work in close rooms, and the dust is light and tasteless,
serious disease of the lungs results.
Sand-paper Makers inhale minute portions of glass and sand;
and needle and knife grinders are exposed to similar dangers,
and at one time the mortality among them was frightful. It has
greatly diminished since the introduction of wet grinding, the use of
steam fans, and wearing of respirators.
Hemp and Flax Dressers inhale a dust which is peculiarly
irritating. Workers in rags and in wool suffer in like manner from
dust. The dust from fleeces of wool, and especially from the alpaca
fleece, has produced in many cases (in the neighbourhood of
Bradford and elsewhere) an acute disease (anthrax) proving fatal in
a few days. The spores of this disease are very persistent of life
(page 274), and remain active for mischief for months after the
death of the animal which had suffered from it. The fleece can be
disinfected by steam; and the use of fans for diverting the dust
created during “sorting” minimises the danger from it.
The miller commonly suffers from a form of asthma, not so
severe as potter’s asthma, as the particles in this case are not
equally irritating. The hairdresser is liable to inhale the short
fragments of hair cut by the scissors, and the mortality of this class
of workers is high. Miners in coal have a surprisingly low mortality,
when accidents are excluded from the calculation; except in South
Wales, where it is slightly higher than for all males in the same
district. Coal dust is relatively free from sharp angles, and is
therefore not so irritating to the lungs as metallic dust. Consumption
is relatively rare among miners.
The Fur-dyer is very prone to suffer from the dust of the dyed
furs, great irritation and disease resulting in many cases.
Artificial Flower-makers, and those engaged in colouring
arsenical wall-papers, suffer from the inhalation of arsenical vapours,
as well as from the irritating effects of its absorption by the skin.
These are now seldom seen, owing to the almost complete
abandonment of the use of arsenic for wall-pigments.
Cigar-makers are liable to have their lungs irritated by inhalation
of the dust of the tobacco-leaf; and may suffer from tobacco-
poisoning.
Workers in Lead are very liable to be poisoned by the metal,
e.g., house painters, potters engaged in the glazing process, in
which the ware is dipped into a solution containing lead,
manufacturers of white lead, and others. The lead is partly absorbed
by the skin; in some cases it is inhaled as dust; and more often it is
swallowed, when the workman eats his meals with unwashed hands.
Of the symptoms “painter’s colic” and “drop-wrist” are the two most
important, though, in some cases, lead shews its effects more
insidiously, leading to gout and chronic renal disease. It is now
compulsory on employers to provide in the workshop, complete
washing arrangements for the use of workers in lead. Every doctor
called to attend a case of lead or phosphorus or arsenic poisoning or
anthrax, which has been acquired in an industrial occupation, must
notify the same to H.M. Inspector of Factories. This implies
inspection of the factory or workshop and the subsequent adoption
of further measures of precaution.
 Brass-founders occasionally inhale the fumes of oxide of zinc;
and diarrhœa, cramp, waterbrash, and other troubles are the result.
Those engaged in the manufacture of bichromate of potass, are
liable to partial destruction of the mucous membrane of the nose,
and to irritation of the skin, with the formation, in some cases, of
small ulcers.
Workers with Phosphorus, as those engaged in the making of
phosphorus matches, not uncommonly suffer from a gradual
necrosis (death) of the jaw-bone. Those having carious teeth are
especially attacked by this disease, which is due to the fumes of
oxide of phosphorus, attacking the jaw. Improved ventilation of
workshops, careful attention to the teeth, and other measures, have
greatly diminished this disease; and it has disappeared where safety
matches made from red non-volatile phosphorus, have replaced
matches made from the yellow variety.
Chimney Sweeps occasionally suffer from irritative skin
diseases, as well as bronchitis. In some cases the chronic irritation of
the soot has produced cancer of the skin.
The effect of dust on workers can be seen in the mortality returns: Among men
aged 25 to 65 years in 1881-90, the comparative mortality figure in England and
Wales was as follows, all males throughout the country being taken as a standard
and given as 1,000:—

Comparative Mortality Figures.

All males 1000
OCCUPATIONS WITH NO DUST. DUSTY OCCUPATIONS.
Clergyman 533 Coal miner (Derby and Notts.) 727
Gardener 553 Carpenter 783
Farmer 563 Bricklayer, mason 1,001
Teacher 604 Coal miner (Lanc.) 1,069
Tool and scissors maker 1,412
Potter 1,706
File-maker 1,810
 Remedial Measures.—Means have been taken to diminish the
prevalence of the above dust diseases, in several cases with
remarkable success. In the case of steel-grinding, for instance, the
mortality is greatest with dry grinding, and least with wet grinding.
Wet processes have been applied to others of the industries named,
with a like success. Where the dust cannot be avoided, the use of
steam or electric fans, to deflect the dust away from the
workman, has been found successful; and in many cases, free
ventilation of the workshops has greatly diminished the mortality.
Where none of the above measures suffice, the use of respirators
ought to be insisted on. Breathing through the nostrils ought to be
carefully maintained, as thus the dust is to a large extent stopped
before reaching the lungs.
The dangers of lead poisoning may be avoided by absolute
cleanliness, the hands being always washed before taking meals,
and the nail-brush used to secure complete cleanliness beneath the
nails.
2. Living Substances.—The pollen of plants in some persons
produces a distressing form of disease, called hay-asthma, which is
apt to recur each year, and is sometimes only curable by living in a
town or removing to the sea-coast. The amount of pollen floating
about in the atmosphere is considerable; 95 per cent. of it is grass-
pollen, and this form and the pollen from pine-trees appear to be the
most powerful in inducing hay-asthma. According to some
authorities, hay-asthma is rather due to the minute particles
constituting the scent of various flowers, than to the pollen; but that
is probably not the usual mode of origin of the disease, though it
may be in some cases. In some cases, true asthma results from
smelling particular plants. Here as in the case of hay-asthma a
peculiar idiosyncrasy is involved, only a very small proportion of
those exposed to the minute particles suffering from asthma.
The spores of many fungi and of other living organisms are
constantly being floated about in the air, until they find a suitable
resting place, when they settle and proceed to grow and multiply.
The souring of milk, the fermentation of a saccharine solution, the
moulding of bread, the presence of mildew, the blighting of corn,
and numerous other phenomena are due to the growth of organisms
carried by the atmosphere from one part to another.
3. The Contagia (microbes or germs) of the acute infectious
diseases are minute living organisms, known as bacteria. Hence
these diseases may be carried about by currents of air, some much
more easily than others. Some of the contagia have a persistent
vitality. Thus the contagia of scarlet fever, diphtheria, or small-pox
may infect a room for months, causing the disease in question, when
infected articles in the room are disturbed. The contagia of typhus
fever and of measles, on the other hand, are short-lived, and do not
usually resist free ventilation and exposure to sunlight.
Besides the contagia of the acute fevers, septic organisms may be
carried by the atmosphere. Formerly, blood-poisoning from operation
and other wounds was common; but Lister, by insisting on absolute
cleanliness of wounds, and only allowing air to have access to the
wound which had been filtered through layers of gauze and deprived
of its septic germs, has secured that wounds can now be kept
perfectly “sweet,” the suppuration in them reduced to a minimum,
and the danger of blood-poisoning almost annihilated (page 106). It
had often been noticed that recovery from even very severe injuries
was common, if only the skin remained unbroken; while the same
injuries, with the addition of a rupture of the skin, and consequent
access of air, were rapidly fatal. But to Lister is due the great honour
of proving that it was not the air which produced the mischief, but
the germs it contained, and that filtered air might be admitted with
impunity.
Erysipelas and hospital gangrene have occasionally been carried
about in hospital wards by dirty sponges and dressings; and if the
ventilation is not perfect, particles of epithelium and pus from
diseased persons may be carried to other patients at a distance.
Some forms of purulent disease of the eyes are transferable from
patient to patient, and in children some forms of eczema are also
contagious.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookmass.com