GOOD PRACTICE GUIDE 252

Burners and their controls

GOOD PRACTICE GUIDE 252

The
Combustion
Engineering
Association

BEST PRACTICE
PROGRAMME
 BURNERS AND THEIR CONTROLS

Prepared for the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions by:

ETSU
Harwell
Didcot
Oxfordshire
OX11 0RA

and

Linden Consulting Partnership

No.1 Boys British School
East Street
Saffron Walden
Essex
CB10 1LH

ETSU acknowledge the help of Stordy Combustion Engineering Ltd and Laidlaw Drew Ltd in
supplying photographs and in the preparation of this Guide.

The publication and printing of this document has been supported by Transco, the
transportation arm of BG plc.
© Crown copyright 1998
First published September 1998

LIST OF RELEVANT GOOD PRACTICE GUIDES

2. ENERGY SAVINGS WITH ELECTRIC MOTORS AND DRIVES
13. WASTE HEAT RECOVERY FROM HIGH TEMPERATURE GAS STREAMS
14. RETROFITTING AC VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
69. INVESTMENT APPRAISAL FOR INDUSTRIAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY
76. CONTINUOUS STEEL REHEATING FURNACES: SPECIFICATION, DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT
77. CONTINUOUS STEEL REHEATING FURNACES: OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
127. ENERGY EFFICIENT ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL IN THE GLASS INDUSTRY
164. ENERGY EFFICIENT OPERATION OF KILNS IN THE CERAMIC INDUSTRIES
217. CUTTING ENERGY LOSSES THROUGH EFFECTIVE MAINTENANCE (TOTALLY PRODUCTIVE
OPERATIONS)
253. CHOOSING, USING AND MODIFYING FURNACES (DUE DECEMBER 1998)
254. FURNACE REFRACTORIES AND INSULATION (DUE DECEMBER 1998)
255. ELECTROHEATING IN INDUSTRY (DUE DECEMBER 1998)

RELEVANT GOOD PRACTICE CASE STUDIES

112. GAS-FIRED SHAFT FURNACES
115. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES ON A LARGE CONTINUOUS FURNACE COMBUSTION AIR FAN
125. VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES ON A BATCH FURNACE COMBUSTION AIR FAN

RELEVANT NEW PRACTICE FINAL PROFILES

10. COMPUTER-CONTROLLED FURNACE MANAGEMENT
15. OXYGEN TRIM ON A STEEL REHEAT FURNACE
17. IMPROVED HEAT DISTRIBUTION IN A TUNNEL KILN
46. NOVEL SIDEWALL BURNER ON AN ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE
48. RECUPERATIVE ALUMINIUM RECYCLING PLANT
54. DUAL-FUEL REGENERATIVE BURNERS ON A LARGE REHEATING FURNACE
64. INTEGRAL BED BURNERS IN A SMALL CONTINUOUS FURNACE

RELEVANT NEW PRACTICE INITIAL PROFILES

31. IMPROVING ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN A POTTERY TUNNEL KILN
53. OXY-FUEL MELTING OF SECONDARY ALUMINIUM
95. LOW-NOX REGENERATIVE BURNERS IN A STRIP ANNEALING FURNACE

RELEVANT FUTURE PRACTICE PROFILES/REPORTS

6. LOW-COST COMBUSTION SOFTWARE
8. IMPROVED RECUPERATION FOR 700 - 1,100°C PROCESSES
9. SELF-TUNING CONTROL TECHNIQUES
15. DEVELOPMENT OF AN INTELLIGENT MULTI-BURNER CONTROL SYSTEM
18. BURNER PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS CLUB
25. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A LOW-NOX REGENERATIVE BURNER
43. DEVELOPMENT OF A CERAMIC RADIANT TUBE FOR REGENERATIVE FIRING
45. NOX REDUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR STEEL REHEATING AND HEAT TREATMENT FURNACES
56. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A LOW-NOX RECUPERATIVE BURNER
83. BILINEAR GENERALISED PREDICTIVE CONTROL FOR MULTI-BURNER/MULTI-ZONE FURNACE
APPLICATIONS

Copies of these Guides may be obtained from:

Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau

ETSU
Harwell
Didcot
Oxfordshire
OX11 0RA
Tel No: 01235 436747. Fax No: 01235 433066. E-mail: [email protected]

Overseas customers please remit £3 per copy (minimum of £6) with order to cover cost of
packaging and posting. Please make cheques, drafts or money orders payable to ETSU.
 FOREWORD

This Guide is part of a series produced by the Government under the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme. The aim
of the programme is to advance and spread good practice in energy efficiency by providing independent, authoritative advice
and information on good energy efficiency practices. Best Practice is a collaborative programme targeted towards energy
users and decision makers in industry, the commercial and public sectors, and building sectors including housing. It
comprises four inter-related elements identified by colour-coded strips for easy reference:

— Energy Consumption Guides: (blue) energy consumption data to enable users to establish their relative energy
efficiency performance;

— Good Practice Guides: (red) and Case Studies: (mustard) independent information on proven energy-saving
measures and techniques and what they are achieving;

— New Practice projects: (light green) independent monitoring of new energy efficiency measures which do not yet
enjoy a wide market;

— Future Practice R&D support: (purple) help to develop tomorrow’s energy efficiency good practice measures.

If you would like any further information on this document, or on the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme, please
contact the Environment and Energy Helpline on 0800 585794. Alternatively, you may contact your local service deliverer
– see contact details below.

ENGLAND
London North West South West
Govt Office for London Environment Team Environment and Energy Management Team
6th Floor Govt Office for the North West Govt Office for the South West
Riverwalk House Cunard Building The Pithay
157-161 Millbank Pier Head Bristol
London Water Street Avon
SW1P 4RR Liverpool BS1 2PB
Tel 020 7217 3435 L3 1QB Tel 0117 900 1700
Tel 0151 224 6401
East Midlands West Midlands
The Sustainable Development Team South East Regional Sustainability Team
Govt Office for the East Midlands Sustainable Development Team 77 Paradise Circus
The Belgrave Centre Govt Office for the South East Queensway
Stanley Place Bridge House Birmingham
Talbot Street 1 Walnut Tree Close B1 2DT
Nottingham Guildford Tel 0121 212 5300
NG1 5GG Surrey
Tel 0115 971 2476 GU1 4GA Yorkshire and the Humber
Tel 01483 882532 Sustainable Development Unit
North East Govt Office for Yorks and the Humber
Sustainability and Environment Team East PO Box 213
Govt Office for the North East Sustainable Development Awareness Team City House
Wellbar House Govt Office for the East of England New Station Street
Gallowgate Heron House Leeds
Newcastle-upon-Tyne 49-53 Goldington Road LS1 4US
NE1 4TD Bedford Tel 0113 283 6376
Tel 0191 202 3614 MK40 3LL
Tel 01234 796194

NORTHERN IRELAND SCOTLAND WALES

IRTU Scientific Services Energy Efficiency Office Business and Environment Branch
17 Antrim Road Enterprise and Lifelong Learning Dept National Assembly for Wales
Lisburn 2nd Floor Cathays Park
Co Antrim Meridian Court Cardiff
BT28 3AL 5 Cadogan Street CF10 3NQ
Tel 028 9262 3000 Glasgow Tel 029 2082 5172
G2 6AT
Tel 0141 242 5835
 CONTENTS

Section Page No.

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Other Guides in the Series 1

2. HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE 2

3. HOW TO OPTIMISE AN EXISTING BURNER AND 3

CONTROL SYSTEM

4. MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICE - IDENTIFYING THE 5

REQUIREMENTS OF THE APPLICATION
4.1 What is the Application? 5
4.2 New Build, Refurbishment and Retrofit 7
4.3 Fuel Choice 7
4.4 Size, Number and Positioning of Burners 7
4.5 Mathematical and Physical Modelling 7
4.5.1 Mathematical Modelling 8
4.5.2 Physical Modelling 9
4.6 Combustion Air Preheat as a Means of Increasing Efficiency 10
4.7 Low-NOx Burners 10
4.8 Financial Considerations 10
4.9 Burner Specification 11

5. FUEL CHOICE 13
5.1 Natural Gas 13
5.2 Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG) 13
5.3 Fuel Oils 13
5.4 Solid Fuel 14
5.5 Electricity 14
5.6 Alternative Fuels 14
5.7 Fuel Cost Guide 14
5.8 Oxygen Enrichment and Oxy-fuel Firing 15
5.9 Pollution 16

6. BURNER CHOICE - FITTING THE TECHNOLOGY TO 17

THE APPLICATION
6.1 Burner Outputs 17
6.2 Burner Types 17
6.2.1 Gas-fired Burners 17
6.2.2 Oil-fired Burners 20
6.2.3 Dual-fuel-fired Burners 22
6.2.4 Oxy-fuel Burners 23
6.2.5 Rapid Heaters 23
6.3 Combustion Air Preheat: the Technology Available 23
6.3.1 Recuperation 24
6.3.2 Regeneration 25
6.4 Relative Costs 27
6.5 Burner Maintenance and Safety 29
Section Page No.

7. BURNER CONTROLS 31
7.1 Introduction to Burner Controls 31
7.2 Overview of Burner Controls 31
7.3 What is Control? 31
7.4 Health and Safety Controls 32
7.4.1 Ignition and Flame Failure Controls 32
7.4.2 Flame Detection Systems 33
7.5 Process Control Theory 34
7.5.1 Self-tuning Control 34
7.6 Programmable Logic Controllers 35
7.7 Choice of Control Method 35
7.8 Control Parameters 36
7.9 Furnace Control Parameters 36
7.10 Combustion Efficiency - Fuel:Air Ratio Control 37
7.10.1 Ganged Valve Assembly 38
7.10.2 Cascade Control 38
7.10.3 Pressure Divider Technique 39
7.10.4 Multiplying Regulators 39
7.10.5 Electronic Ratio Control 39
7.10.6 PLC Control 40
7.10.7 Oxygen Trim Control 40
7.11 The Use of Variable Speed Drives for Combustion Air Supply 41
7.12 Relative Costs 41
7.13 Supply, Installation and Commissioning 42
7.14 Control Maintenance and Calibration 42

8. FORMULATING AN ACTION PLAN - 44

THE KEY QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED
8.1 To Improve the Efficiency of Burners 44
8.2 Selection of Burners 45
8.3 Selection of Controls 45
8.4 Combustion Control 46
8.5 Further Reading 46
8.6 Useful Addresses and Contacts 46
8.7 Suppliers of Burners and Control Equipment and Related Services 47
8.7.1 Burner Manufacturers and Suppliers 47
8.7.2 Research Organisations 48
8.7.3 Modelling Contractors 48
Section Page No.

GLOSSARY 49

APPENDIX 1 PRINCIPLES OF COMBUSTION 58

A1.1 What is Combustion? 58
A1.2 Fuel:Air Ratio 58
A1.3 Mixing and Atomisation 58
A1.4 Ignition 58
A1.5 Stability 58
A1.6 Exhaust Gases and Losses 58
A1.7 Combustion Air Supply 59

APPENDIX 2 HOW TO ASSESS THE EFFICIENCY OF THE 60

COMBUSTION PROCESS

APPENDIX 3 HEAT TRANSFER 62

A3.1 Principles of Heat Transfer 62
A3.2 Choice of Heat Transfer Method 62
A3.3 Influence of Flame Characteristics on Heat Transfer 62

APPENDIX 4 PRINCIPLES OF NOX FORMATION AND METHODS OF 63

REDUCTION AND CONTROL
A4.1 NOx Formation 63
A4.2 NOx Reduction and Control 64

APPENDIX 5 OVERVIEW OF RELEVANT ENVIRONMENTAL 66

LEGISLATION
Figures Page No.

Fig 1 Information signposts 2

Fig 2 Burner optimisation guide 3
Fig 3 Applications guide for burners 6
Fig 4 Applications guide for fuel choice 8
Fig 5 Mathematical model of burner flame/temperature characteristics 8
Fig 6 Physical model study of a continuous tube reheating furnace 9
Fig 7 Burner and control system specification 12
Fig 8 Burner overview 17
Fig 9 Overview of gas-fired burners 18
Fig 10 Premix gas burner, aspirator principle 18
Fig 11 Nozzle mix burner with silicon carbide tube 19
Fig 12 Overview of oil-fired burners 20
Fig 13 Pressure jet atomiser 21
Fig 14 Rotating cup atomiser (air-driven) 21
Fig 15 Blast atomiser (internally mixed) 22
Fig 16 Oxy-fuel flame 23
Fig 17 Overview of heat recovery methods 24
Fig 18 Double shell-type recuperator 24
Fig 19 Self-recuperative burner 25
Fig 20 Compact ceramic regenerative burner system 26
Fig 21 Integral bed regenerative burner 27
Fig 22 Sankey diagrams comparing energy flow of three burners 29
Fig 23 Overview of burner control parameters 31
Fig 24 Temperature control example 32
Fig 25 Flame failure control device for pilot-operated gas-fired burner 33
Fig 26 PID and self-tuning control 34
Fig 27 Process reaction curves 36
Fig 28 Fuel:air efficiency curve 37
Fig 29a Simple ganged valve assembly 38
Fig 29b Cascade control (air lead) 38
Fig 29c Pressure divider technique (simple impulse regulator system) 39
Fig 29d Multiplying regulator system 39
Fig 29e Electronic ratio control 40
Fig 30 Application guide for fuel:air ratio control 43
Fig 31 Time-temperature curve for simple on/off controller 50
Fig 32 Time-temperature curve for simple proportional controller 51
Fig 33a Time-temperature curve showing temperature offset 51
Fig 33b Time-temperature curve showing removal of temperature offset 52
Fig 34 Time-temperature curve showing effect of proportional 52
plus integral action
Fig 35 The effects of temperature on NOx formation 64
Fig 36 The effects of oxygen levels on NOx formation 65

Tables

Table 1 Properties of common industrial fuels 14

Table 2 Fuel cost comparison table 15
Table 3 Pollution potential of common industrial fuels 16
Table 4 Financial analysis of energy efficient burner installation 28
Table 5 Cost analysis for oxygen trim control 42
 1

BURNERS AND THEIR CONTROLS

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
There are an estimated 9,000 furnaces operating in the UK, many of which are equipped with
fossil-fuel-fired burners. There are a wide variety of burner1 types and fuels in use. Advances
in technology have resulted in the development of new combustion techniques and burner
designs, and sophisticated controls. All can be readily applied to help any company that operates
furnaces to reduce its operating costs, decrease pollutant emissions and increase productivity.

This Good Practice Guide is concerned only with burners used in industrial furnaces and ovens.
Its purpose is to help furnace operators optimise the performance of their burner systems.
Companies may simply wish to ensure that their existing burner system is operating effectively,
and guidance on how to check this, along with typical problems and solutions, is given.
Alternatively, the company may be seeking to improve the performance of an existing furnace
through a general refurbishment, or planning the installation of a new furnace; in both cases the
purchase of new burners may be considered. This Guide is structured in such a way as to provide
information on the choices available and point the way forward to successful application of
today’s technology. The Guide does not cover burners fired with coal.

1.2 Other Guides in the Series

This Guide is part of a series aimed at industrial furnace users and is intended to give practical
advice on a number of relevant subjects. Other Guides in the series include:

• Good Practice Guide 253, Choosing, using and modifying furnaces

• Good Practice Guide 254, Furnace refractories and insulation
• Good Practice Guide 255, Electroheating in industry

These Guides have been prepared under the Department of the Environment, Transport and the
Regions’ Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme. They are available, free of charge to UK
organisations, from the Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau (see Section 8.6 for details).

1 Words that are in bold italics are explained in the glossary at the back of this Guide.
2

2. HOW TO USE THIS GUIDE

This Guide is structured so that it can be read cover to cover, or selectively by picking out
information, as required, from the relevant sections. Fig 1 illustrates where the information may
be found.

In addition, there are a number of applications guides that highlight specific information on
burner selection and optimisation, fuel choice, and control selection.

START

INTRODUCTION

SECTION 3 – HOW TO OPTIMISE AN EXISTING BURNER SYSTEM

Fig 3 – SECTION 4 – APPLICATIONS

Applications guide
• New build or retrofit Fig 2 –
for burners
• Burner sizing Burner
• Air preheat optimisation
• Finance guide
Fig 4 –
Applications guide
for fuel choice
SECTION 5 – FUEL CHOICE

Pollution

SECTION 6 – BURNER CHOICE

Gas-fired Oil-firedd
Dual fuel

Heat recovery

Fig 23 – SECTION 7 – BURNER CONTROLS Fig 30 – Fuel:air ratio control

Overview of
Theory Practice
control parameters
Health and safety
Sources of
Glossary information
and advice
SECTION 8 – WHAT TO DO NEXT
Further
reading Suppliers

APPENDICES

1. Principles of combustion
2. Assessing efficiency
3. Heat transfer
4. NOx formation
5. Legislation

Fig 1 Information signposts

 3

3. HOW TO OPTIMISE AN EXISTING BURNER AND CONTROL SYSTEM

The burner and control system of an existing furnace may well be operating below optimum
efficiency, particularly if the furnace is old. However, this situation is not uncommon even for
new furnaces. Tell-tale signs are poor product quality and high energy consumption, leading to
a high reject rate and higher than necessary operating costs. If performance is suspect, careful
analysis of historical data on energy consumption and production rate can often highlight
specific problems. This type of monitoring is strongly recommended as part of routine good
practice anyway, and should help to identify problems before they become too serious.

Fig 2 illustrates the steps to be taken in the burner optimisation process.

Symptoms of a poorly set up system:

• Poor product quality
• High reject rates
• High energy consumption

What is the system

efficiency?

Monitor:
• Energy consumption
• Production
• Faults

Compare:
• Historical data Construct an
• Design values energy balance

Check and rectify/adjust:

• Air:fuel ratio
• Accuracy and function of controllers
• Accuracy and location of sensors

Consider:
• Burner change
• Fuel change
• Control enhancement

Fig 2 Burner optimisation guide

Compare the data collected2 with that of other similar units and with the design specification.
The burner manufacturer and/or the furnace constructor should be able to give guidance on
typical values. It may be helpful to construct an energy balance of the furnace (see GPG 253 for
details).

Controllers should be checked for function and accuracy, along with the accuracy and location
of thermocouples, pressure sensors, and other control elements. Any deviations from expected
values should be investigated and rectified.

2 The EEBPP is able to provide data on a number of furnaces through its Energy Consumption Guide. Please ring the
Energy Helpline (Tel: 0541 542 541) for further information.
4

Problems with poor combustion and high energy consumption often stem from inadequate
control of the burner’s fuel:air ratio. This is discussed in greater detail in Appendix 1. An
incorrect fuel:air ratio could be a result of air infiltration into the furnace as a result of poor
pressure control, poor burner set-up (has the burner been dismantled recently?), poor mixing of
fuel and air, or poor atomisation (in the case of oil-fired burners). Check for the following:
damage to the burner nozzle and air register; damaged or worn components in the atomising
mechanism used in oil-fired systems.

The fuel:air ratio is easy to check and should, in any case, be checked and adjusted on a regular
basis. Appendix 2 gives further details on how to check combustion conditions by gas analysis.
In some cases, permanent, in situ ratio controllers, generally known as oxygen trim controllers,
may be the best solution. These are covered in more detail, along with a financial analysis, in
Section 7.

Careful analysis of these areas will indicate whether or not it is possible to improve the
performance of an existing burner or burner system. Sometimes it may be more appropriate to
replace the burners entirely, e.g. to install a gas-fired burner system in place of an oil-fired
system, or to install a burner system using preheated combustion air. The following Section
provides guidance on the options for retrofitting alternative burners to existing furnaces.
 5

4. MAKING THE RIGHT CHOICE - IDENTIFYING THE REQUIREMENTS OF

THE APPLICATION

Any burner or burner control project, whether it is a new furnace being constructed, the complete
refurbishment of an existing furnace, or the retrofitting of new burners and/or controls to an
otherwise serviceable furnace, needs careful consideration at the outset to maximise the benefits of
the opportunity. This Section sets out some key aspects that should be considered before selection
of the burner(s) and controls. Figs 3 to 7 can be used as a short-cut to the required information.

4.1 What is the Application?

Before selecting a burner and control system it is essential to consider the intended application.
There are many types of burner available, firing a variety of fuels or fuel combinations.
However, not all of these may be suitable for a particular application.

For instance: is the application a batch or continuous process? Obviously, this will affect the
shape of the furnace, and has implications for the number, output and positioning of burners.

Another key question is: which method of heat transfer best suits the process?

• Applications requiring high-temperature and uniform heating, e.g. the melting and holding of
metal or glass, would be best suited to a furnace and burner system promoting high levels of
radiative heat transfer. Similarly, high-output processes requiring a large amount of heat to
be transferred to the stock in a very limited time (e.g. a reheat furnace in a rolling mill) are
best served by a radiative system. Typically, this would involve the use of a long, highly
luminous flame, which could be achieved by oil firing, gas firing using a delayed mixing
strategy, or possibly oxy-enrichment. An alternative might be to produce the radiant heat
indirectly by using a flat-flame burner to scrub the walls of the furnace, causing them to heat
up and radiate back onto the stock.

• Processes requiring deep penetration of the heat into the stock, which may be densely packed,
or where there is an element of mass transfer involved (e.g. firing of bricks or ceramics, or
drying operations) are best served by a convective heat transfer method. Here, a very
turbulent furnace atmosphere is required. This could be achieved by the use of either high-
velocity burners or, possibly, a pulse-firing method in which the burner(s) is fired cyclically
at full power, thereby creating a very agitated atmosphere within the furnace. Rapid heaters
also make use of high-velocity burners to heat stock by convective heat transfer.

Heat transfer is discussed in more detail in Appendix 3.

Furnace atmosphere is another important consideration. Where the presence of combustion

gases within the furnace atmosphere might damage the stock, then an indirect firing method such
as a radiant tube burner will be required. Nonetheless, where direct firing is used, the
combustion gases can be manipulated by varying the amount of oxygen (in combustion air)
supplied to the flame to create either a reducing or oxidising atmosphere within the furnace.
Where a reducing atmosphere is required, however, the use of oil as fuel will be ruled out as it
is very difficult to burn oil cleanly without a high level of excess air.

All of these, and other aspects, must be considered carefully before a burner system can be selected.

CAUTION! Failing to carry out the necessary technical and financial analyses can have
disastrous consequences, e.g. increasing the operating costs, possibly
harming product quality, and limiting production. Burner and furnace
manufacturers, consultants, research organisations, trade associations, and
the Energy Helpline (0541 542 541) are all available to offer help and
advice. Time and care taken at this stage will help to ensure the success of
the project.
6

The applications guide in Fig 3 has been developed to help identify the appropriate application
category before selecting the correct burner type.

START

Burner Do capital
NO New build
requirement for existing expenditure limits
application? (see 4.2) rule out hot air
burners? YES
NO
YES

YES Multiple
Continuous burner
furnace? (see 4.4)
YES Carry out
NO cost analysis

Batch YES Requirement NO Single

furnace for more than one
burner
burner?

Consider
hot air
burners

Are you
subject to
Consider
environmental
cold air
YES control restrictions
burners
EPA 1990?

NO Consider
standard hot air
burners

Consider Supplementary
low NOx burners considerations
(see 4.7)

Consider burners Is it a
with good convective Consider YES
controlled
heat transfer radiant tube
atmosphere?
characteristics burners

NO
Is mass
YES transfer involved Consider
e.g. drying densely direct fire
packed stock? burners

NO
Consider burners
with good radiative
characteristics

Fig 3 Applications guide for burners

 7

4.2 New Build, Refurbishment and Retrofit

A new furnace presents an ideal opportunity to design a combustion system that is matched
exactly to the application, and is efficient and environmentally clean. When planning a new
furnace it is advisable to consider the potential effects of any future changes, e.g. a change in
product or working practices, and design the system with flexibility in mind. In the majority of
cases, the specification of the furnace will be the leading factor in the choice of burner. The
companion Guide in this series - Good Practice Guide 253, Choosing, using and modifying
furnaces - gives further information on this area.

Similarly, the general refurbishment of a furnace, e.g. to improve efficiency or meet new
emissions limits, presents a rare opportunity to upgrade or replace existing burners and controls
at marginal cost. Careful planning will ensure the opportunity is not wasted.

Most modern burner and control systems discussed in this Guide may be readily retrofitted with
only minor alterations to the structure of the furnace, and most burner and furnace manufacturers
will provide such a service.

In all cases, careful analysis of the financial case for investment is essential. Although high-
efficiency hot-air burners are more expensive than conventional cold-air burners, the running
costs will be significantly less, and short paybacks are common. Also, although the extra cost of
installing a low-emission combustion system may be insignificant in the overall cost of a furnace
installation, the costs of a possible prosecution and forced installation for breaching emissions
limits will be significantly more.

4.3 Fuel Choice

The fuel selected has a strong influence on: the effectiveness of the combustion and heat transfer
process; pollutant emissions; and the overall operating and maintenance costs of the furnace
system as a whole. Fuel choice is therefore a prime consideration when planning a new furnace
or the retrofitting of an existing furnace, or examining existing procedures in the course of a
financial or environmental review. The subject of fuel choice and pollution is covered more fully
in Section 5.

The applications guide in Fig 4, overleaf, has been devised as an overview to selecting the most
appropriate fuel.

4.4 Size, Number and Positioning of Burners

The type of process and furnace design will have a strong influence on the number, type and
positioning of burners. For example, a small batch furnace may require only a single burner (or
pair of burners in the case of a regenerative firing system) which would provide adequate
distribution of heat through the stock. However, a continuous furnace with several zones would
require an array of burners, possibly grouped and controlled by zone in order to achieve the
uniformity of stock heating required. Burners should be sited to ensure sufficient dwell time
before the hot gases are exhausted. Mathematical and physical modelling techniques can be used
to determine the optimum size and position of burners before furnace construction or
refurbishment projects are undertaken. Burner and furnace manufacturers and suppliers, as well
as fuel supply companies and research bodies, can generally help with the construction of
models.

4.5 Mathematical and Physical Modelling

Prior to manufacture or construction, modelling techniques are frequently used by burner and
furnace designers to predict the performance of systems. There are several advantages to this
approach, not least of which is avoiding the expense of building prototype plant to investigate
the effects of varying design parameters. Modelling techniques can also be put to good use for
troubleshooting existing furnace or burner systems, or when planning a refurbishment or retrofit
project.
8

START

Is gas NO Consider NO Prefer YES See

available? fuel change? electric? electric heating
option (5.5)

YES YES NO

YES Can gas be Prefer YES See

made available? oil? oil heating
NO option (5.3)

NO

Assured See dual See

NO Prefer YES
low-cost fuel option LPG fuel
(5.3 and 6.2.3) LPG?
supply? option (5.2)

YES NO

See Prefer YES See

natural gas solid fuel? solid fuel
option (5.1) option (5.4)

NO

Prefer YES See

other fuels? other fuels
option (5.6)

Fig 4 Applications guide for fuel choice

4.5.1 Mathematical modelling
Mathematical modelling may be used to investigate: flame temperature and flow profiles; furnace
temperature profiles; stock heating rates; the thermal requirements of furnaces, e.g. zoning
arrangements and burner ratings. One modern practice is to use a personal computer running a
commercially available computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software package. This enables the
complex numerical models developed to analyse flow, gas mixing patterns, combustion
characteristics, and heat transfer rates to be evaluated. Fig 5 shows the output of a commercially
available mathematical model used to predict flame temperatures from a low-NOx burner3.

Fig 5 Mathematical model of burner flame/temperature characteristics

3 See Section 4.7 for further details on low-NOx burners.

 9

There are several software packages commercially available; however, the costs of purchasing
and learning a CFD package may not be worthwhile for individual or one-off projects. A number
of organisations offer mathematical modelling consultancy services on a contract basis. This
might make better sense, particularly for smaller companies. Details of such organisations can
be found in Section 8.7. Likely consultancy costs range from £5,000 to £15,000 for a single
burner system, depending on the complexity of the problem and the time involved.

Example
One company decided to try and boost the output of its steel reheating furnace by adding
an extra zone. In practice, the modification actually downgraded the performance of the
furnace. In the end the company had to resort to mathematical modelling of the furnace to
establish the cause of the problem and then carry out further modifications. If modelling
had been carried out at the beginning of the project this costly mistake might have been
avoided.

4.5.2 Physical Modelling

Physical modelling is a cheaper approach, and could be carried out, relatively easily, in-house.
This technique, also known as cold modelling, involves the construction of a small-scale model
of the furnace or system to provide information on flow patterns, gas/gas interactions, rates of
gas movement, gas mixing characteristics, convective heat transfer and pressure fluctuations.
Models may be two- or three-dimensional and are typically constructed from clear perspex to aid
visibility. They may use either cold air or water to represent the flow of hot combustion gases.
Pitot static tubes are used to measure flow rates and velocities; tracers, such as carbon dioxide
(CO2), or polystyrene balls for air systems and dyes for water systems, are used to visualise flow
and mixing patterns (see Fig 6). Again, several organisations offer physical modelling services
on a contract basis (see Section 8.7).

(a) On burner centreline (a) On burner centreline

(b) Between burner centrelines (b) Between burner centrelines

Flow pattern with existing roof profile Flow pattern with new roof profile
and heat zone firing and heat zone firing

Fig 6 Physical model study of a continuous tube reheating furnace

10

4.6 Combustion Air Preheat as a Means of Increasing Efficiency

Conventional burners are designed to operate with cold air. They are generally simple, rugged
and reliable, and of reasonable efficiency. However, opportunities exist for dramatically
improving the efficiency of a combustion system by as much as 50% by preheating the
combustion air. Air preheat is usually achieved by recovering the waste heat from the furnace
exhaust gases that would otherwise be discharged to atmosphere. The exhaust gases and cold air
are passed through a heat exchanger and the resulting heated air is fed to the burner as
combustion air. The outcome is higher flame temperatures and significantly improved
efficiency. Higher flame temperature can also be beneficial in increasing the output of the
furnace. Many companies have used this approach, primarily to boost furnace output, but with
the added benefit of lower specific fuel consumption.

CAUTION!
Combustion air preheat achieves higher flame temperatures but can also
result in increased production of NOx. When selecting a hot-air burner for
a new furnace or retrofit project, always ensure that a low-NOx design is a
high priority.

4.7 Low-NOx Burners

Various oxides of nitrogen, collectively termed NOx, are formed during the combustion process.
NOx emissions are blamed for a number of environmental problems including acid rain and
photochemical smog. Further details on the mechanisms of NOx formation and methods of
control are given in Appendix 4 and covered in a number of other publications (see Section 8.5).

With the increasing need to minimise air pollution, brought about by public concern, and now
legislation, manufacturers have turned their efforts to developing high-efficiency, low-pollution
variants of their burner ranges. The use of preheated combustion air brings further problems as
the higher flame temperatures achieved cause even higher emissions of NOx.

Burner manufacturers now produce a range of low-NOx burners, for both cold- and hot-air
firing. The burners incorporate several special features, usually including carefully staged
combustion and partial fuel premix, and have been shown to successfully reduce NOx emissions
from furnaces. Hot-air burners are available in both self-recuperative and regenerative firing
versions.

The purchase cost of a low-NOx burner may be slightly higher than that of a standard self-
recuperative burner. However, the remainder of the firing system will be identical to that of the
standard burner, so the overall premium will not be as great. Low-NOx designs are likely to take
an increasingly large share of the new build and refurbishment market as emissions limits are
tightened.

4.8 Financial Considerations

As with most potential projects, there will usually be several technically viable schemes. The
aim is to select the one which will provide the most cost-effective solution. The choice of burner
and control systems for both new furnaces and retrofitting of existing furnaces should, like all
capital projects, be subject to careful financial appraisal to determine the most economic course
of action. Good Practice Guide 69, Investment appraisal for industrial energy efficiency,
contains details of the financial appraisal techniques commonly used in investment decisions.
The aim of this Guide, however, is to provide the technical detail necessary for selection and
specification of the most appropriate equipment. Where necessary, worked examples and case
studies are used to illustrate appropriate financial appraisal techniques.
 11

Other considerations include third party finance possibilities, e.g. supplier leasing or phased
payment options, or shared savings contracts. These opportunities should be explored with any
potential supplier. Grant-assistance may be available for energy efficiency and environmental
improvement projects, and this should be fully explored with both UK Government and
European Union sources. For further details, contact the Energy Helpline on 0541 542 541.

4.9 Burner Specification

As indicated in this Guide, burner specification is a complex issue and rarely tackled in isolation.
Normal practice is to consult burner manufacturers and suppliers to ensure the technical
requirements are satisfied exactly. The initial purchase price of the equipment on offer is a major
consideration in most purchases, but should not be the only one. Subsequent operation and
maintenance costs are also critical and will exceed the initial purchase price several times over
during the lifetime of the burner. Therefore, the cheapest is not always the best choice.

A reputable burner supplier will want to know precise details of the application before making a
recommendation. The form presented in Fig 7 overleaf gives an idea of the type of information
likely to be requested. Try to assemble the information beforehand to make the process as
smooth as possible. The form can be copied and used directly, or suppliers may have their own
versions.

A word of caution: there is a distinction between burner manufacturers and suppliers. Some
suppliers may buy burners directly from a manufacturer in bulk and sell them on to customers at
a small profit margin. However, such suppliers may not be prepared, or able, to provide an
effective after-sales service, including essential spares and maintenance. There could be
difficulties if a serious problem arises with the equipment. An unhelpful supplier may point to
the manufacturer who, understandably, might not want to be involved. It is essential to know
exactly what is being bought and from whom.
12

INFORMATION-GATHERING SHEET

Company name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....................................................................
Contact name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Telephone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type of process (include a diagram if possible) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Furnace type, manufacturer and date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Please include an accurate diagram showing main dimensions, wall thickness,
construction materials, roof profile, burner positions/centres/height above hearth,
flue/exhaust positions.
How many burners required/exist now? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
What is the individual capacity of the existing burners? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type of product to be heated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Size of stock to be heated, all sizes - cross-sections/length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Throughput - pieces of each size/hour, tonnage/hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Are there any regular delays in furnace operations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum and minimum throughput - tonnage/hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum hearth loading - kg stock/hour/m2 hearth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Desired stock temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical operating hours/day or week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
What is the fuel/fuel specification? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
What is the existing (if applicable) total fuel consumption for the furnace? . . . . . . . . . . .
What is the specific fuel consumption (units/tonne) -
production and overall (inc. start-up)? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fuel temperature/pressure available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Unit cost of fuel(s) used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Combustion air supply - volume/pressure/temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Is combustion air preheat required/used - how and at what temperature? . . . . . . . . . . . . .
What type of exhaust/flue system is required/used? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
What type of combustion control system is required/exists?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
How many control zones required/exist? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Where are/will the thermocouples (be) located? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Does the furnace have pressure control? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
What type of burner ignition/start-up sequence is used/required? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
What power supplies are available to the instrumentation, safety equipment,
fans, pumps, etc.? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
What are the existing combustion conditions (CO, CO2, O2, NOx, etc.)? . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....................................................................
What are the overall operating conditions - clean/dirty? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Any particular safety or environmental issues: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Is your site/process subject to an EPA Part ‘A’ (Environment Agency) or Part ‘B’
(Local Authority) regulated process? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Are there any particular problems experienced now with the existing furnace,
burners, safety system or controls?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Additional information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fig 7 Burner and control system specification

 13

5. FUEL CHOICE

As previously mentioned, fuel choice is one of the prime aspects to be considered before a burner
is selected. Important factors include:

• price, tariff choice;

• availability;
• ease of handling;
• pollution potential.

The main characteristics of the commonly available fuels are presented below.

5.1 Natural Gas

Natural gas is a premium quality, low-cost fuel that is easy to control and relatively low in
emissions. Natural-gas burners are cheaper to maintain and the use of natural gas may also
increase refractory life. As a result, gas is the first choice in many burner and furnace
applications. However, natural gas is not yet universally available in the UK, and the capital cost
entailed in extending or upgrading the local gas distribution network may rule out natural-gas
firing for some potential users.

5.2 Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG)

Liquefied petroleum gases (LPG) comprise a mixture of propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10),
and are manufactured during the refining of crude oil. Because they are gaseous at normal
temperature and pressure, they are stored under pressure as liquids. LPG is normally supplied
by road tanker and must be stored in a pressure vessel on site. Propane and butane are fuels of
high calorific value and are capable of delivering high rates of heat input. A major advantage of
LPG is that, like natural gas, it is a relatively clean-burning, low-emission fuel. However, LPG
fuels can contain unsaturated hydrocarbons which can lead to soot formation, thus necessitating
specially-designed burners. Turndown may be limited and maintenance costs slightly increased.
LPG tends to be more expensive than most other fuels, and there are the additional capital and
ongoing costs of installing and maintaining a bulk storage tank to be considered. The tank would
also be subject to regular testing and inspection under the Pressure Vessel Regulations.

5.3 Fuel Oils

Fuel oils are widely available and relatively low-cost. Their handling, control, and use are less
straightforward than for natural gas, and pollutant emissions are likely to be higher due to the
presence of sulphur and nitrogen compounds in the oil. In addition, smokeless combustion
requires larger amounts of excess air to be used, which can make it difficult to obtain a reducing
atmosphere in the furnace if required. Fuel-oil firing does, however, have advantages in terms
of improved radiative heat transfer. This is due to the higher luminosity and emissivity of the
flames produced when oils are burnt.

Fuel oils are classified according to their viscosity, or ‘weight’, and graded according to
increasing viscosity, i.e. from gas oil, light fuel oil, and medium fuel oil, to heavy or residual fuel
oil. The heavier grades must be stored above room temperature, and require a slightly higher
temperature for pumping and burning. Even gas-oil pipe runs may require trace heating to avoid
thickening of the oil and reduction of flow to the burner in winter conditions.

Where natural gas is unavailable, fuel oils are generally the next best choice as they are less
expensive than LPG. Lighter fuel oils contain less sulphur and are easier to handle and burn than
heavier fuel oils, although their purchase cost is higher. Where the supply of natural gas cannot
be guaranteed, or an interruptible tariff has been selected for cost reasons, dual-fuel burners,
which enable the user to switch between fuels as required, are available.
14

When considering the use of liquid fuels, remember that on-site storage and handling facilities
must be provided, and that this can add considerably to the capital cost of an installation.

5.4 Solid Fuel

Solid-fuel firing, either by chain grate stoker, fluidised bed, or as pulverised fuel, is widely used
in boiler plant for power generation purposes. However, its use in furnace applications in the UK
is rare, although there are applications in quarrying and the metallurgical industries. Coal firing
may cause slagging and fouling deposits on heat exchanger surfaces, due to a combination of the
ash in the coal and the relatively high temperatures involved. Coal firing also produces a range
of pollutants, but these can be combated by the use of appropriate clean combustion technology.
Considerable development work has been undertaken in recent years to produce low-NOx
burners for pulverised coal. Solid-fuel firing is not considered in this Guide.

5.5 Electricity
For heating purposes, the use of electricity is an alternative to fossil-fuel firing. Electricity may
be selected for reasons relating to emissions or for other requirements; however, operating costs
are often likely to be higher due to the significantly higher unit cost of electricity compared to
fossil fuels (although maintenance costs are generally lower). On a global scale, pollution
emissions can be higher due to inefficiencies in the power generation process. A companion
Guide in this series - Good Practice Guide 255, Electroheating in industry - covers the
application of electroheating techniques in detail. In addition, Good Practice Guide 253,
Choosing, using and modifying furnaces, shows how to balance the appraisal.

5.6 Alternative Fuels

The availability of alternative fuels, e.g. coke oven gas, biogas or waste oils, may present further
opportunities for cost savings, although the implications in terms of emissions and heat transfer
capability will need to be examined on an individual basis.

The key properties of common fuels are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1 Properties of common industrial fuels

Fuel Gross Net Pollution Comparative Delivery Storage

calorific calorific potential costs** method facilities
value* value (see Table 3 also) required
(£/t) (£/GJ)
Natural gas 38.6 MJ/m3 34.8 MJ/m3 Low 113.40 1.2- 2.5 Pipe No
LPG 93.1 MJ/m3 86.1 MJ/m3 Low 196.60 2.1 Batch Yes
Light 45.4 MJ/kg 42.4 MJ/kg Medium 169.20 3.6- 4.0 Batch Yes
fuel oil
Heavy 42.9 MJ/kg 40.5 MJ/kg High 97.60 2.1- 2.5 Batch Yes
fuel oil
Coal 30.4 MJ/kg 29.4 MJ/kg High 35.20 1.2- 2.0 Batch Yes

* Gross calorific value includes the heat liberated when water vapour produced condenses to liquid at room temperature.
** Due to the movement of relative fuel prices, it is strongly recommended that the prices be checked before undertaking any detailed study.

5.7 Fuel Cost Guide

There is a wide variance in fuel costs. Factors to be considered include: the quality of the fuel;
the quantity purchased; and the additional capital costs involved in using a particular fuel, e.g.
the costs associated with the provision of on-site storage and handling equipment (e.g. for fuel
oil or LPG) or pollution abatement equipment.

Table 2 and the attached examples have been developed to enable easy comparison of the likely
purchase costs of various fuels.
 15

Table 2 Fuel cost comparison table

Fuel Annual Units Conver- Consum- Cost Cost Annual Annual Units SEC* SEC
type consum- sion factor ption (GJ) (£/unit) (£/GJ) running production (GJ/unit) (£/unit)
ption to GJ cost (£)
(1) X (2) (4)/(2) (3) X (5) (3)/(7) (6)/(7)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)

Natural kWh 0.0036

gas

LPG tonnes 50

Gas oil litres 54.05

Light litres 46.77

fuel oil

Medium litres 45.37

fuel oil

Heavy litres 44.69

fuel oil

Electricity kWh 0.0036

Example

Natural 16,138,055 kWh 0.0036 58,097 0.0069 1.92 111,546 35,000 tonnes 1.66 3.19
gas

Heavy 1,300,000 litres 44.69 58,097 0.1 2.24 130,000 35,000 tonnes 1.66 3.71
fuel oil

* Specific energy consumption

In this example, two fuels used in a reheating furnace are compared. Results indicate that, for
the same fuel consumption and production output, natural gas would be the preferred option in
terms of running costs.

5.8 Oxygen Enrichment and Oxy-fuel Firing

Oxygen (O2) enrichment, and oxy-fuel firing, refer to the combustion of fuel with pure or near-
pure oxygen, either in addition to, or as a direct replacement for, air. The practices are not widely
used at the moment, chiefly due to the high cost of commercially available oxygen (roughly
twice the cost of fuel). However, the availability of packaged equipment for on-site generation
of high-purity oxygen may increase the uptake of this technology.

Oxygen enrichment and oxy-fuel firing have the following advantages:

• the ability to achieve high flame temperatures, even with fuels of low calorific value;
• improved heat transfer, as a result of the higher flame temperatures;
• minimisation of waste gas volumes, and consequent reduction in capital cost of exhaust and
stack installations and lower waste gas heat losses;
• increased flexibility in control of the furnace atmosphere;
• the possibility of reduced NOx emission levels, under certain circumstances;
• increased flexibility of furnace operation, e.g. higher output.

In some circumstances, therefore, either oxygen enrichment or oxy-fuel burners may be used as
a lower-cost measure to upgrade the performance of an existing furnace, without having to resort
to costly structural modifications or even replacement.
16

Although the term oxy-fuel firing implies combustion in pure oxygen without ‘normal’ air, and
hence nitrogen, in practice this is not so. Similar considerations apply to oxygen enrichment where
due to higher flame temperature, NOx formation may occur because of air already in the furnace
environment. The result is that any nitrogen in the air is converted into NOx because of the very
high flame temperatures reached. This can mean an actual increase in NOx emissions, rather than
the reverse. Therefore, commercially-available oxy-fuel burners incorporate features designed to
achieve acceptably low-NOx emissions. Oxy-fuel burners are covered in Section 6 of this Guide.

Note: At the time of writing, UK legislation stipulates NOx emissions limits in terms of
concentration, i.e. mg/m3. With oxy-fuel firing, flue gas volumes are actually reduced due to
the absence of molecular nitrogen in the flue gases. As a result, concentrations of NOx may
appear higher, whereas, if compared on a mass basis, they are actually lower. Therefore, in
the absence of an appropriate ‘official’ correction factor, special dispensation may be
required from the regulating bodies (see Appendix 4) to operate oxy-fuel-fired systems.

5.9 Pollution
Pollution from combustion processes is inevitable; however, a correctly designed, set-up and
operated system will ensure that any pollutant emissions are minimised.

Carbon dioxide (CO2), one of the principal combustion products, has been identified as a major
contributor to the ‘greenhouse effect’ theory and climate change. CO2 emissions can be minimised
by ensuring optimum combustion efficiency. Carbon monoxide (CO) is also identified as a
contributor to the greenhouse effect, and, in addition, is toxic to humans and represents a serious
safety hazard. Again, optimum combustion efficiency will minimise, or eliminate, CO emissions.

Combustion of sulphur-containing fuels e.g. coal or fuel oils can result in emissions of oxides of
sulphur, collectively known as SOx4. SOx has been identified as a cause of ‘acid rain’. Production of
SOx can be avoided by use of low-sulphur fuels such as natural gas, LPG or lighter fuel oils. If this
is not possible, then flue gases need to be treated to remove SOx and convert it to inert substances.

Emissions of oxides of nitrogen, collectively termed NOx5, from combustion processes have been
identified as a contributor to the greenhouse effect and a cause of acid rain. They have also been linked
to the recent decline in urban air quality with its resultant health implications. Further information on
the mechanisms of NOx formation and methods of control is presented in Appendix 4.

Since emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels are of major concern, legislation has been
introduced in the UK in the form of the 1990 Environmental Protection Act (EPA 90). The
legislation is enforced by either Local Authorities or the Environment Agency, depending on the
nature of the process and the pollution potential. The Guidance Notes listed in Section 8.5.2
should be consulted for full details on emission limits. A summary is presented in Appendix 5.

The pollution potential of the various commonly used industrial fuels is summarised in Table 3.

Table 3 Pollution potential of common industrial fuels

Fuel Particulates SOx NOx

Natural gas ✓
LPG ✓
Light fuel oil ✓ ✓
Heavy fuel oil ✓ ✓ ✓
Coal ✓ ✓ ✓

4 SOx includes sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3).

5 NOx includes nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and nitrous oxide (N2O).
 17

6. BURNER CHOICE - FITTING THE TECHNOLOGY TO THE APPLICATION

6.1 Burner Outputs

Commercially-available burners come in a wide range of sizes and outputs. Some burners have
a range of heat outputs which can be stepped, e.g. low-fire and high-fire or low/medium/high-
fire, or fully modulating across the firing range. The subject of burner control is covered more
fully in Section 7. The ratio of the maximum firing rate of a burner to its minimum firing rate
is called the turndown ratio and is an important feature in burner selection. If a wide range of
heat inputs to a furnace is required, then a burner system with a good turndown ratio is essential.

6.2 Burner Types

Burners can be broadly classified by their fuel type: gas-fired or oil-fired. Within each
classification there are several sub-classifications based on the method of mixing employed, and,
in the case of oil burners, the method of atomisation.

Burners can operate with either cold or preheated combustion air. Air preheating greatly
improves combustion efficiency, and is the basis of modern burner designs incorporating waste
heat recovery features. If air preheat is to be used, burners capable of dealing with high-
temperature combustion air must be used.

The following decision tree (see Fig 8) presents an overview of the burner types currently
available. The main categories are broken down further in subsequent overview diagrams (see
Figs 9, 12 and 17), followed by detailed information on individual burner technologies.

Burner selection

Gas-fired burners Dual-fuel-fired burners Oil-fired burners

Oxy-fuel burners Rapid heaters

HEAT
RECOVERY Recuperation Regeneration
OPTIONS

Remote heat recovery Integrated self-recuperative

with high temperature or regenerative
burner burner systems

Fig 8 Burner overview

6.2.1 Gas-fired Burners

Based on the method of mixing used, gas burners are sub-classified into three main groups:

• premix;
• nozzle mix;
• delayed mix (a variation of nozzle mix).
18

Fig 9 gives an overview of the broad range of gas-fired burners available, and each type is
described in more detail in the following pages.

Gas-fired burner Delayed

selection mix burner

Premix Nozzle
burner mix burner

Fan mix Conventional

Aspirator High velocity

Inspirator Flat flame

Immersion tube

Fig 9 Overview of gas-fired burners

Premix Gas Burners

Premix gas burners combine the air and gas within the burner body and tend not to be operated
with excess air. Because of the presence of near stoichiometric mixtures of fuel and air within
the burner body, there is a danger of explosion as a result of flashback. Most premix gas burners
have a mouth composed of a cylindrical or cone-shaped tunnel in a refractory block. This acts
as a mini combustion chamber where the mixture can ignite and burn without interference from
furnace gases that might snuff it out. The refractory acts as a flame stabiliser and becomes hot,
warming the incoming mixture to its ignition point.

There are three types of premix gas burners: fan mixers, aspirators, inspirators. Fan mixers feed
regulated quantities of gas and air to a fan or blower which ejects the mixture into the furnace.
This type is rarely used as it is most prone to flashback. Aspirators are more widely used. Air
is piped from a blower into the aspirator body, which contains a venturi. The reduction in
pressure created by the venturi draws gas into the air stream through an opening in the throat of
the venturi (see Fig 10). The gas and air then mix as they leave the venturi. The gas:air ratio is
maintained across the entire turndown range of the burner’s output.

Refractory quarl

Burner body
Venturi

Air in

Gas/air mixing

Sudden enlargement
Gas in
stabilises flame

Fig 10 Premix gas burner, aspirator principle

 19

Inspirators operate on similar principles, but it is the gas which creates the suction to draw in the
air. A high-pressure jet of gas is blown through a small nozzle called a spud, which is situated
in the throat of a venturi. The suction created by the gas draws in air at atmospheric pressure
from the opening around the spud. The gas and air then mix as they pass down through the
diffuser section of the mixer.

Nozzle Mix Gas Burners

Nozzle mix burners combine separate streams of gas and air at the mouth of the burner, and can
utilise large amounts of excess air. The flame from a nozzle mix burner is typically long and
slender. Nearly all nozzle mix burners incorporate some kind of tube or refractory tile that, in
combination with the burner nozzle, acts as a flame stabiliser. Tubes may be made of stainless
steel, heat-resistant alloys, or silicon carbide (for high-temperature applications). The advantage
of the tube design is ease of installation, particularly in modern, lightweight, ceramic-fibre-
insulated furnaces. Silicon carbide tubes are lightweight and have excellent resistance to thermal
shock, thus offering a better service life than conventional refractory tiles (see Fig 11).
Burner
mounting plate

Air in

Burner Gas/air
nozzle mixing

Gas in

Burner body Silicon carbide Restricted tip

flame tube to increase velocity

Fig 11 Nozzle mix burner with silicon carbide tube

There are a number of variations on the nozzle mix gas burner:

• Flat-flame burners - The tile is flared to project the flame sideways instead of forwards,
causing the flame to scrub the refractory walls. The result is that the walls heat up and radiate
back in towards the furnace load. The outcome is very uniform heating, which allows the
load to pass close to the burner without flame impingement.

• High-velocity burners - Where furnaces are required to heat large, densely packed loads, the
combustion products may not have enough drive to reach the cold centre of the load. In these
cases, a high-velocity burner may be used to penetrate deep into the furnace with a high rate
of convective heat transfer. The tube or refractory tile of this type of burner is restricted,
causing the combustion products to move at a high velocity on leaving the burner mouth.

• Immersion tube burners - This variation uses a sealed tube in place of the refractory tile. An
immersion tube burner is used in controlled atmosphere furnaces or to heat tanks of liquid
where the flame cannot be allowed to come into contact with the load. The burner is designed
to throw the combustion products against the tube walls for maximum heat transfer to the
load.
20

Delayed Mix Gas Burners

This type of burner is similar in concept to the nozzle mix burner, but is designed to mix the fuel
gas and combustion air as slowly as possible. The gas and air are introduced into the furnace in
adjacent, slow-moving streams, with very little stirring. Mixing and burning occur only where
the streams collide. Heat from this combustion radiates into the unburnt fuel, cracking the
hydrocarbon molecules into carbon and hydrogen. Carbon particles incandesce until they
eventually meet some air and burn. The resulting flame is long, slender and highly luminous.
This is ideal for distributing heat evenly throughout a large furnace, using only a small number
of burners.

6.2.2 Oil-fired Burners

Generally, oil burners are similar to nozzle mix gas burners, but must perform the additional
function of atomising the oil before it can be burnt. Oil burners differ only in the method of oil
atomisation employed, which in turn influences the resulting flame shape and combustion
efficiency. As fuel oils are available in a number of grades or ‘weights’ of varying viscosity, the
correct choice of atomisation method is important. The three methods of atomisation commonly
used are:

• pressure jet;
• rotating cup;
• twin-fluid (blast atomisation).

Fig 12 presents an overview of the range of oil-fired burners available.

Oil-fired burner
selection

Nozzle mix burner

Atomisation method

Pressure jet atomiser Rotating cup atomiser Blast atomiser (heavy oils)
(low viscosity fuels) (uniform spray) • Internal mix
• External mix

Low pressure air

Medium pressure
(compressed) air

High pressure
• Steam
• Air

Fig 12 Overview of oil-fired burners

Pressure Jet Atomiser

Oil is pumped at high pressure (7 to 35 bar) through a fine nozzle to produce an expanding
conical film that eventually disintegrates into a spray of droplets. A range of fuel oils may be
 21

atomised in this way, but the heavier oils must be preheated to reduce their viscosity to between
70 and 100 Redwood seconds. Combustion air is introduced around the spray and aids the
atomisation process. Because of the dynamics involved, this type of burner has a poor turndown
ratio, and it may be necessary to use a number of small, individual burners to achieve the desired
flexibility (see Fig 13).

Spray of
Inlet Oil atomised
oil droplets

Oil channels entering Swirl chamber

swirl chamber tangentially

Fig 13 Pressure jet atomiser

Rotating Cup Atomiser

In this type of burner, atomisation is achieved by centrifugal force. The oil is fed by a pipe to
the inner surface of a hollow, tapered cup. The cup revolves at high speed, driven by either an
electric motor or a turbine driven by a portion of the incoming combustion air (see Fig 14).
Centrifugal force causes the oil to spread over the surface and be thrown off the lip. The
combustion air passes around the outside of the cup, thereby helping the atomising process and
shaping the resulting spray. This type of atomiser achieves a very uniform droplet size over a
wide area. Rotating cup atomisers can handle fuels with much higher viscosities (100 to 400
Redwood seconds) than simple pressure jet atomisers, and are less susceptible to blockages
caused by grit. In addition, turndown ratios of 5:1 are better than those achievable by pressure
jet burners. Rotating cup atomisers can, however, suffer from carbon deposition caused by
‘cracking’ (sudden chemical decomposition) of oil due to radiation from the hot surroundings
after the burner has shut down.

Oil

Air-driven fan

Spinning cup

Air

Fig 14 Rotating cup atomiser (air-driven)

22

Blast Atomiser
Also known as the twin-fluid atomiser, this type of burner uses either steam or compressed air
to atomise the oil (see Fig 15). Blast atomisers can operate at low, medium or high pressure and
are further classified as either internal or external mixing, depending on whether the oil and the
atomising fluid meet within the body of the burner or at the outlet. All blast atomisers require
oil with a viscosity in the range of 70 to 150 Redwood seconds.

• Low-pressure blast atomisers use air at 105 to 115 kPa as the atomising medium, usually
supplied from a single-stage centrifugal fan. Most, or all, of the combustion air is used as the
atomising medium. Mixing of the oil and air is efficient and there is usually little requirement
for excess air; however, the turndown ratio is rarely better than 2:1. Higher turndown ratios
(up to 5:1) can be achieved by using only a small proportion of the air (20%) as the atomising
medium and introducing the remainder through ports around the burner.
• Medium-pressure blast atomisers use air at 230 to 300 kPa. Less than 10% of the combustion
air is required to atomise the fuel. Usually, this is supplied by means of a rotary compressor.
The remaining combustion air is introduced as secondary air around the burner and can be
preheated without danger of cracking the fuel within the burner. This enables higher flame
temperatures to be reached. Turndown ratios of 10:1 can be achieved.
• High-pressure blast atomisers use steam or air at pressures in excess of 300 kPa. Air
atomisers operate on similar principles to medium-pressure blast atomisers. Steam atomisers
are used only where large amounts of cheap steam are available (between 0.3 and 0.5 kg of
steam are required per kg of oil, thus significantly adding to operating costs).

Air or
steam

Oil

Air or
steam

Fig 15 Blast atomiser (internally mixed)

6.2.3 Dual-fuel-fired Burners

Dual-fuel firing presents opportunities for firing different fuels as external conditions dictate.
Typically, a dual-fuel burner might be designed to burn either natural gas or fuel oil, or a
combination of both, and would combine the features of both a nozzle mix gas burner and an oil
burner appropriate to the grade of fuel oil to be burned. This type of burner may be used for
economic reasons, for instance to take advantage of interruptible gas tariffs or fluctuating fuel
prices, or for technical reasons, e.g. increasing the radiative component of the flame by addition
of an oil-fired element.

Another reason for dual-fuel firing may be to take advantage of an alternative, low-cost fuel
available in varying quantities, e.g. biogas, coke oven gas, or waste oils. Some fuels of
particularly low calorific value (CV) may not be capable of sustaining a flame on their own and
may need to be supplemented by the addition of another fuel, e.g. natural gas, with a higher CV.
Dual-fuel burners should be designed to cope with the different combustion characteristics of the
two fuels, and, therefore, the intended fuels should be clearly stated to the supplier when the
burner is selected.
 23

6.2.4 Oxy-fuel Burners

Oxy-fuel burners are essentially similar in concept to conventional fuel-air burners, but may
have additional design features to cope with the high flame temperatures achieved. Burners may
be designed to fire natural gas or fuel oils, or both in dual-fuel designs. As well as the
conventional fuels, oxy-fuel burners can burn a range of other fuels. Due to the higher flame
temperatures achievable, they have the particular advantage of being able to burn waste gases of
low CV. The flame produced from oxy-fuel firing is typically, but not necessarily, long and
luminous (see Fig 16), ideal for achieving even heating over large surfaces. Typical applications
include glass melting, metal reheating and ladle heating.

Gas burner Oil burner

Fig 16 Oxy-fuel flame
6.2.5 Rapid Heaters
Rapid heating systems are used to raise the temperature of the stock very quickly, when
conventional methods might damage the stock if it is left in the furnace for an excessive time
period. Rapid heaters tend to use high-velocity burners to create a turbulent atmosphere, thus
promoting high rates of convective heat transfer. In some systems, the flame impinges directly
on the surface of the stock; in others, the combustion chamber is shaped to encourage the
combustion gases to flow at high velocity over the surface of the stock.

6.3 Combustion Air Preheat: the Technology Available

In all high-temperature processes, some loss of heat through waste gases is inevitable. In many
cases it is possible to recover some of that heat. A good indicator that there is potential for waste
heat recovery is a high flue gas temperature (over 1,100°C) and this is the first thing to check.
Other factors to consider are the volumetric gas flow rate and the degree of contamination of the
waste gas stream.

One of the most cost-effective uses for the heat is to preheat the combustion air, which increases
flame temperatures and boosts the thermal efficiency of combustion. Alternatively, it is possible
to use the heat to preheat incoming stock. Such a practice is called load recuperation. As far as
burners go, there are two conventionally accepted methods of recovering the heat: recuperation
and regeneration. This approach uses a recuperative or regenerative burner system. There are
several types of burner and combustion system in each category and Fig 17 presents an overview
of the choice available. For more information on the assessment of the quantity and quality of
heat available, and heat recovery techniques in general, see Good Practice Guide 13, Waste heat
recovery from high temperature gas streams.
24

COMBUSTION AIR PREHEAT

Hot air burner

selection
Up to 30% saving Up to 50% saving

Recuperation Regeneration

External recuperator Compact ceramic

Self recuperative External regenerator
and high temperature regenerator and high
burner e.g. glass furnace
burner temperature burner

Low temperature <1,100°C Compact application

Radial plate Integral bed

recuperative burner burner

Fig 17 Overview of heat recovery methods

6.3.1 Recuperation
At its simplest, a recuperator
consists of an annular tube
arrangement in which hot gases are
passed through the inner shell and
the cold combustion air is
preheated by passing through the
outer shell (see Fig 18). Heat Hot
air out
transfer takes place by radiation.
Recuperators may be remote,
where the source of hot gases and
the cold combustion air are
Refractory insulation
separated by a distance. In this
case the recuperator is usually Hot
mounted in the furnace flue. The flue gas Air annulus
combustion air is ducted through
the recuperator and then to the
burner, which must be capable of
handling high-temperature air. The
burner, therefore, is usually Cold
air in
constructed from materials capable
of withstanding high temperatures.
These burners are usually slightly
more expensive than conventional Fig 18 Double shell-type recuperator
cold-air burners. Installation
requirements are generally more complex, since extra insulated ductwork is required to carry the
preheated air from the flue-mounted recuperator to the burner. Maintenance requirements and
costs are also likely to be slightly higher than those for an equivalent cold-air burner system.
 25

Self-recuperative Burners
Burners have been developed which incorporate a recuperator within the body of a high-
temperature burner; these are known as self-recuperative burners (see Fig 19). An eductor is
used to draw hot waste gases through the in-built recuperator, thus preheating the incoming cold
combustion air. These burners can be relatively easily retrofitted to existing furnace
installations, although some modifications to the waste gas flue arrangements will normally be
required. Purchase and maintenance costs are likely to be higher than for a simple cold-air
burner. The major advantages are compactness and high thermal efficiency, as neither the heated
air nor the waste gases need to be transported long distances, so heat losses are eliminated.
Compared to conventional cold-air combustion systems, fuel savings of up to 30% can be
achieved. Self-recuperative burners are best suited to applications with high gas temperatures
(above 800°C) and low levels of contamination in the flue gases. Special variations are available
for lower flue gas temperatures. The main disadvantage with self-recuperative burners is that,
because the source of heat and the point of waste gas removal are the same, it can be difficult to
achieve a uniform distribution of heat within the furnace. This can cause problems, e.g. in heat
treatment applications. A conventional high-temperature burner with a remote recuperator is
more suitable in these applications.

Low-NOx self-recuperative burners are available from a number of manufacturers.

Waste gas outlet

(drawn by eductor)

Natural gas

Hot combustion
products

Combustion
products

Hot combustion
products
Combustion air

Fig 19 Self-recuperative burner

6.3.2 Regeneration
Regeneration, or regenerative firing, is a means of recovering waste heat from exhaust gases by
cyclical firing of paired combustion systems. There are a variety of methods used, but all operate
on the same principle. As one burner fires, the hot combustion products are exhausted through
the second burner, which incorporates some form of heat store and recovers the heat from the
exhaust. After a period of time the cycle reverses and the incoming combustion air is heated by
passing over the heat store. Such systems have high thermal efficiency and can offer fuel savings
of up to 50% compared to conventional cold-air combustion systems. Large-scale static
regenerators are an established technology but are restricted to large furnaces such as those in
the glass, iron, and steel industries.
26

Compact Ceramic Regenerators

Compact ceramic regenerators consist of a pair of regenerators that may be either remote or
close-coupled with a pair of high-temperature burners (see Fig 20). The regenerators are about
the size of a domestic dustbin and filled with a bed of ceramic spheres. The burners are operated
in pairs, with a cycle time of 60 to 120 seconds. The regenerators can be susceptible to fouling,
depending on the fuel used and the application, in which case regular cleaning will be necessary.
Therefore, the regenerators should be designed to be readily accessible for cleaning purposes.

Burner in
exhaust mode

Burner in
firing mode
Regenerator

Gas inlet

Regenerator Reversing
valve

Ceramic bed

Exhaust gas

Combustion air

Fig 20 Compact ceramic regenerative burner system

Impulse-fired Regenerative Burners

Impulse-fired regenerative burners are a variation of the regenerative burner system. Each
burner fires alternately for approximately 15 seconds, and the burners switch between full fire
and zero very rapidly; there is no flow modulation. The efficiency of heat recovery is
comparable to conventional regenerative burner systems. However, the fluid flow systems are
simpler, so capital costs are lower. The pulse firing creates a turbulent atmosphere within the
furnace and is ideally suited to processes requiring a convective heat transfer mechanism.

Integral Bed Regenerative Burners

The integral bed regenerative burner (IBB) incorporates a thermal store, in the form of a bed of
ceramic spheres, within its body (see Fig 21). Burners are mounted in pairs and operate alternately,
as in conventional regenerative firing systems. The compact nature of the IBB means that it is easy
to retrofit and ideally suited to either small or tunnel furnaces where, previously, regenerative firing
would not have been possible. IBBs are available in a range of sizes, from 65 kW to over 5 MW.
As with compact ceramic regenerators, the regenerator beds may be susceptible to fouling
(depending on the application) and will need to be cleaned on a regular basis.

Radiant tube versions are also available, comprising a pair of regenerative burners connected by
a sealed ceramic or metal tube, usually in a U-tube arrangement. This development enables
regenerative firing technology to be readily applied in controlled atmosphere furnaces and other
indirectly fired processes.

Low-NOx regenerative burners are available from several burner manufacturers.

 27

Flue gases OR Combustion

out air in

Burner mounting
flange

Burner
backplate

Exhaust

Burner
Gas mouth
inlet
Firing

Standard
Burner combustion
body Integral ring casing
regenerative bed

Fig 21 Integral bed regenerative burner

6.4 Relative Costs

There are many advantages in terms of improved fuel efficiency, and hence lower running costs,
from selecting high-efficiency burners that utilise waste heat recovery methods, rather than
standard cold-air burners. Any such decisions would normally be accompanied by a detailed
financial analysis. The following example illustrates a typical evaluation process.

The example is based on the heating of steel billets to 1,250°C in a continuous furnace over an
eight-hour period. The furnace is assumed to operate for 15 hours per day and 45 weeks of the
year. The example in Table 4 compares the relative costs of three types of burners firing two
different fuel types. Fuel costs are assumed to be £3.18/GJ for gas oil and £2.55/GJ for natural
gas. It has been assumed that the life of each burner is ten years.

Three financial analysis methods have been applied: net present value (NPV), internal rate of
return (IRR), simple payback. Both in terms of simple payback and IRR, the gas-fired self-
recuperative burner is the best option. However, if the savings are discounted at 10% per annum
over the life of the burner, the gas-fired regenerative burner offers the best return and would
make the greatest contribution to cash flow (but requires a greater initial outlay).
28

Table 4 Financial analysis of energy efficient burner installation

Burner type

Fuel Gas-oil-fired Natural-gas-fired

Burner type Cold- Self- Regenerative Cold- Self- Regenerative
air recuperative air recuperative

Costs
Ancillaries (storage/piping) (£) 2,500 2,500 2,500
Burner capital cost (£) 14,000 22,000 36,000 12,000 20,000 34,000
Annual maintenance cost (£) 600 1,500 2,700 400 1,000 1,800
Annual fuel cost (£) 74,823 52,376 37,411 60,000 42,000 30,000
Lifetime years (Yrs) 10 10 10 10 10 10

Annual fuel and (£) 75,423 53,876 40,111 60,400 43,000 31,800
maintenance cost

Capital (£) 16,500 24,500 38,500 12,000 20,000 34,000

Saving (£) 21,547 35,312 15,023 32,423 43,623

Present value saving

Year Discount factor
Year 0 1.0000 -16,500 -24,500 -38,500 -12,000 -20,000 -34,000
Year 1 0.9091 19,588 32,102 13,657 29,476 39,658
Year 2 0.8264 17,806 29,182 12,415 26,794 36,050
Year 3 0.7513 16,188 26,529 11,286 24,359 32,773
Year 4 0.6830 14,716 24,117 10,260 22,144 29,793
Year 5 0.6209 13,378 21,925 9,328 20,131 27,085
Year 6 0.5644 12,162 19,932 8,480 18,301 24,623
Year 7 0.5131 11,056 18,120 7,709 16,637 22,384
Year 8 0.4665 10,051 16,472 7,008 15,125 20,349
Year 9 0.4241 9,138 14,975 6,371 13,750 18,499
Year 10 0.3855 8,307 13,614 5,792 12,500 16,818

Net present value (£) 107,890 178,468 80,306 179,217 234,032

Simple payback (Yrs) 1.14 1.09 0.80 0.62 0.78
Internal rate of return (%) 88% 92% 125% 162% 128%

For further information on financial analysis, see Good Practice Guide 69, Investment appraisal
for industrial energy efficiency.

Fig 22 shows the energy flow, in the form of Sankey diagrams, for the three burner types: cold-
air, self-recuperative and regenerative.

Specific energy consumptions for the three burners are:

Cold-air burners 3.26 GJ/t

Recuperative burners 2.28 GJ/t
Regenerative burners 1.62 GJ/t

With minor changes in terms of heat transferred to the stock and quantity of waste heat produced,
the Sankey diagrams are the same for gas and gas oil.

The regenerative and recuperative systems offer a fuel saving over the cold-air system of 50%
and 30% respectively. The base case for comparisons is the oil-fired cold-air burner.

Fuel costs
Gas oil £3.18/GJ
Natural gas £2.55/GJ
 29

61%
Waste heat 19.9 GJ

Cold air burners

efficiency = 26%
Fuel 32.6 GJ
100%

Structure 4.3 GJ
13%
Stock 8.4 GJ
26%
44%
Waste heat 10.1 GJ

Pre-heat 3.6 GJ

Self-recuperative burners
efficiency = 37%
Fuel saving 30% (9.8 GJ)

Fuel 22.8 GJ
100%

Structure 4.3 GJ
19%

Stock 8.4 GJ
37% 22%
Waste heat 3.5 GJ

Pre-heat 6.1 GJ
Regenerative ceramic burners
efficiency = 52%
Fuel saving 50% (16.4 GJ)

Fuel 16.2 GJ
100%

Structure 4.3 GJ
26% Assumptions

Stock 8.4 GJ 10 tonnes heated to

52% 1,250°C for 8 hours

heat to stock Note: At higher process temperatures

Efficiency = x 100%
heat in savings could be higher

Fig 22 Sankey diagrams comparing energy flow of three burners

6.5 Burner Maintenance and Safety

Regular burner maintenance is an essential requirement for safe, reliable, efficient and clean
combustion. Most burner manufacturers and furnace installers will offer a biannual or annual
service contract, or training on their equipment for in-house maintenance personnel; this is
strongly recommended.

When selecting or specifying a burner, it is important to choose a model that has been designed
with ease of maintenance in mind. ‘Back-end extraction’ is a useful feature, meaning that
components likely to require replacement on a regular basis, e.g. flame ionisation detectors, can
be withdrawn and refitted without removing the entire burner assembly from the furnace. The
30

cost of consumable items, e.g. refractory tiles or tubes, flame ionisation detectors, and spark
ignitors, should be checked as these can add significantly to the running cost of an installation.

In all cases, energy monitoring is an essential aid to early identification of maintenance

problems, and is therefore strongly recommended. This can take a variety of forms: from a
simple daily, weekly or monthly record of fuel consumption and comparison with stock
throughput, to a fully computerised furnace management system.

Safety controls, e.g. flame failure detection and shut-down systems, are an essential element of
all combustion systems. These controls are discussed in more depth in Section 7.

The installation of some burners may be required in hazardous areas, e.g. in petrochemical plant
installations where flammable gases may be present. Burner manufacturers may offer
intrinsically safe versions of their burner and control systems. These should be clearly specified
when required.

The subject of plant maintenance is covered in more detail in Good Practice Guide 217, Cutting
energy losses through effective maintenance (Totally Productive Operations).
 31

7. BURNER CONTROLS

7.1 Introduction to Burner Controls

The installation of appropriate controls is paramount in ensuring the safety and efficiency of the
burner and the furnace system as a whole. Burner controls range in complexity from simple
on/off devices to computer-controlled multi-burner optimising systems. Selection of the most
appropriate control technology is as important as selection of the burner itself. Manufacturers
may supply their burners as ‘packaged’ units with all necessary controls ready-fitted. All that is
required before operation is mounting on the furnace, connection of fuel and power supplies, and
commissioning.

7.2 Overview of Burner Controls

The main elements to be considered in burner control are shown in Fig 23.

Burner controls

Health and safety Performance

Toxic Flame Temperature Rate of Combustion

hazard detection control heat input efficiency

Explosive Sample Real

hazard techniques time

Air On / off Off-set On / off Impulse

pollution firing

Gas On / off Proportional Self-tuning Turndown

analysis and integral

Proportional Proportional Oxygen Solid Flue gas

Probe Radiation and derivative analysis particle analysis
analysis

Proportional Oxygen
and derivative trim
and integral
Electrode Thermo- UV Infrared
couple
Note: The control techniques identified
under temperature control are not
unique to temperature and may be
used to control other parameters

Fig 23 Overview of burner control parameters

7.3 What is Control?

Control can be defined as the attainment of a required set condition, followed by the monitoring
(measurement) and adjusting (as necessary) of the parameters that influence the realisation of
that condition.

Fig 24 overleaf illustrates the basic principles of a control system, using temperature control as
an example.
32

Desired set point

Controlling method
e.g. operator or automatic control device

Control device Measuring device

e.g. valve, damper e.g. thermocouple, pyrometer

Furnace
Manipulated variable Controlled variable
e.g. fuel, air e.g. temperature

Fig 24 Temperature control example

7.4 Health and Safety Controls

Maintenance of adequate safety and avoidance of environmental hazards are prerequisites in
burner control. Areas that must be considered include: light-up sequence; flame failure; potential
explosive and toxic hazards; air pollution. British Standard BS EN 746-2: 1997 must be
consulted for full details on the safety requirements for combustion and fuel handling systems
(see Section 8.5).

7.4.1 Ignition and Flame Failure Controls

Most burners should be fitted with automatic systems that control start-up and operation. Larger
furnaces, e.g. glass furnaces or steel reheating furnaces, are usually started up under manual
supervision, so such controls are not necessary. Start-up sequences require a pre-purge to rid the
burner and combustion chamber of any combustible gases. Most modern gas burners of less than
1 MW are fitted with simple spark ignitors, although gas-fired pilot lights are usually available
as an option. Spark ignition and pilot flames are not practical for most oil-fired combustion
systems, in which case an LPG-fired (or natural-gas-fired if available) pilot flame is usually
employed.

It is essential to know the following: that the burner has fired during the ignition sequence; if the
flame fails during operation. In either event, without a suitable flame failure device there could
be an accumulation of fuel in the furnace chamber with a major risk of fire or explosion.

Flame failure devices consist of two essential components:

• a sensor to detect the presence of the flame;

• a control circuit to turn off the fuel supply if no flame is detected.

The control circuit is normally a fail-safe device incorporating an electronic circuit. While the
flame exists, the sensor allows current to flow through the circuit, keeping the fuel valve open
and allowing fuel to flow to the burner. If the flame fails, the current ceases to flow and the valve
closes to shut off the fuel supply. An example of a flame failure control device is shown in
Fig 25.

It is normal for each burner to be fitted with its own flame failure detection device; on multiple
burner installations each burner would be automatically shut down in the event of flame failure.
 33

Output to computer
management system
Control
UV detector Furnace wall
Output to unit
alarm system

Safety shut-off valve

Burner

Pilot
burner
Flame rod detector
for pilot flame

Safety shut-off valve

Main gas Pilot gas

supply supply

Fig 25 Flame failure control device for pilot-operated gas-fired burner

7.4.2 Flame Detection Systems

There are two basic types: either a probe inserted into the flame or a remote radiation detector.

Probe Detector
Any property of the flame may be used to provide the detector signal. A thermocouple in the
flame uses the high temperature of the flame to generate a voltage signal that changes when the
flame fails due to the drop in temperature. A cheaper alternative is the use of an electrode
immersed in the flame. This detects the slight flow of current through the ionised gases present
in the flame and is known as a Flame Ionisation Detector (FID), or flame rod. It is commonly
used in modern gas-fired burner systems.

Radiation Detector
These detectors make use of either the infrared or ultraviolet (UV) radiation emitted by flames.
Photocells tuned to the specified wavelengths are focused onto the burner mouth to monitor the
presence of the requisite wavelengths. The photocell gives a high output when the flame is
present and a low output if the flame fails. As furnace walls can emit infrared after the burner
has been shut off, care must be taken in siting an infrared detector. UV detectors do not suffer
from this problem since there is no emission of UV from the furnace walls. Radiation detectors
are non-contact and less likely to be damaged or fouled compared to probe detectors. Radiation
detectors are normally used on larger burner installations and on oil-fired burners.

Some types of flame detector may fail in an unsafe condition. Normal

CAUTION! start-up procedures include a self-check of the flame failure device,
ensuring that any fault is detected before the burner fires. However,
problems may arise when a furnace is operated continuously. For this
reason it is recommended that burners used in continuous applications
either are fitted with automatic, self-checking flame failure controls or
have a regular (every 24 hours) shut-down and re-start in order to verify
the integrity of the flame detection system.
34

7.5 Process Control Theory

Process control is a complex subject and is outside the scope of this Guide. There are several
textbooks available that provide details on the theory behind process control. Most modern
process control applications use a form of multi-function controller that combines proportional,
integral and derivative control actions in one unit. This is called a PID, or three-term, controller.

The aim of PID control is to ensure that the process approaches the desired set point condition
quickly and smoothly, with minimum overshoot. The three modes must be tuned so that the
process gives satisfactory performance for all foreseen operating conditions. This can be very
difficult and time consuming, and would normally be carried out by the commissioning engineer.
Recently, auto-tuned PID controllers that can simplify and speed up the process have been
introduced.

7.5.1 Self-tuning Control

Auto-tuned PID controllers can minimise the time required to tune conventional PID controllers.
They do, however, have some of the drawbacks of manually-tuned controllers. Once tuned, the
controller bands are fixed and unable to adapt to variations in plant behaviour, e.g. changes in
plant loading or variations in heat transfer characteristics. This can lead to a poor overall
performance of the PID controller. The use of bi-linear self-tuning controllers (STCs) can
overcome the problem (further details can be found in Future Practice Report 83).

A bi-linear STC uses two computational models, one for parameter estimation and the other for
control law implementation. The controller operates by minimising the uncertainty of a
parameter that characterises the plant. The estimated parameters are used to continually update
the controller and to operate a closed loop in conjunction with some predefined control objective
(see Fig 26).

+
Set point
I PLANT
+
+

Process output

Schematic of PID controller

Plant

Control Process
Estimator
actuation output
Parameter
vector
Controller

Set point

Schematic of self-tuning controller

Fig 26 PID and self-tuning control

 35

7.6 Programmable Logic Controllers

Control of burners and furnaces, and other industrial processes, has traditionally been achieved
by use of electromechanical temperature/process controllers acting on relays to sequence valve
operations, motor drives and other mechanical aspects of plant operation. The advent of the
microprocessor has resulted in the development of programmable logic controllers (PLCs).
These have replaced hardwired relay logic schemes with software-made connections between
inputs and outputs. Thus, any changes required in plant sequences or set points may be achieved
by reprogramming of the PLC rather than rewiring of the relay logic.

The major advantages of PLCs are low cost and increased flexibility; their modular design
allows control schemes to be expanded to encompass as many aspects of plant operation as
required. Most modern PLCs incorporate three-term control (PID) routines as standard and are
thus capable of controlling all aspects of temperature, pressure, and flow control required in
burner and furnace operations. PLCs may be linked to mimic systems, as mimic panels, or
displayed on VDU screens, allowing easier control by supervisors and operators. They are also
readily interfaced with personal computers, thus providing accessible real-time monitoring and
control of furnaces and other plant, together with data logging facilities for analysis and
reporting of batch and shift operations.

CAUTION! PLCs are ideal for process monitoring and control, but, like all electronic
devices, can suffer from reliability problems. For this reason, essential
safety functions such as flame detection and automatic shut-down controls
must be divorced from PLC control by means of independent, hardwired
safety circuits. Refer to HSE Guidelines, Programmable Electronic
Systems in Safety-Related Applications (see Section 8.5).

7.7 Choice of Control Method

The major considerations in selection of the most appropriate control technique are: how precise
the control must be; how difficult the process is to control, e.g. in many applications a wide
temperature range may be acceptable. The simplest controller is often selected for ease of
operation and the lowest initial cost. However, the simplest controller may not be the most cost-
effective option, particularly in terms of fuel efficiency and overall running costs.

Selection of the most appropriate controller type may be approached in several ways:

• process reaction curve;

• physical thermal system analysis;
• previous experience;
• experimental testing.

Examples of process reaction curves are shown in Fig 27 overleaf. These indicate how the
temperature of a process varies with time, from the start of heating until the temperature
stabilises around the set point.
36

Single capacity

Two capacity process

Single capacity with dead time

Temperature

Time

Fig 27 Process reaction curves

The process reaction curve will help to answer the following questions:

• Is the process easy or difficult to control?

• Is the process single or multi-capacity? (i.e. what are the heat sinks and how many?)
• What is the burner energy input required to satisfy process heat requirements?
• Are the current burners undersized or oversized? (Oversized burners may create control
instability and undersized burners are slow to respond.)
• Is the process and furnace thermal mass large or small?

In the case of multi-capacity systems, the interpretation of the control requirements can be
particularly complex and should be discussed with suppliers of burners and controls. For new
processes where there is little experience of the process reaction curve, the use of mathematical and
physical modelling techniques to predict behaviour may be the most appropriate course of action.

7.8 Control Parameters

The chief parameters to be considered in burner control are temperature, rate of heat input,
combustion efficiency, and safety. Temperature and rate of heat input are closely related to
furnace control, as the burner is the prime means of influencing these aspects.

7.9 Furnace Control Parameters

The main control parameters on modern furnaces are:

• temperature;
• time;
• pressure.

Obviously, close control of the time cycle and temperature conditions is of major importance.
Manual control by visual observation is subject to wide variance according to individual
operators’ interpretation. This method is no longer considered suitable in modern furnaces due
to the likelihood of excessive fuel consumption, and possible product damage, resulting from
over- or underheating, or excessive oxidation. Therefore, automatic time and temperature
controls are essential for optimum furnace operation. Such controls vary widely in
sophistication, ranging from simple on/off controllers, to fully modulating controls with
 37

self-tuning features. Where specific rates of heating and/or cooling are important, then
programmable temperature controllers may be used to control the furnace to a predetermined
time/temperature schedule.

Good working practice requires furnace pressure to be slightly higher than atmospheric. Negative
pressure conditions within the furnace may lead to inleakage of cold air through door seals and
other openings. The result is a loss in furnace efficiency through cooling of the furnace
atmosphere, the creation of cold spots, increased waste gas losses, and increased possibility of
damage to stock through excessive oxidation. However, excessive pressure can retard combustion
development and increase losses through emission of hot gases via furnace openings, and may
cause damage to surrounding steelwork and furnace refractories. Optimum furnace pressure is
therefore of critical importance and automatic pressure controls are considered to be an essential
part of any furnace control system. The pressure within the furnace varies from the hearth to the
roof, due to the buoyancy of the hot gases. Usually, the desired pressure is maintained at stock
level, and the pressure transducer should be sited to reflect this. Care should also be taken to
ensure that the pressure transducer is not influenced directly by the burners.

Exhaust gas flue areas and stack heights are of crucial importance in furnace pressure control. Fuel
changes also influence the pressure within the furnace, as different fuels produce different volumes
of flue gas. Burner manufacturers and furnace designers will be able to advise accordingly.

7.10 Combustion Efficiency - Fuel:Air Ratio Control

As discussed previously, the ratio of fuel:air determines the efficiency of combustion (see
Fig 28). The ideal situation is stoichiometric combustion. However, in practice, less than perfect
mixing of fuel and air, particularly when firing oil, means that a degree of excess air is necessary
to achieve complete burnout of the fuel. Too much excess air, however, cools the furnace and
reduces efficiency; too little, and unburnt fuel reduces efficiency and may create hazardous

80

Increase in natural gas use based

on comparison with exhaust gas at
70 900°C and containing 2% oxygen
(dry) with cold combustion air.

60
Increase in fuel use, %

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Oxygen content of combustion products, % dry

0 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Excess combustion air level, %

Fig 28 Fuel:air efficiency curve

38

conditions. In addition to the requirements for maximum energy efficiency, there are also process
requirements, specifically the need for an oxidising or reducing atmosphere within the furnace,
achieved by varying the fuel:air ratio as necessary. Therefore, correct control of the fuel:air ratio
is of critical importance and can be achieved in a number of ways with varying degrees of
sophistication and accuracy.

The actual method used to control the fuel:air ratio depends on a number of factors. These
include the type of burner, the fuel fired, the turndown ratio, the degree of combustion air
preheat, and the process control method employed. The following methods described are
commonly used in burner fuel:air ratio control.

7.10.1 Ganged Valve Assembly

This is the simplest form of control, where both air and fuel supplies are regulated by a valve or
damper in the pipe or duct (Fig 29a). The valve or damper actuators are mechanically linked and
driven by a single motor. This is a simple, low-cost method, best suited to on/off control systems.

Control valve

Air
M Actuator motor

Gas Pressure governor

Pressure regulator
M

Orifice plate

Fig 29a Simple ganged valve assembly

7.10.2 Cascade Control

This type of controller relies on the output signal from a differential pressure transducer on an
orifice plate or venturi flow meter situated in either the air supply (an air lead system) or in the fuel
supply (a fuel lead system). Any change in the measured flow is countered by an adjustment in the
corresponding flow, via a ratio controller. Errors or inaccuracies can be introduced due to the
inability of the flow metering devices to operate over a wide range of flows. Where the combustion
air is preheated the control signal will require compensation. Orifice plates are a cheaper option
than venturi flow meters but cause greater pressure drops in the system (see Fig 29b).

Control valve
Temp.
Transducer M controller
M Actuator motor
Air
Motor
O/P positioner
M Pressure governor
or E/P
converter
Gas
Pressure regulator

Transducer Ratio
Lineariser
controller
Orifice plate

Fig 29b Cascade control (air lead)

 39

7.10.3 Pressure Divider Technique

In this system an impulse pressure from the air supply is fed to a zero governor in the gas line.
The system is balanced by maintaining the gas pressure as equal to that of the impulsed air
pressure. The ratio is thus maintained across a range of flows. Regular maintenance is required
and the technique is not suitable for systems using preheated air (see Fig 29c).

M Control valve

Air
M Actuator motor

Pressure governor
Bleed

Gas Pressure regulator

Orifice plate

Fig. 29c Pressure divider technique (simple impulse regulator system)

7.10.4 Multiplying Regulators

Where systems use preheated air, a multiplying regulator is used to take account of the difference
in density between cold and hot air. This measures the flow of cold air and uses an impulse to
control the flow of gas accordingly (see Fig 29d).

Control valve

Gas
M Actuator motor

Other burners
Pressure governor
Bleed
Vent

M Pressure regulator
Recuperator
Air or
regenerator Orifice plate

Fig 29d Multiplying regulator system

7.10.5 Electronic Ratio Control

Electronic ratio control systems measure the differential pressure across restrictor valves placed
in the air and fuel lines. The differential pressures induce a flow in a thermistor block composed
of two matched thermistors arranged in a bridge circuit (see Fig 29e). The induced flow heats the
thermistors and causes a corresponding change in their electrical resistance. The output from the
thermistors is processed by an electronic module that sends a control signal to alter the flow of
air in response to a measured change in the flow of fuel, thus maintaining the fuel:air ratio. The
advantages of these systems are a rapid response and a high turndown ratio of up to 10:1.
40

Pressure
governor
Restrictor M Control valve
valve
Gas
M Actuator motor

Filter
Pressure governor
ERC Thermistor block

Filter Pressure regulator

M Restrictor
valve
Air Orifice plate

Fig 29e Electronic ratio control

7.10.6 PLC Control

In addition to temperature and time functions, PLC controllers can readily handle the function of
fuel:air ratio control. Process (e.g. metallurgical) and safety requirements must be taken into
account fully when designing a PLC-controlled system.

7.10.7 Oxygen Trim Control

The methods of controlling fuel:air ratio described above rely on an initial set-up, usually carried
out during commissioning, together with periodic testing and re-adjustment during routine
maintenance. Set-up involves the use of some form of portable instrument to monitor oxygen
levels in the flue gas, and adjustment of valve or damper linkages or set points as necessary.

Oxygen trim systems are a means of controlling fuel:air ratio on a real-time basis. They have
already been extensively implemented in the boiler market with successful results and are now
being implemented in furnace control applications.

The system uses an in situ oxygen probe, usually a zirconia-based oxygen-measuring cell and
thermocouple, and an electronic analyser/controller. Together they provide a control output to
the air or fuel flow controller. The probe is mounted at a representative position in the flue gas
path. Care must be taken to ensure that the probe is sited well away from burner flame paths.
The probe is connected to the analyser which calculates the oxygen concentration in the flue
gases. The control output is passed to a signal limiter containing the desired set point and then
to a ratio controller that acts on the fuel and air flow control mechanisms to maintain the desired
ratio. The signal is usually limited to within plus or minus 10% of the desired set point.

The zirconia probe offers advantages in that it requires no calibration or maintenance. Probe life
should be a minimum of six months in normal applications. Savings of up to 5% in fuel
consumption can be expected at attractive paybacks.

Case study: Installation of oxygen trim control on a steel reheat furnace

In this case study, five zirconia-based oxygen probes were installed in the roof of a steel
reheat furnace at Rotherham Engineering Steels’ Roundwood Coil Bar Mill. The probes
were linked to an oxygen analyser, signal processor, and ratio controller. The system was
used to trim the fuel:air ratio to the burners, thus maintaining a preset oxygen level in the
combustion products. The prime motivation for the project was to increase the product
quality, but energy savings of 2% were initially achieved and were expected to rise to 5%
with further adjustment.
 41

7.11 The Use of Variable Speed Drives for Combustion Air Supply
Combustion air is traditionally supplied to the burner by a fan or blower. The volume supplied,
and hence the fuel:air ratio achieved, is usually regulated by means of a damper or butterfly valve
located in the air duct or pipe between the fan and burner. While this is a reasonably effective
means of regulating the flow, it is highly inefficient in terms of the electricity consumed by the
fan or blower motor. Variable speed drives (VSDs) can be used to vary the speed of the motor
in response to the air demand, with a significant reduction in electricity consumption and cost.
When combined with an oxygen trim system providing a control output signal, further
significant benefits may be available in terms of improved combustion efficiency through very
precise control of fuel:air ratio. Although not yet implemented practically, these types of system
may be further developed in future.

For further information on the implementation of VSD technology, see Good Practice Guide 2,
Energy savings with electric motors and drives, and Good Practice Guide 14, Retrofitting AC
variable speed drives. The successful installation of VSDs on combustion air fan motors in high-
temperature process industries is described in Good Practice Case Studies 115, Variable speed
drives on a large continuous furnace combustion air fan and 125, Variable speed drives on a
batch furnace combustion air fan.

7.12 Relative Costs

Effective control should aim to: optimise the energy content of the fuel; minimise the time
required to achieve the desired temperature; maintain the temperature at the lowest value
consistent with process requirements, with minimum cycling about the set point; optimise the
process duration. Any failure to meet the above criteria leads to higher energy use and, therefore,
wasted money.

In conventional air:fuel ratio control, the oxygen required for combustion is provided by
maintaining a fixed ratio between the fuel input and the amount of air delivered for combustion
purposes. The ratio is adjusted manually to allow for different rates of heat input and
temperature requirements. To avoid potential problems, the air:fuel ratio is normally set at the
upper limit of the tolerable range for a specific product type. This leads to greater volumes of
air than are necessary being admitted to the furnace, resulting in cooling of the furnace and
greater quantities of waste heat being exhausted from the furnace. The use of oxygen trim
control allows a lower air:fuel ratio to be employed and continually adjusted as the measured
volume of oxygen in the combustion products changes.

Table 5 uses this example to indicate the likely cost savings achievable by the installation of
oxygen trim control. At two percent saving, payback would be achieved in less than nine
months, making oxygen control clearly a worthwhile investment. As the original project was
carried out in 1989, cost data have been updated to 1998 levels.
42

Table 5 Cost analysis for oxygen trim control

Costs Manual Oxygen trim (% saving)

control
2% 3% 4% 5%
Installation of oxygen control (£) 35,000 35,000 35,000 35,000
Manpower costs (£) 20,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000
Annual maintenance cost (£) 1,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000
Fuel consumption (£/a) 1,950,750 1,911,735 1,892,228 1,872,720 1,853,213
Lifetime (Yrs) 6 6 6 6 6
Annual fuel and (£) 1,971,750 1,926,735 1,907,228 1,887,720 1,868,213
maintenance cost
Capital cost (£) 0 35,000 35,000 35,000 35,000
Saving per annum (£) 0 45,015 64,523 84,030 103,538
Present value saving
Year Discount factor
Year 0 1.0000 0 -35,000 -35,000 -35,000 -35,000
Year 1 0.9091 40,923 58,657 76,392 94,126
Year 2 0.8264 37,200 53,321 69,442 85,563
Year 3 0.7513 33,819 48,474 63,129 77,785
Year 4 0.6830 30,744 44,067 57,390 70,714
Year 5 0.6209 27,949 40,061 52,173 64,285
Year 6 0.5644 20,997 36,419 47,430 58,441
Net present value (£) 156,633 246,000 330,957 415,914
Simple payback (Yrs) 0.78 0.54 0.42 0.34
Internal rate of return (%) 128% 185% 240% 296%

Fuel cost assumptions: Gas oil - £3.18/GJ Gas - £2.55/GJ

Fig 30 shows the decision route taken when considering the benefits of oxygen trim control.

7.13 Supply, Installation and Commissioning

Most burner manufacturers will supply controls to accompany their products. Although some
manufacturers may not make all the necessary components themselves, most will assemble a
control panel to their own or clients’ specifications using the appropriate outsourced hardware,
and will carry out all installation and commissioning work as required. Many manufacturers may
prefer to commission their own equipment, taking the view that this minimises the likelihood of
problems in the future and makes their rectification more straightforward if they do occur.

The alternative approach is to design the control system in-house and have a specialist panel
builder build, install, and commission the system. Burner manufacturers will supply all
necessary control details to accompany their product and it is strongly recommended that their
advice is sought if this is the chosen route.

7.14 Control Maintenance and Calibration

Regular servicing and calibration of control systems are as important as burner servicing and
essential to ensure a safe, reliable, efficient, and clean combustion system. It is recommended
that controls are checked and serviced on a biannual or annual basis. Consumable items, e.g.
flame ionisation detectors, should be inspected at least monthly and replaced as required.
Inspection and service frequencies may vary according to the type of fuel fired and the particular
characteristics of the burner equipment and furnace in question. It is strongly recommended that
manufacturers’ and suppliers’ service and inspection intervals are observed in all cases.

Control servicing should include recalibration of measuring devices and checking and adjustment
of control rods and linkages where appropriate. Flame failure and safety systems must be tested
to ensure fail-safe operation under all conditions in accordance with British Standards.
 43

START

Has
YES Is manual variable speed drive YES
air control for air fan been
acceptable? considered?

NO NO

Has cost Carry out cost analysis

YES analysis of oxygen
trim control been
undertaken?

NO Is option for NO
variable speed drive
positive?
Carry out cost analysis

YES

Is cost
analysis for oxygen YES
trim control
positive?

NO

Consider Choose variable Choose fuel:

Consider
oxygen trim speed drive for air control by
manual control
control air control damper

Will air flow YES

be controlled
by damper?

NO

NOTE: SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS ARE PARAMOUNT WHEN CONSIDERING CONTROL

Fig 30 Application guide for fuel:air ratio control

44

8. FORMULATING AN ACTION PLAN - THE KEY QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED

This Section provides information on factors that should be considered for specific courses of
action, e.g. the selection of burners or controls. It is not intended to be exhaustive as there are
several organisations that can offer comprehensive advice, or information, on these topics.
These include equipment suppliers, installers, energy efficiency consultants, and the Energy
Helpline (0541 542 541). It is recommended that appropriate organisations are consulted.

In most cases, the information presented below is discussed in detail in the body of this Guide.

8.1 To Improve the Efficiency of Burners

The assessment of performance levels is a key factor in improving the efficiency of burners.
Steps to achieve this are listed below:

1. Analyse any historical energy and production data available:

• compare with other similar units and with the design specification;
• construct an energy balance;
• check the function and accuracy of all controllers and the location of probes and
thermocouples.

2. Examine:

• temperature curves;
• stock temperature;
• temperature range;
• degree of cycling;
• temperature of exhaust;
• time to reach operating temperature;
• light-up procedure.

Any exceptionally high temperatures or deviations from the set point should be fully examined
and appropriate experts consulted.

Check that the most appropriate temperature control technique is being used.

3. Analyse combustion gases in exhaust:

• If oxygen is high:
➩ look for air infiltration;
➩ examine fuel:air ratio.

• If combustion is incomplete, check:

➩ fuel:air ratio;
➩ that fuel atomisation is satisfactory;
➩ that there is adequate air/fuel mixing;
➩ the viability of oxygen trim control.

Oxygen levels should be between 2 and 3% (dry basis) in the exhaust gas.
 45

4. Examine burner characteristics:

• rating of burner(s) against specification;

• air preheat temperature (where appropriate);
• frequency of cycling during operation.

8.2 Selection of Burners

When considering the selection of burners for a new or existing furnace the following factors
should be included:

1. Define or reassess the process requirements:

• temperature of operation;
• time at temperature;
• acceptable temperature span;
• rate of heating;
• required drop-out temperature;
• temperature uniformity;
• throughput/loading;
• schedule of use (intermittent or continuous);
• output (continuous or batch).

2. Consider constraints:

• identify location;
• available capital;
• purchase cost;
• atmospheric requirements;
• frequency, cost, and ease of maintenance.

3. Consider options:

• single or multiple burner installation;

• cold- or hot-air burner;
• remote or integral heat recovery;
• recuperative or regenerative burner;
• expenditure.

Use the form in Fig 7 to collate the necessary information prior to approaching burner suppliers.

8.3 Selection of Controls

Selection of the most appropriate controls for the burner is based on the following: ensuring the
attainment of the correct operating temperature; minimisation of the deviation about the set
point; controlling the rate of heat input; optimising combustion efficiency.

Safety controls will be an integral feature of the burner and are not optional.

1. For selection of temperature control, identify:

• temperature of operation;
• temperature spread;
• required temperature uniformity of stock and furnace;
• whether the process is easy or difficult to control (if possible produce process reaction curve
to determine this).
46

2. Identify:

• frequency of light-up;
• continuous operation or batch rate of heat-up;
• variation in hearth loading;
• capital available;
• complete analysis of costs for various options.

8.4 Combustion Control

Key factors to be examined when ensuring optimum combustion efficiency:
• analyse variability of oxygen found in exhaust gases;
• consider automatic proposed fuel:air ratio control;
• consider variable speed drive fan for control of combustion air;
• is oxygen trim control cost effective in this application?

8.5 Further Reading

British Standard BS EN 746-2:1997. Industrial Thermoprocessing Equipment, Part 2. Safety
Requirements for Combustion and Fuel Handling Systems. ISBN 0 580 28104 3.
Available from The Stationery Shop’s British Standards Order Line. Tel: 0171 404 1213
Fax: 0171 242 3315.

Health and Safety Executive Guidelines. Programmable Electronic Systems in Safety-Related

Applications. ISBN 0 717 61278 3.
Available from HSE Books. Tel: 01787 881165 Fax: 01787 313995.

Secretary of State’s Guidance Note PG 1/3 (95), August 1995. Boilers and Furnaces,
20 - 50 MW Net Rated Thermal Input. ISBN 0 11 753146 4.
Available from The Stationery Office Shop. Tel: 0171 873 9090.

Chief Inspector’s Guidance Note S2 1.01, November 1995. Combustion Processes: Large
Boilers and Furnaces 50 MW(th) and over. ISBN 0 11 753206 1.
Available from The Stationery Office Shop. Tel: 0171 873 9090.

8.6 Useful Addresses and Contacts

Energy Helpline (part of the Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme)
Tel: 0541 542 541 (telephone charges apply)

Environmental Helpline (part of the Environmental Technology Best Practice Programme)

Tel: 0800 585794 (freephone)

Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau

ETSU
Harwell
Didcot
Oxfordshire
OX11 0RA

Tel: 01235 436747 Fax: 01235 433066

E-mail: [email protected]
 47

The Combustion Engineering Association

1a Clarke Street
Ely Bridge
Cardiff
CF5 5AL

Tel: 01222 555833 Fax: 01222 553181

British Combustion Engineering Manufacturers’ Association

The Fernery
Market Place
Midhurst
West Sussex
GU29 9DP

Tel: 01730 812782 Fax: 01730 813366

8.7 Suppliers of Burners and Control Equipment and Related Services

The following list of suppliers is intended to help potential users in finding suitable equipment
and in obtaining more detailed information. The list is not exhaustive and has been compiled
from information currently available to ETSU. The listing of a supplier of goods or services does
not constitute an endorsement of its competence by the Department of the Environment,
Transport and the Regions, and neither does the omission of a supplier discriminate against its
competence.

The names and addresses of other suppliers may be found in commercially available trade
directories or obtained from trade associations.

8.7.1 Burner Manufacturers and Suppliers

CGE Ltd
Peel Road, West Pimbo, Skelmersdale, Lancashire, WN8 9PT
Tel: 01695 727441

Eurograde Plant Ltd

Unit 3, Viscount Industrial Estate, Horton Road, Poyle, Colnbrook, Berkshire, SL3 0DF
Tel: 01753 681890

Fairbank Brierly Ltd

Valley Works, Ribble Street, Keighley, West Yorkshire, BD21 4LP
Tel: 01535 611272

Hirt Combustion Engineers

Woodford Green Works, Leslie Road, Woodford Park Ind. Estate, Winsford, Cheshire, SW7 2JE
Tel: 01606 861366

Hotwork Development Ltd

Bretton Street, Savile Town, Dewsbury, West Yorkshire, WF12 9DB
Tel: 01924 465272

Laidlaw Drew Ltd

1 Lister Road, Kirkton Campus, Livingston, Scotland, EH54 7BL
Tel: 01506 416666
48

Mont Selas (a division of Hunt Thermal Ltd)

Astley Street, Dukinfield, Cheshire, SK16 4QT
Tel: 0161 655 1034

Nu-Way Ltd
PO Box 1, Vines Lane, Droitwich, Worcestershire, WR9 8NA
Tel: 01905 794331

Stirling Process Engineering Ltd

Brunel Road, Rabans Lane, Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, HP19 3SS
Tel: 01296 87171

Stordy Combustion Engineering Ltd

Heathmill Road, Wombourne, Wolverhampton, West Midlands, WV5 8BD
Tel: 01902 897654

Wellman Furnaces Ltd

Cornwall Road, Smethwick, Warley, West Midlands, B66 2LB
Tel: 0121 358 3151

8.7.2 Research Organisations

British Steel PLC

Swinden Technology Centre
Moorgate
Rotherham
South Yorkshire
S60 3AR

Tel: 01709 820166

BG Technology
Gas Research and Technology Centre
Ashby Road
Loughborough
LE11 3GR

Tel: 01509 282000

8.7.3 Modelling Contractors

The University of Leeds

Department of Fuel and Energy
Leeds
LS2 9JT

Tel: 0113 233 2508

BG Technology
Gas Research and Technology Centre
Ashby Road
Loughborough
LE11 3GR

Tel: 01509 282000

 49

GLOSSARY

Atomisation
Atomising (burner) Oil needs to be broken down into droplets to facilitate
vaporisation and combustion. Atomising burners are classified
according to the source of energy used to disintegrate the fuel.

Blast atomiser (twin-fluid) These operate at low, medium, or high pressure; steam or air and
oil impinge, either within (internal mixing) or at the outlet
(external mixing) of the burner.

• Low pressure - uses air at 105 to 115 kPa (15 to 17 psi) as

the atomising medium. A large proportion (sometimes all) of
the combustion air is used as the atomising medium.
Turndown ratio is between 2:1 and 5:1.
• Medium pressure - uses air at 230 to 300 kPa (33 to 44 psi).
Less than 10% of the combustion air is used to atomise the
fuel. Turndown ratios of 10:1 can be obtained.
• High pressure - uses air or steam at >300 kPa (44 psi).
High-pressure steam burners are used only when a large
amount of dry steam is available.

Pressure jet atomiser Oil is pumped at high pressure (700 to 3,500 kPa, or 100 to 500
psi) through a fine nozzle to produce a spray of droplets. Heavy
fuel oil may need to be preheated to reduce the viscosity to an
acceptable level.

Rotating cup atomiser Oil flows through a central pipe to the inner surface of a
revolving, hollow, tapered cup. It spreads over the surface and is
thrown off the periphery of the free end by centrifugal force.

Steam jet This is a blast (twin-fluid) atomiser using steam at high pressure.
Between 0.3 and 0.5 kg of steam per kg of oil are required.

Burner A means of combusting fossil fuel under control, to enable the

introduction of heat into a furnace.

Burner quarls Refractory components surrounding the burner nozzle.

Calorific value (CV) The quantity of heat liberated when a fuel is burned.

• Gross CV includes the heat liberated when water vapour

condenses to liquid at room temperature.
• Net CV is the value when, under practical conditions, the
combustion gases are not cooled sufficiently to liberate the
latent heat of water.

CO Carbon monoxide, one of the intermediate products of

combustion of carbon. Analysis of levels of CO in flue gases
gives an indication of the level of incomplete combustion.

CO2 Carbon dioxide, a product of complete combustion of carbon.

50

Combustion A rapid chemical reaction between the combustibles in the fuel

and oxygen in the air with liberation of heat. In gas and liquid
fuels, carbon and hydrogen constitute the combustibles.

Combustion air Air that contains the oxygen needed to burn the fuel. Identified
as either primary air (introduced at the point of combustion), or
secondary or tertiary air (introduced to the flame or elsewhere in
the furnace).

Combustion efficiency The percentage of heat released that is put to use compared to
the total heat energy in the fuel.

Conduction When a temperature gradient exists in a stationary medium, heat

is transferred from the hot to the cold region by conduction.

Controlled atmosphere A specific type of atmosphere can be created within a furnace to

satisfy the requirements of the product being treated, e.g.
oxidising or reducing atmospheres may be created or avoided, or
certain levels of humidity achieved. Radiant tube or panel burners
are often used to separate the combustion products from the stock.

Controls

Set point The desired process condition, e.g. temperature.

Error The deviation from the set point.

Dead time The time delay between elements of a control loop.

On/off control The simplest form of temperature control. Normally the unit is
fully on or fully off. It is very difficult to achieve a fixed set
point without a wide under- and overshoot of the set point
temperature.

On On On On
Burner

Off Off Off

Temperature

Set point

Time

Fig 31 Time-temperature curve for simple on/off controller

Proportional control This continuously adjusts heat input to the process in linear
proportion to the error, thus maintaining a stable temperature. As
shown in Fig 32, control is effected over a temperature band
above and below the set point (called the proportional band).
 51

The energy input varies from 0-100% over the proportional

band. The energy input is zero when the temperature crosses the
upper limit of the proportional band and 100% when the
temperature crosses the lower limit.

100%

50% Energy
input

0%

Upper proportional band

Temperature (°C)

Proportional
Set point band

Lower proportional band

Mean stable temperature

Time

Fig 32 Time-temperature curve for simple proportional controller

The problem with proportional control is that at set point

temperature the energy input is 50% of that available and it is
rare that the heat input necessary to maintain the set point
temperature is 50% of the maximum. Consequently the
temperature will increase or decrease from set point, varying the
energy input until an equilibrium condition is reached (Fig 33a).
The difference between the equilibrium temperature and the set
point temperature is known as the offset.
Temperature

Offset
Set point Proportional
band

Time

Fig 33a Time-temperature curve showing temperature offset

52

The set point temperature can be achieved by moving the

proportional band up or down. In the case of Fig 33b moving
the band downwards. The offset can be moved either manually
or automatically. Manual adjustment can only be done by
slowly adjusting the position of the proportional band until the
heat input matches the process heat demand. This is a time
consuming process and would need to be done for any changes
in the process heat requirements. It is therefore better achieved
automatically.

Removal
of offset
Temperature

Set point
Proportional
band

Offset

Time

Fig 33b Time-temperature curve showing removal of temperature offset

Integral control The controller output is proportional to the integral of the

deviation from the set point (see Fig 31). There is no offset with
this type of control as the output keeps changing as long as the
deviation persists.
Temperature

Set point

Proportional
band

Reset action begins

Time

Fig 34 Time-temperature curve showing effect of proportional plus integral action

 53

Derivative control Derivative action is often added to proportional control to

improve the response of slow systems. The derivative function
provides the controller with the ability to shift the proportional
band either up or down to compensate for rapidly changing
temperature. The amount of shift is proportional to the
temperature change.

PID control Proportional and integral and derivative control. This is a three-
mode controller combining all three actions and is usually
required to control difficult processes.

Convection Heat transfer that occurs between a surface and a moving fluid
when they are at different temperatures.

Drive The thrust, or velocity, of the hot gases directed into the furnace.
The higher the velocity of the burner jet the better the
temperature uniformity and the rate of convective heat transfer.

Dual-fuel burners These have the facility to burn either oil or gas, or both fuels at
the same time. They are useful when there are uncertainties in
terms of lower cost fuel supplies (e.g. interruptible gas).

Excess air The provision of combustion air in greater quantities than is

required to provide sufficient oxygen for stoichiometric
combustion. Excess air produces an oxidising atmosphere in the
furnace.

Excess fuel A greater proportion of fuel than oxygen available to burn it;
results in smoke and pollutants.

Eductor A device that causes movement in a secondary fluid resulting

from entrainment brought about by movement in a primary
fluid. Used in self-recuperative burner systems to draw flue
gases through the burner body.

Flame detection Fuel must be ignited immediately it leaves the burner outlet;
otherwise, it can lead to a major fire or explosion. For this
reason, flame detection sensors are used to confirm that the fuel
has ignited. Techniques include monitoring temperature,
radiation, and ionisation.

Flame shape Burner design determines the relative velocity of the fuel and air
streams and dictates the flame shape. Good mixing, produced by
a high degree of turbulence and higher velocity, produces a
short, squat flame; poor mixing and lower velocity produce lazy,
flickering flames.

Flame stability A flame is stable if it is moving towards the burner at the same
speed as the fuel/air mixture is leaving the burner. If the mixture
speed is higher than the flame speed, the flame will be pushed
away from the burner and may go out (lift off). If the mixture
speed is lower than the flame speed, the flame may ‘flash back’
through the burner.
54

Flashback This occurs when the rate at which fuel is burned in the body of
the nozzle is higher than the rate at which it is delivered to the
nozzle. This is an unsafe combustion and is avoided by careful
adjustment of fuel flow rate and the use of flame arrestors.

Flue gases The exhaust gases leaving the furnace.

Fuel:air ratio For maximum efficiency the combustion air should be limited to
that necessary for complete combustion of the fuel. Because of
less than perfect mixing of fuel and air, excess air is normally
provided. See also excess air/excess fuel, above, lean mixture,
rich mixture.
High-velocity (burner) A burner capable of achieving high rates of heat input and
providing strong circulation to the furnace atmosphere, thus
assuring good rates of heat transfer and uniform temperature
distribution in the furnace.

Ignition point Mixtures of fuel and air will not normally burn at room
temperature because they are too cold. They require heating to
a temperature called the ‘ignition point’, which varies with the
type of fuel and the fuel:air ratio.

Impulse fired (burner) This is a variant of the regenerative burner where the burners
operate at zero or maximum thermal input. Each burner fires
alternately for 15 seconds. The ‘off’ period between reversal
varies, depending on the heat input requirement.

Inferred efficiency This is obtained by subtracting calculated efficiency losses from

100%.

Interruptible tariff An energy supply tariff that enables lower cost rates for supply
of electricity and natural gas (providing the supply can be turned
off at times of high demand).

Lean mixture A mix of fuel and air with the air in excess of combustion
requirements.

Lift off This occurs when the rate at which fuel is burned is less than the
rate at which it is delivered to the nozzle, causing the flame to
separate from the burner nozzle. Lift off can lead to flame out.

Low-NOx burners Because energy use is becoming more efficient, burners are
operating at increasing flame temperatures. This can lead to
combustion products with higher levels of oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), which have an adverse environmental impact. Burners
that maintain high levels of efficiency while reducing levels of
NOx emissions are now being developed.

Luminous flame A yellow flame, rich in suspended solid particles, indicative of

incomplete combustion. Although of lower combustion
efficiency, a luminous flame is more effective in terms of heat
transfer by radiation.

Mathematical modelling This involves using a mathematical representation that describes

the process under consideration. The magnitude of the
operation’s parameters can be adjusted to allow the influence of
these changes to be determined.
 55

Measurement The list below describes some of the most suitable methods of
measuring relevant parameters.

Orifice plate A plate (with a central hole) that is fitted into a pipeline. This
generates a differential pressure that can be used to determine
the flow rate of the gas stream.

Pitot tube A tube that is inserted into the gas stream and used to determine
the velocity of the gas stream by measuring the static and
dynamic pressures.

Pyrometer An instrument that determines temperature by measuring the

wavelength intensity of the hot body. A non-contact method for
high temperatures.

Suction pyrometer A variation of the pyrometer; hot gases are drawn over a
shielded thermocouple, thus eliminating the effects of radiant
heat transfer.

Temperature measurement Involves monitoring the change produced by change in

temperature. This may be expansion, change of state, electrical
effects, or wave transmission. Temperature range, response
time, required accuracy, spatial resolution, and application
determine the choice of temperature-measuring instruments.

Thermocouple Measures the voltage (varies with temperature) produced at the

junction of two dissimilar metals.

Venturi A flow restriction fitted into the gas stream, thereby creating a
differential pressure that can be used to measure flow rate.

Multi-capacity process This involves a complex relationship between differing rates of

heat input, transfer, and heat capacity.

NOx The combined oxides of nitrogen: principally nitric oxide (NO),

nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O). NOx is a major
source of pollution: first, in terms of photochemical smog and
acid rain, and second, as a contributor to the greenhouse effect.

Nozzle mix Fuel and air are brought together at the burner nozzle to ensure
good fuel/air mixing and minimise unburned fuel.

Oxygen probe Instrument for determining the concentration of oxygen in a gas

stream, using in line or sampling techniques; sometimes referred
to as a zirconia probe.

Oxygen trim controller A control system involving measurement of the oxygen

concentration of the combustion products and adjustment or
‘trimming’ of the fuel:air ratio.

Preheat This involves raising the temperature of the stock or combustion

air (normally by using exhaust gases as they leave the furnace).
It ensures that the waste heat finally discarded to the atmosphere
is of low grade and reduces the heat required from the primary
heat source.
56

Premix Fuel and air are mixed in the body of the burner, prior to
combustion.

Radiant tube The burner is contained in a closed tube and the combustion
products pass through a heat exchanger to heat the incoming air.
The fuel and air are introduced at the same end that the
combustion products leave. Radiant tubes are often used in
controlled atmosphere furnaces and for tank heating and also as
immersion heaters in certain non-ferrous metal processes.

Radiation (thermal) Electromagnetic wave energy emitted by the surface of a body

at a finite temperature. For two adjacent surfaces at different
temperatures there is a net heat transfer by radiation, although
convection may also play a part.

Recuperator A heat exchanger that allows the combustion air to be preheated

by the hot exhaust gases. The recuperator may be integral with
the body of the burner (self-recuperative) or outside the furnace
and separated from the burner (remote recuperator).

Redwood seconds A measure of the viscosity of a liquid, based on an experimental

technique that requires measurement of the time taken for a
fixed volume of liquid to flow, under gravity, through an orifice
of fixed dimensions.

Regenerative burner A regenerative burner system consists of a pair of burners, each

with its own integral regeneration chamber and a facility for
reversing flow. While one burner fires using air fed to the base
of its regenerator the other burner acts as an exhaust port
drawing off waste gas, thereby heating its regenerator. When
this regenerator is sufficiently charged with heat the flow is
reversed and air is preheated for combustion in this burner.

Regenerator A means of recovering heat, usually from the exhausted

products of combustion. Hot gases are passed over a bed of heat-
retaining material such as refractory brickwork. Once heated to
the optimum temperature, the exhaust gas is redirected to heat
the second chamber of the regenerator. Cold air is then passed
through the first chamber to recover the heat in the refractory,
prior to being used for combustion of the fuel. The two
chambers are continuously cycled during use.

Retrofit Installation of additional equipment or replacement of current

equipment on existing units.

Rich mixture A mix of fuel and air with insufficient air for complete
combustion.

Secondary air Air that is introduced with the flame, in addition to the primary
combustion air, to ensure complete combustion or an oxidising
atmosphere.

Self-recuperative (burner) This burner has an integral heat exchanger that allows the
combustion products to heat the incoming air and thus improve
the efficiency of fuel use.
 57

Single capacity process This is where the rate of temperature rise is directly proportional
to the rate of input.

SOx The combined oxides of sulphur: principally sulphur dioxide

(SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3). SOx is a major cause of acid
rain and arises during the combustion of sulphur-containing
fuels (mainly oil and coal).

Specific energy The amount of energy required per unit of production.

consumption (SEC)

Stoichiometric combustion Stoichiometric conditions are met when the volume of oxygen is
exactly sufficient to combine chemically with all the
combustibles in the fuel. Under practical conditions, perfect
mixing of fuel and oxygen is not achievable and excess oxygen
or air is required for full combustion of the fuel.

Temperature control This aims to achieve a set temperature within a stated range. It
entails measurement and a feedback mechanism to control the
rate of fuel input (automatic or manual).

Turndown (ratio) The range of input rates within which a burner will operate
satisfactorily. Defined as the ratio of maximum to minimum heat
input rates. The greater the turndown ratio the better the control.

Variable speed drive (VSD) A means of controlling the speed of conventional electric
motors, with a reduction in power consumed.

Waste heat recovery The utilisation of heat that would otherwise be lost to the
environment.
58

APPENDIX 1

PRINCIPLES OF COMBUSTION

A1.1 What is Combustion?

Combustion is defined as the rapid chemical reaction of combustible matter with oxygen, with
the consequent release of energy, usually in the form of heat. In gaseous and liquid fuels the
combustible matter is usually carbon and hydrogen. These do not exist in pure forms, but are
generally combined as hydrocarbon compounds. The combustion reactions are complex,
involving many intermediate steps and compounds, before the formation of the final products of
combustion, chiefly carbon dioxide and water vapour.

A1.2 Fuel:Air Ratio

In ideal combustion, fuel and oxygen are present in exactly the right quantities for complete
reaction. This is called stoichiometric combustion. However, under practical conditions the fuel
and oxygen do not mix sufficiently in the time available to ensure complete combustion.
Therefore it is normal to introduce a proportion of extra combustion air, called excess air. Too
little excess air may cause inefficiency due to unburned fuel and combustible intermediate
compounds leaving the furnace. Too much excess air causes inefficiency because the additional
air carries away heat, which should be transferred to the furnace stock, in the flue gases.
Analysis of the products of combustion in the flue gases gives vital information on the efficiency
of the combustion process.

A1.3 Mixing and Atomisation

Fuel and air must be brought together and mixed in order to react completely. In the case of
gaseous fuels this is relatively straightforward. In the case of liquid fuels, however, the fuel must
first be broken down into small droplets, which then vaporise and mix with the combustion air.
This process is known as atomisation. Atomisation and mixing are two of the main functions of
a burner.

A1.4 Ignition
A mixture of fuel and air will not normally react if mixed together at room temperature and
pressure. The temperature of the mixture must be raised sufficiently to the ignition point before
the reaction will take place. The ignition point varies with the type of fuel and the fuel:air ratio.
Ignition of the fuel and air is a further function of the burner and is usually achieved by an
electric spark, pilot flame or manually lighted torch.

A1.5 Stability
A flame front moves through a fuel/air mixture at a given speed dependent on the fuel and
fuel:air ratio. In a stable combustion reaction, the flame front will appear to be stationary
because the flame is moving towards the burner at the same speed as the fuel/air mixture emerges
from the burner. If the mixture speed is too great, the flame will lift off the burner; too little and
the flame will flash back into the burner body. Achieving a stable flame is another key function
of the burner. Most burners incorporate some form of diffuser plate or swirler that recirculates
the fuel/air mixture around the root of the flame and maintains ignition.

A1.6 Exhaust Gases and Losses

Exhaust gases leave the furnace by a flue or stack. These exhaust gases contain the following:
products of combustion, mainly carbon dioxide and water vapour; any excess air, mostly oxygen
and nitrogen; secondary combustion products, including carbon monoxide, and oxides of sulphur
(SOx) and of nitrogen (NOx).
 59

These exhaust gases represent inefficiency in the combustion process. Some losses are
inevitable, but can be minimised by use of a correctly set-up combustion system. Flue gas losses
are composed of three elements: dry, or sensible, flue gas losses are the losses due to the heat
contained in the dry gases leaving the furnace; wet, or latent, flue gas losses are losses due to the
latent heat contained in the water vapour leaving the furnace; unburned fuel losses represent the
energy value of any unburned fuel or combustible intermediate compounds that leave the furnace
without completing the combustion reaction. Measurement of the composition and temperature
of the exhaust gases estimate all three losses. Subtracting these losses from 100% gives the
inferred efficiency of the combustion process. This, together with measurement or estimation
of the losses from the furnace body by conduction, convection and radiation, gives the inferred
efficiency of the furnace system as a whole. Further details on the method of assessment of
combustion efficiency are given in Appendix 2.

A1.7 Combustion Air Supply

In the simplest burners, the fuel and combustion air meet either within the body of the burner or
at the nozzle. The air supply may be either at atmospheric pressure or pressurised by a fan or
blower. Most burners used in industrial furnace applications incorporate some form of
pressurisation of the combustion air and are known as forced draught burners.

In order to help the combustion reactions reach completion, a portion of the combustion air may
be introduced to the flame after the burner nozzle. This is known as staged combustion, and the
extra air is termed secondary combustion air. Some burner or furnace designs may incorporate
features to introduce still more air (tertiary combustion air) in order to ensure complete burnout
of fuels that are particularly difficult to burn, or to promote particular chemical reactions to
reduce pollution. Air staging techniques are used by burner designers to reduce emissions of
NOx in particular. Secondary and tertiary air are introduced through diffusers, swirlers, or
registers, the design of which may be used to influence the resulting flame shape.
60

APPENDIX 2

HOW TO ASSESS THE EFFICIENCY OF THE COMBUSTION PROCESS

The need for optimum combustion efficiency is an ongoing requirement. However, many
furnace operators often may not appreciate the need for continual checking and adjustment under
routine maintenance procedures. The main factors to consider are:

• the fuel:air ratio;

• air inleakage to the furnace.

Each percentage of oxygen above the optimum in the flue gases results in a 1 to 1.5%
increase in energy consumption.

Burners are usually set up for optimum practical efficiency at commissioning. However, the
efficiency may rapidly deteriorate with time, due to control drift or incorrect re-adjustment
following disassembly. Fortunately, combustion efficiency testing is easy to carry out with
portable instruments that can be purchased or hired, and will give a rapid return on costs through
reduced fuel consumption.

The ideal combustion condition is stoichiometric, i.e. the fuel and air are present in the exact
proportions necessary for complete chemical reaction. However, in practice, poor mixing of fuel
and air means that some excess air is required to ensure that complete burnout occurs; otherwise,
smoke, carbon monoxide, and other intermediate combustion compounds may be formed. The
practical lower limit for oxygen in dry flue gases is around 2 to 3%, equivalent to 10 to 15%
excess air, depending on the fuel used. Metallurgical considerations, e.g. the avoidance of scaling
or oxidation of the stock, may dictate slight variations in the levels for certain types of furnace.

Worked Example

A gas-fired furnace is tested and found to have a flue gas oxygen level of 6% and a flue
gas temperature of 500°C. Calculations show an excess air level of about 35% and, hence,
an exhaust gas loss of 34.9%. Adjustments to the burner reduce the flue gas oxygen level
to 3% (equivalent to 15% excess air) which, at the same flue gas temperature, represents a
loss of only 31.5%. The reduction in losses achieved by adjustment of the fuel:air ratio is
thus 9.7%. This would be worth over £4,800 per year on a furnace with an annual energy
cost of £50,000.

Testing of furnaces to determine combustion efficiency involves sampling exhaust gases from
the furnace flue using a combustion gas analyser. Care should be taken to ensure that the sample
point will give a representative sample of the flue gases; it is worth carrying out several traverses
of the flue to ensure an accurate mean value. Combustion analysis equipment ranges from
simple, chemical absorption kits for the measurement of O2, CO2 (or both), to sophisticated
electronic analysers capable of measuring CO, NO, NO2, SO2, and SO3, as well as O2, CO2 and
temperature. Chemical kits will require a separate means of temperature measurement, and
manual calculation of efficiency using either a nomogram or standard formulae, whereas most
electronic analysers will calculate efficiency automatically, using stored constants. Electronic
analysers are quicker and easier to use but are technically more complex than simple chemical
analysers and may require periodic recalibration. The fluids in chemical kits will require
periodic replacement.
 61

A high waste gas temperature may indicate poor heat transfer to the stock, and the cause should
be investigated and rectified. A low flue gas temperature does not necessarily indicate good heat
transfer; air inleakage may be diluting and cooling the flue gases, thus considerably reducing the
efficiency of the furnace. If the heat transfer is optimised and the waste gas temperature is still
high, then there may be an opportunity for waste heat recovery. This is covered elsewhere in this
Guide and in considerably greater depth in Good Practice Guide 13, Waste heat recovery from
high temperature gas streams.

An electronic analyser costs from as little as £500 for a basic model, up to around £3,000 for a
fully featured model. To hire a mid-range analyser from a commercial instrument hire company
would cost in the region of £100 to £150 per week. A chemical absorption kit costs around £750.
Details of combustion analysis equipment suppliers and hire companies can be found in
Section 8.7.

Once the existing level of performance has been established, it should be a simple matter to make
any adjustments to the burner to correct the fuel:air ratio as required. Air inleakage to the furnace
is another cause of poor performance and should be rectified. Furnace testing is outside the remit
of this Guide. Further information on the subject can be found in a companion Guide
- Good Practice Guide 253, Choosing, using and modifying furnaces.
62

APPENDIX 3

HEAT TRANSFER

A3.1 Principles of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is defined as energy in transit as a result of a difference in temperature. There are
three main mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and thermal radiation.

In the case of conduction, heat energy is transferred on a molecular scale, with no large-scale
movement of matter. Convection occurs when there is a temperature difference between a fluid
and a solid boundary. It is a combination of both heat flow and fluid flow (mass transfer). Two
cases of convection occur: forced convection when the flow of fluid is caused by some external
means, e.g. the action of a fan or pump; natural convection when the flow is simply a result of
differences in buoyancy with the fluid. Radiation does not require the existence of an
intervening medium. It occurs as a result of the energy, in the form of electromagnetic waves,
emitted by all matter. The quantity of energy transferred is dependent on the temperature and
emissivity of the emitting body, which may be a solid, a liquid or, in the case of radiative heat
transfer from flames, a gas.

In practice, all three mechanisms operate simultaneously; however, for the purposes of heat
transfer between the flame and furnace stock, convection and radiation are the main mechanisms.

A3.2 Choice of Heat Transfer Method

Radiation has two main advantages: it has high intensity or power, i.e. high heat input rates can
be readily achieved to suit high-speed production processes; it can be easily spread over a wide
area. Disadvantages are: it travels only in straight lines, with the result that some stock may not
be adequately heated; it cannot be readily controlled. Stock may continue to be heated by the
radiation from the furnace walls and ceiling, even after the flame has been turned off.

Convection can be more readily directed around the interior of a furnace and can penetrate
throughout the load, thus ensuring even heating of the stock. Convective heating is beneficial in
treatments requiring an element of mass transfer, e.g. drying operations.

The heat transfer method chosen depends largely on the application: radiation tends to be more
effective in melting of metal and glass, and holding of the molten metal or glass, and for forging,
galvanising and reheating processes; convection methods tend to be used for processes such as
drying, normalising, stress-relieving, and heating of densely-packed loads, or for high-velocity
flame heating.

A3.3 Influence of Flame Characteristics on Heat Transfer

The shape and characteristics of the flame have a strong influence on the heat transfer between
the flame and the stock, and burner design and choice of fuel can be manipulated to achieve the
desired effect. The design of the burner determines the relative velocities of the fuel and air
streams, and hence the flame length and shape. Good mixing, as a result of high turbulence and
velocity, produces a short, bushy flame, whereas poor or delayed mixing will produce a longer,
slender flame. A turbulent, high-velocity flame will churn up the atmosphere within the furnace
and promote high rates of convective heat transfer, whereas a long, slender flame will have a
higher radiative heat transfer component.

Fuel choice also has a strong bearing on the radiative heat transfer characteristics. Oil firing
produces flames that are yellower and more luminous (with relatively better radiation
characteristics) than a well-mixed natural-gas flame, which tends to be bluer and less luminous.
A poorly mixed or delayed mix natural-gas flame may, however, give a yellower, more luminous
flame due to the incandescence of carbon particles in the flame. These are produced by pyrolysis
of the hydrocarbon compounds in the gas.
 63

APPENDIX 4

PRINCIPLES OF NOx FORMATION AND METHODS OF

REDUCTION AND CONTROL

A4.1 NOx Formation

The term NOx refers to the combined oxides of nitrogen, principally nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen
dioxide (NO2), and nitrous oxide (N2O). NO is formed during the combustion of fossil fuels. A
small part of it is oxidised to NO2 in the flame, but most of this oxidation occurs after the
combustion products are exhausted into the atmosphere. The formation of NO in flames involves
three routes:

• the ‘thermal’ mechanism;

• the ‘prompt’ mechanism;
• the ‘fuel’ mechanism.

The thermal and prompt routes describe the oxidation of molecular nitrogen in air, while the fuel
route describes the oxidation of nitrogen-containing compounds. This third route can be
significant in the combustion of coal and oils, but negligible in natural-gas combustion. Thermal
NO is normally more significant than prompt NO, with the amount of prompt NO formation
being typically about an order of magnitude less than thermal NO.

It is generally believed that thermal NOx formation is highly dependent on temperature, linearly
dependent on oxygen atom concentration, and independent of fuel type. Figs 35 and 36 illustrate
the effects of temperature and oxygen, respectively, on NOx formation for a typical burner
set up.

44.1

4.41
NOx (kg/GJ)

0.44

0.04
1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000

Temperature (°C)

Fig 35 The effects of temperature on NOx formation

64

44.1

2,000°C
NOx (kg/GJ)

4.41

1,500°C

0.44
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Oxygen (%)

Fig 36 The effects of oxygen levels on NOx formation

The prompt NO mechanism, which involves reactions of fuel-derived radicals with N2, occurs
under fuel-rich conditions, with short residence time and low temperature. In certain
circumstances a reaction occurs which can destroy NO. This phenomenon is utilised in fuel
staging or reburning NOx reduction techniques. Most of the fuel is burned in a primary zone
with excess oxygen; the remaining fuel is injected downstream to create a secondary fuel-rich -
or ‘reburn’ - zone where the NO is reduced to N2. Tertiary air is added further downstream to
complete the combustion.

A4.2 NOx Reduction and Control

There are two approaches to reducing the discharge of NOx formation from a combustion
process: the first, and the cheapest, method is to minimise the formation of NOx in the flame by
paying careful attention to combustion parameters. The second method is to allow the NOx to
form and then to try and reduce emissions by treatment of the flue gases downstream.

From the point of view of a furnace operator, preventing the formation of NOx is largely a matter
of selecting a low-NOx burner design from a manufacturer. This will inevitably cost slightly
more than a conventional burner, but, when considered in the context of a complete reburnering
exercise or the construction of a new furnace, the additional costs are not likely to be significant.

Burner manufacturers use staged combustion techniques and/or flue gas recirculation to achieve
acceptable NOx formation levels. Another approach is to reduce or exclude molecular nitrogen
from the flame by using oxy-fuel firing techniques as discussed earlier in this Guide. This is
effective in reducing NOx levels on a weight basis, although they may appear to be higher on a
volumetric basis due to the reduction in flue gas volume. Some NOx will inevitably be formed,
as it is practically impossible to exclude atmospheric air from the furnace space.

Downstream control is likely to be considerably more complex and hence more expensive. The
chief methods employed are:

• Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR): This technique uses injection of ammonia over a
catalyst bed to promote a reaction that reduces the NOx to molecular nitrogen. The process
can achieve high reduction rates of 80 - 90% or more, but has high capital and operating costs.
There may be problems with catalyst poisoning and fly ash plugging (blockages in the
catalyst caused by solid particles in the gas stream), so this technique is best suited to clean
applications. The technique is currently undergoing further development, which may lead to
more widespread application in the future.
 65

• Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR): This process operates on similar principles to

SCR and achieves NOx reductions of 60 - 90%. The process requires higher temperatures
than SCR but does not involve the additional expense of a catalyst.

For further information on NOx formation and control, see General Information Report 45,
NOx reduction technology for steel reheating and heat treatment furnaces.
66

APPENDIX 5

OVERVIEW OF RELEVANT ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION

Plant size MWth < 20 MW > 20 MW > 50 MW > 500 MW

net heat input < 50 MW < 500 MW
Non-aggregated plant Aggregated plant Aggregated
from 3 MW min. plant

Legislation/guidance Clean Air Act 1993 EPA 1990 Part ‘B’ Processes EPA 1990 Part ‘A’ Processes
Secretary of State’s Guidance Chief Inspector’s Guidance
Notes PG 1/3 (95) Notes S2 1.01 (95)

Controlling Authority Local Authority Local Authority Environment Agency

Existing 27/5/93 1/10/97 New limit 01/04/2001

Date plant Existing limit 01/04/1995
of effect
New plant 27/5/93 1/8/95 01/07/1987

Fuel type Gas Liquid Gas Liquid

Fuels Fuels Gas Liquid Gas Liquid

(Class C, Class
C2, D) (E,F,G,H)

Particulates – 300 - 400 5 100 150 5 50 5 50

(mg/nm3) (smoke (150
limits) existing)

Emissions NOx — n/a 140 200 450 350 450 350 450
limits (mg (NO2) (200 (300 (600 (650
/nm3) existing) existing) existing) existing)

SOx — Some 35 350 3,000 5 1,700 5 400

(mg/nm3) inner-city (= 1.76 (= 1.0 (= 0.23
local % S) % S) % S)
controls

Table courtesy of Saacke Ltd.

Legislation as at July 1998.

Please note that the information contained in this table is subject to change and should not be
taken as definitive. The original documentation should be consulted for confirmation.
The Government’s Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme provides impartial, Energy Consumption Guides: compare energy use in
authoritative information on energy efficiency techniques and technologies in industry, transport specific processes, operations, plant and building types.
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Enquiries Bureau Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau yet to be fully established as good practice.
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Building Research Establishment Harwell, Didcot, Oxfordshire, specific technologies and techniques.
Garston, Watford, WD2 7JR OX11 0RA
Tel 01923 664258 Fax 01235 433066 Energy Efficiency in Buildings: helps new energy managers
Fax 01923 664787 Helpline Tel 0800 585794 understand the use and costs of heating, lighting etc.
E-mail [email protected] Helpline E-mail [email protected]
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