Unit 11 Gas exchange in humans

11.1 The gas exchange system

Structure of the gas exchange system (Lung)

• The lungs are spongy organs found inside the chest (thorax) are protected by ribs and
sternum (breastbone).
• Surrounding the lungs are two pleural membranes with pleural fluid between them.
• The intercostal muscles between the ribs move the ribs during breathing.

Figure: Lung structure

The diaphragm

• The diaphragm is a sheet of fibrous tissue and muscle that separates thorax from the
abdomen
• Its movement up and down changes the volume of the lungs to move air when you breathe
out and in.
Key words
Alveoli: tiny air-filled sacs in the lungs where gas exchange takes place
Trachea: the tube through which air travels to the lungs ; it has rings of cartilage in its walls,
to support it.
Cartilage: the trachea is kept open by C-shaped rings of cartilage. The ‘arms’ of the C are
joined by muscle at the back of the trachea. The cartilage prevents the trachea from
collapsing as you breathe in when the air pressure decreases.
Goblet cells: cells found in the lining of epithelium of the respiratory passages and digestive
system, which secretes mucus

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 Cilia: tiny projections from some of the cells in the lining of the respiratory passages; the
cilia of many adjacent cells beat rhythmically in unison

The route taken by air in and out to the alveoli in the lungs

• Air enters the mouth or nose and passes through the throat to the larynx (voice box).
• It then enters the trachea (windpipe) which connects the throat to the lungs.
• It branches to form two bronchi which enter each lung.
• These continue to divide to form many small bronchioles which end in tiny air sacs called
alveoli.
(Inspiration)(Inhale, breathe in)
Nose larynx trachea bronchi bronchioles alveoli

(Expiration) (Exhale, breathe out)

Nose larynx trachea bronchi bronchioles alveoli

Figure 11.1.2 Entry of air into the

nose and trachea.

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Make sounds
• The larynx contains the vocal cord.
• When air passes over these you make sounds.
• You cannot breathe and swallow at the same time.
• This is because when they swallow, a flap called the epiglottis moves to cover the opening
of your larynx. The function of epiglottis stops any food from going down your trachea.

11.2 Gas exchange

Key words
Gas exchange: the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of an organism’s body.
Gas exchange surface: a part of the body where gas exchange between the body and the
environment takes place.
Differences in composition between inspired and expired air

Composition (%)

gas inspired air expired air

(breathing in)% (breathing out)%

oxygen 21 16
carbon dioxide 0.04 4
nitrogen 78 78
water vapour variable saturated

Gas exchange surfaces

• Alveoli (air sacs) in a human
• They have features in common that adapt them for efficient exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide.
1. a very large surface area for the diffusion of gases.
2. moist surface so that gases can dissolve before diffusion
3. thin walls (only one cell thick in each alveolus) so the gas does not have to diffuse very
far.
4. a great blood supply so that lots of carbon dioxide is removed quickly and lots of
oxygen is supplied quickly.
Gas exchange at the alveolus
• When inspired air reaches the alveoli it contains a lot of oxygen.
• Oxygen dissolves in the moist lining of each alveolus.

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 • It then diffuses through the wall of the alveolus and through the capillary wall into the
blood.
• Oxygen molecules from the alveolus diffuse into the red blood cells and combine with
hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin then transport this oxygen to the body tissues.
• There is a lot of carbon dioxide in the capillary carried from the respiring tissues in the blood
plasma.
• It diffuses in the opposite direction, it is breathed out.

Gas exchange at an alveolus

Figure 11.2.2 Gas exchange in an alveolus

Ventilation of the lungs - The movement of air into and out of the lungs is called ventilation. It
renews the oxygen supply in the lungs and removes the remaining carbon dioxide.
Horseshoe-shaped hoops of cartilage are present in the trachea and bronchi to stop them
collapsing when we breathe in.
The lungs contain no muscle fibres and are made to expand and contract by movements of the ribs
and diaphragm.
The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle tissue that separates the thorax from the abdomen.
When relaxed, it is domed slightly upwards. The ribs are moved by the intercostal muscles.
The external intercostals contract to pull the ribs upwards and outwards. The internal intercostals
contract to pull them downwards and inwards.
Figure 11.12 shows the contraction of the external intercostals making the ribs move upwards.

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 Figure 11.11 Ribcage seen from left side, Figure 11.12 Model to show action of
showing external intercostal muscles intercostal muscles

Inspiration (Breathing in) (Inhale)

• The external intercostal muscles contract and raising the ribs upwards and outwards.
• At the same time, the diaphragm contracts and flattens.
• The internal intercostal muscles relax, volume inside the thorax is increased
causing the pressure inside the thorax is decreased.
• Since atmospheric pressure is greater, air moves into the lungs and they inflate.

Figure 11.3.1 Increasing the volume of the thorax at inspiration

Expiration (Breathing out) (Exhale)
• The internal intercostal muscles contract and the external intercostal muscles relax.
• This lowers the ribs downwards and inwards.
• The muscle in the diaphragm relaxes and it bulges up due to pressure from the organ below
(for example the liver and stomach, and contraction of the abdominal muscles).
• Both of these actions decrease the volume inside the thorax, causing the pressure inside the
thorax to increase.

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 • Since pressure in the lungs is greater than the atmospheric air, air moves from the lungs to
the atmosphere.

Fig.11.3.2 Decreasing the volume of the thorax at expiration

Cleaning the air

• Hairs inside the nose filter the air, removing particles and some pathogens.
• The trachea, bronchi and bronchioles are lined with ciliated epithelial cells and mucus
secreting cells (goblet cells).
• Dust particles and pathogens become trapped in the slimy mucus.
• The cilia beat to carry the mucus up to your nose and throat, removing the particles and
pathogens which you then swallow.

Figure 11.3.3
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 Fig.11.3.4 Goblet cells and ciliated epithelium cells
keep the lungs free of dusts and pathogens.

Rate and depth of breathing

Breathing and exercise
At rest you probably take between 12 and 16 breaths per minute. When you exercise this breathing
rate changes.
When they are working hard, muscles need more oxygen for respiration. They also produce more
carbon dioxide in respiration.
Increasing the rate and depth of breathing gets more oxygen into the blood and get rids of more
carbon dioxide from the blood.
Muscles continue to respire quite fast after exercise finishes. They still need a good supply of
oxygen and they still have carbon dioxide to be removed.
Your pulse rate remains high after exercise because your heart is beating fast to deliver plenty of
blood to your muscles so they gain this extra oxygen and have their carbon dioxide removed.
Depth of breathing
An adult can take in about 5 liters of air in their deepest breath. This is air vital capacity- the
maximum volume of air for adult.
At rest, about half a litre of air is breathed in and out. During exercise four and a half litres of extra
air can be taken in during a deep breath.
Control of breathing
What you make you breathe faster and deeper when you exercise?
The brain has a special part for controlling breathing. When you exercise the tissues respire more
quickly and make more carbon dioxide which lowers the pH in the tissues and the blood. They may
also make lactic acid.
Your brain detects this rise in carbon dioxide and lowering of the pH of blood reaching it. The brain
sends nerve impulses to the diaphragm and to the intercostal muscles so they contract faster and
further to increase the rate of depth of breathing.
By breathing deeper and more quickly, lower the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and
raises the blood pH back to normal. This is an example of negative feedback in homeostasis.

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Question: 1. Explain how the brain monitors and controls the rate of breathing when
you exercise.
2. Explain what happens breathing rate and heart rate when you exercise.

Unit 12 Respiration
12.1 Respiration

Aerobic respiration
Respiration
Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration
Chemical reactions that take place in mitochondria, which use oxygen to break down
glucose and other nutrient molecules to release energy for the cell to use.
(or)
In aerobic respiration, oxygen is used in the breakdown of glucose and released
energy.
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy released
C6H12O6 +6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy released
Using energy - Energy is used in the following processes:
- muscle contraction
- absorption of nutrients in the gut by active transport
- sending impulses along nerves
- keeping the body temperature constant
- cell division
- making new cell membranes and nucleus during growth
- In aerobic respiration, energy is released in mitochondria.

Unit 12.2 Anaerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration is the chemical reaction in cells that break down glucose to release
energy without using oxygen.
• During strenuous exercise not enough oxygen may reach the body muscles for
aerobic respiration to supply all the energy the muscles need

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 • Muscle tissue respires anaerobically to release energy.
• As a result, the glucose is not broken down to carbon dioxide and water, but to lactic
acid instead.
glucose lactic acid + energy released
C6H12O6 2 C3H6O3 + energy released
• Cardiac muscle in the heart do not normally respire anaerobically as this would not
release enough energy to keep the heart beating properly.
• Some bacteria also respire anaerobically to make lactic acid.
• Other microorganisms, such as yeast, respire anaerobically when oxygen is absent in
their surroundings, to make alcohol and carbon dioxide.
glucose alcohol + carbon dioxide + energy released
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH+2CO2 + energy released
•Plant roots respire anaerobically when land is flooded and soils become saturated
with water so little or no oxygen is available.

State the Lactic acid builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous exercise causing an
oxygen debt.
Lactic acid can slowly poison in muscle and cause cramps, so it must be removed from the
body.
The buildup of lactic acid in the muscles and blood during vigorous exercise, causes the
oxygen debt that has to be paid back by breathing in extra oxygen.
We carry on breathing faster and deeper after vigorous exercise in order to supply more
oxygen for aerobic respiration to break down lactic acid.
The oxygen debt is removed during recovery by aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver.

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 Figure 11.9 A spirometer. This instrument measures the volume of air
breathed in and out of the lungs and can be used to measure oxygen
consumption

Unit 13
Excretion
13.1 Excretion – is the removal of metabolic wastes, toxic materials and substances in excess of
requirements from the body. The excretory organs are the lungs, liver and kidneys. Excretory
products are carbon dioxide and urea.
Excretory products – Human have two main excretory products.
1. Carbon dioxide is made in body tissues during respiration. It is transported to the lungs in
the blood plasma. Here, it diffuses out of the blood into the alveoli and breathed out.
2. Urea is made in the liver from excess amino acids. It is carried to the kidneys in the plasma
where it is filtered out and leaves the body dissolved in the form of urine.
State the carbon dioxide is excreted through the lungs.
Breathing is entrance and exit of air into (inspires air) and out (expired air) of the lungs.
Breathing is one part of respiration.
• Carbon dioxide is a waste gas made in respiration.
• It can become toxic if it builds up in cells.

We breathe out in order to get rid of the carbon dioxide.

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 Composition (%)
inspired air expired air
gas (breathing in)% (breathing out)%

oxygen 21 16
carbon dioxide 0.04 4
nitrogen 78 78
water vapour variable saturated

State that the kidneys excrete urea and excess water and ions.
Describe the role of the liver in the assimilation of amino acids by converting them to
proteins.
The liver carries out of a number of important functions as part of assimilation.
- The liver helps to regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood.
- The liver uses amino acids to make proteins such as plasma proteins and fibrinogen
involved with blood clotting.
- Breaks down excess amino acids to urea.
- Converts fat molecule into fatty acids and glycerol which is stored around the body,
e.g. under the skin.
- Produces cholesterol from fats.
- The liver makes bile and stores in the gallbladder, which neutralizes acid as it enters
the small intestine and emulsifies fat.
- The liver breaks down the hormone, toxins such as alcohol and drugs.
-

Figure 13.1.1 This shows what happens to amino acids in the body

Describe deamination as the removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form urea.
Roles of the liver
The liver carries out over 200 different roles in the body.

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 - The liver makes urea from excess amino acids. The kidneys excreted urea in urine.
Define the term deamination.
-the removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form urea.
[Excess amino acids break down into two parts by the process of deamination in the liver.
One molecule is converted to carbohydrate or fat and used as a source of energy.
The other molecule is ammonia (NH3) which combines with carbon dioxide to form urea.]

Fig. 13.1.2 The excretory organs of human

Fig. 13.1.3 The position of the hepatic portal vein

Unit 13.2
Kidney structure
The urinary system consists of kidney, ureters, bladder and urethra.
The kidneys – they are responsible for the excretion of urea and excess salts from the body. They
also control the water and ion content of the blood.

Location of kidneys – Kidneys are at the top of the abdominal cavity just underneath the
diaphragm. They are protected by the backbone, lower ribcage and the fat that surrounds them.
- The blood with waste chemicals and urea enters the kidneys through the renal arteries.
- Inside each kidney, is a complex network of filtering unit called kidney tubules (nephrons).

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- As the blood flows through these units’ small molecules such as glucose, salts, water and
urea, are forced out of the blood plasma to form a fluid known as “filtrate”.
- As a filtrate passes along the tubule the useful substances glucose and salts are reabsorbed
into the blood.
- If you have been sweating a lot during exercise or it is very hot, then the kidneys will take
back as much as they can so you produce concentrated urine.
- If you have taken a lot of water or it is a cold day and you have not been sweating, the
kidneys reabsorb less water and you will produce dilute urine.

The roles of ureter, bladder, urethra and renal vein

- At the end of each tubule the urine is released and flows into the ureter and to the bladder
where it is stored.
- From here it leaves the body, at intervals, through a shorter tube called urethra.
- Renal vein carries blood with a low concentration of waste chemicals away from the kidney.
-

Figure 13.2.1 Human excretory system

Fig. 13.2.2 A vertical section of a kidney (right hand side). Detailed view
of part of the kidney (left hand side).
Inside the kidneys – If you cut open the kidney lengthways, three areas are (1) the cortex- a
brown outer area, (2) medulla – a reddish inner areas, and (3) pelvis – a white area.
- Inside each kidney are thousands of tiny kidney tubules.
- The function is to filter the blood and remove waste chemicals.
- The filtering is carried out in the cortex.

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 - The waste chemicals and excess water are removed from the body in the urine which flows
from the kidneys down the ureter and is stored in the bladder.

Unit 13.3 Kidney function

Structure of a kidney tubule (Nephron)
- Blood containing waste chemicals (urea) flows into the kidney in the renal artery.
- Inside the kidney, renal artery branches many arterioles that supply blood to the closely
packed group of capillaries called a glomerulus.
- The kidney tubule consists of a Bowman’s capsule at one end, proximal tubule, loop of
Henle, and distal tubule. The glomerulus is found inside the Bowman’s capsule.
- Bowman’s capsule, glomerulus, proximal tubule and distal tubule are in the cortex.
- Loop of Henle and collecting ducts are in the medulla.
- The end of the kidney tubule (distal tubule) drains into a collecting duct which goes through
the medulla and empties urine in the pelvis. It connects with the ureter carrying the urine to
the bladder.
-

Fig.13.3.1 A kidney tubule (Nephron) Figure 13.3.2 Filtration and reabsorption

The formation of urine containing urea, excess water and excess ions (details of these processes
are not required)
Urine formation
- The kidney is closed to the heart so the blood pressure in the renal artery is high.
- The blood vessel entering the glomerulus is wider than the one leaving it. So, more blood
entering the glomerulus than there is leaving it.

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 - This causes pressure to increase inside the glomerulus and this pressure that causes the
blood to be filtered.
- Small molecules like urea, glucose, salts and water pass out of the glomerulus through the
lining of capillaries and into the Bowman’s capsule.
- Large molecules like blood protein, are too big to pass through the capillary lining and so
they stay in the blood.
- In glomerulus and in Bowman’s capsule, the filter separates different sized of molecules
under pressure, is called ultrafiltration.

Reabsorption
- All of the glucose, some salts and much of the water are needed by the body.
- They are reabsorbed back into the blood from the kidney tubule by active transport.
- Microvilli provide a large surface area for absorption.
- Numerous mitochondria provide energy for active transport.
- After the process of reabsorption, urea, excess salts and dissolved in the water are left in the
urine.
- This fluid that enters the collecting ducts is urine.
- It flows down the collecting ducts and then to the ureter and bladder.
- Urine collects and is stored in the bladder.
- From here, it is expelled through the urethra at intervals.
- Renal vein has a much lower concentration of waste chemicals (urea).

Control of the body’s water content

- If the blood become too concentrated, the kidneys produce a smaller volume of urine.
- A change in condition in the body is detected by the receptor cells of the hypothalamus in
the brain.
- These cells are sensitive to the concentration of blood, and cause the pituitary gland
to release more antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
- The ADH travels in the bloodstream to the kidney.
- At the kidney tubules it causes the collecting ducts to become more permeable to water, so
that more water is reabsorbed back into the blood.
- This makes the urine more concentrated, so that the body loses less water and blood
becomes more dilute.
- This action of ADH is the example of the negative feedback.

Unit 14
Coordination and response
14.1 Nervous control in humans
A sensitivity is a detectable change in the internal or external environment of an organism.

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 Central nervous system (CNS) includes (1) brain and (2) spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system consists of (1) cranial nerve and (2) spinal nerves.
Cranial nerves are pair nerves arising from the brain.
Spinal nerves are pair nerves arising from the spinal cord.

Figure 14.1.1 The main parts of the

human nervous system

Simple reflex– When the person sits down on the sharp object such as pin without
realizing it there is a very quick, automatic response that the person does not need to
think about. This is an example of simple reflex which is an involuntary action.
The stimulus is pin and the receptors are pain sensors in the skin.

The effectors are the muscles in the legs that cause the person to get up quickly.
The sequence of events is:

stimulus receptors coordinator effector response

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 (Sensory neurone+ Relay +Motor neurone)
The coordinator is the part of the body that connects information about the stimulus
to the effector.
Neurones and reflex arcs
Neurones are highly specialized cells, which conduct nerve impulses from one part of the body to
another.
A typical neurone consists of two main parts:
(1) A cell body contains nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm with many cytoplasmic extensions
called dendrites.
(2) axon is a long thread-like fibre insulated by a layer of fat known as myelin sheath.

There are three types of neurons.

(1) sensory neurone, (cell body is beside the neurone)
(2) relay neurone and (cell body is middle of the neurone)
(3) motor neurone, (cell body is on the top of the neurone)
All three have different functions.

State how to distinguish the three types of neurons.

Sensory neurones transmit impulses from sense organs to the brain and spinal cord.

Figure 14.1.2 Sensory neurone

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 Motor neurones transmit impulses away from the brain and spinal cord to effector organs-
muscles and glands.

Figure 14.1.3 Motor neurone

Reflex arc

Question (1) - State the types of neurones and associated with their respective functions.
(1) Sensory neurons transmit impulses from sense organs to the brain and spinal cord.
(2) Motor neurones transmit impulses away from the brain and spinal cord to effector
organs such and muscles and glands.
(3) Relay neurones are short and pass on impulses from sensory neurones to motor
neurones inside the brain the spinal cord.
Question (2) Explain a simple reflex with example.
A simple reflex is very rapid and automatically without thinking.
If you touch the hot object, you remove your hand very quickly and automatically without thinking.

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Question (3) Explain the term a reflex arc.
A reflex arc is the nerve pathway involved in a reflex action including a sensory neurone, a relay
neurone and a motor neurone. The sensory and motor neurones surrounded by insulation. It is
known as myelin sheath which makes impulses travel very quickly.

Question (4) Explain what would happen to the reflex shown in the following figure.
Reflex arc

- If you touch the hot object, you remove your hand very quickly and automatically without
thinking.
- The impulses travel to the spinal cord along a sensory neurone.
- Inside the gray matter of the spinal cord the impulses pass across a first synapse to a relay
neurone.
- The relay neurone passes the impulses across a second synapse to the motor neurone. It
transmits the impulses to a muscle in the skin.
- The muscle is effector and it contracts to remove the hand from the hot object. This
action is the response.

Synapses
Synapse- a synapse is a junction between two neurones. There is a small gap between
them about 20 nm. The gap is called synapse gap.
- The neurone that carries the impulse to the synapse is called the presynaptic neurone.
- The neurone that carries the impulse away from the synapse is called the postsynaptic
neurone.

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 Structure of the synapse

Figure 14.1.4 The structure of a synapse

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 Figure 14.1.5 Action of a neurotransmitter at a synapse

Synaptic transmission
How does an electrical impulse transfer sensory neurone to relay neurone?
How does an electrical impulse (signal) across the synapse?
1. When an impulse arrives at the synaptic bulb it causes vesicles containing the
neurotransmitter to move towards the membrane of sensory neurone (presynaptic
neurone).

2. The vesicles fuse with this membrane, releasing the neurotransmitter into the synaptic gap.

3. The neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap fuses with the protein receptor on the membrane
of relay neurone (postsynaptic neurone). In this way nerve impulses transfer from sensory
neurone to relay neurone across the synapse.
4. After the neurotransmitter has passed on the message, it is broken down by an enzyme.
5. The mitochondria provide energy to reform the neurotransmitter.

Define the term neurotransmitter (chemical transmitter or chemical messenger).

The electrical impulses passing through the neurons do not cross synapse. Instead, impulses
arriving at the synapse cause the ends of the branches of the axon to secrete a chemical called a
neurotransmitter.
Antagonistic

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To work against each other. Some hormones work against each other as they have opposite effects.
e.g, adrenaline stimulates an increase in blood glucose concentration, whereas insulin stimulates a
decrease.
Question (2) Explain the term antagonistic muscles.
Antagonistic pair of muscles bring about movement at joints; when one muscle contracts, the
other muscle relaxes.
Unit 14.2
Sense Organs

Sense organs are groups of receptor cells that respond to specific stimuli: light, sound, touch,
temperature and chemicals.

- The eyes respond to light rays and give us our sense of sight.
- The nose responds to chemicals in the air and gives us our sense of smell.
- The tongue responds to chemicals in our food and drink and gives us our sense of taste.
- The ears respond to sound vibrations and give us our sense of hearing, movement and
position of the body and our balance.
- The skin responds to pressure and gives us our sense of touch, also detects pain and
temperature.

Figure 14.2.1 A horizontal section of the eye

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 Figure 14.2.2 The eye in its socket

Eye structure and functions

Structure Functions
1 Cornea - Transparent, refracts light
2 Lens - Soft, transparent, elastic; Focus light onto the retina
3 Iris - Controls how much light enters the pupil
4 Pupil - Pupil is a hole in the centre of iris through which light enters
5 Retina - Contains light receptors, some sensitive to light to different colours
6 Optic nerve - Carries impulses to the brain
7 Tears gland - Make the tears that wash your eye clean and tears contain lysozyme,
an enzyme that kills bacteria

More about the eye

Control the pupil reflex
- The size of the pupil is controlled by a pair of antagonistic muscles in the iris.
- The circular muscles are arranged around the pupil.
- The radial muscles run outwards from the pupil.
- These muscles are antagonistic muscles because they have opposite effects: circular muscles
contract to reduce the size of the pupils while the radial muscles contract to increase the size of
the pupils.
Control of pupil reflex

Dim light (Low light

intensity) Bright light (High light intensity)
Circular muscle Relax Contract
Radial muscle Contract Relax
Pupil Dilates Constricts
-

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 Figure 14.2.3. The iris muscles control the diameter
of the pupil
Focusing light
- Figure shows how light are focused in the eye.
- For the brain to see a clear image, there must be a clear image focused on the retina.
- Light rays must be bent so that they focus exactly onto the retina. Bending light rays is called
refraction.
- Refraction is bending light rays.
- Cornea is the transparent layer near the front of the eye, which refracts light rays entering the
eye.

Fig. 14.2.4 This shows light rays refracted by the cornea and the lens
Describe the distribution of rods and cones in the retina of a human
The retina – is at the back of the eye. This is where the receptor cells are. When light falls on a
receptor cell in the retina, the cells send an electrical impulse along the optic nerve to the brain.
Optic nerve is the nerve that carries electrical impulses from the retina to the brain.
There are no receptor cells where the optic nerve leaves the retina. This part is called the blind
spot.
Blind spot is the part of the retina where the optic nerve leaves, and where there are no receptor
cells. If light falls on this place, no impulses will be sent to the brain.
Rods and cones – there are two kinds of receptor cells in the retina. Rods are sensitive to quite dim
light, but they do not response to colour.
Cones are receptor cells in the retina that are sensitive to light of different colours, but only
function in bright light.
Fovea is the part of the retina where cone cells are very tightly packed; this is where light is focused
when you look directly at an object.
Iris is the coloured part of the eye, it contains muscles that can alter the size of the pupil.

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Pupil is a circular gap in the middle of the iris, through which light can pass.

Adjusting the focus

The shape of the lens is altered, to make it bend light rays by different amounts. The thicker the
lens, the more it bends the light rays. The thinner it is , the less it bends them.
The accommodation- the adjustment of the shape of the lens, to focus light coming from different
distances from the eye is called accommodation.
Suspensory ligaments: strong inelastic fibres that hold the lens in position; when they are under
tension, they pull the lens into a thinner shape.
Ciliary muscle: a circle of muscle surrounding the lens, and joined to it by the suspensory
ligaments; when it contracts, it slackens the ligaments so that the lens become fatter.
Accommodation
Define the term accommodation.
Accommodation - the adjustment of the shape of the lens, to focus light coming from different
distances from the eye is called accommodation.

Far object (Distant object) Near object

Ciliary muscle Relax Contract
Suspensory ligaments Taut or tight become slack (loosen)
Len elliptical (thin) shape spherical (fatter)

Figure 14.2.5 Focusing on a distant object Figure 14.2.6 Focusing on a near object

Q. How does your eye focus the light if you are looking at a distant object?
If you are looking at a distant object:

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 • The ciliary muscles relax,
• The pressure inside the eye pulls the suspensory ligaments tight so the lens is pulled into
elliptical (thin) shape.
• Light rays are refracted as they pass through the lens and focused on the retina,
• The distant object is in focus.

Q. How does your eye focus the light if you are looking at a near object?
If you are looking at a near object:
• The ciliary muscles contract to counteract the pressure inside the eye,
• The suspensory ligaments become slack so the elastic tissue around the lens recoils so the
lens becomes more spherical (fatter).
• Light rays are refracted more than they were when looking at the distant object.
• The near object is in focus.

Unit 14.3
Hormones
(Endocrine gland)
1. Define the term endocrine.
Endocrine gland is a ductless gland secreting the hormone into the bloodstream. e.g. adrenal gland,
thyroid gland.
Define the term exocrine gland.
Exocrine is a gland secreting the product through a duct. e.g. salivary gland and lacrimal gland.
2. Define the term hormone.
A hormone is a chemical substance produced by an endocrine gland and transported in the blood.
After they have performed their function they are broken down by the liver.

3. Define the term target organ.

Target organs or tissues which recognize each hormone and respond to it.

Comparing the endocrine and nervous systems

Nervous system carries electrical impulses along neurons. Speed of information transfer is very fast.
Longevity of action is short-lived. Target area is at the end of a neurone.

Hormones are chemical carry by blood and speed of information transfer is very slow. Longevity of
action is usually slow and longer lasting. Target area is whole tissue or organ.

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 Nervous system Endocrine system

Made up of neurones Made up of glands

Information transmitted in the form Information transmitted in the form
of electrical impulses of chemical s called hormone
impulses transmitted along Chemicals carried in the blood
neurones plasma
Impulses travels very quickly, so Chemicals travels more slowly, so
action is fast action is slower
Effect of a nerve impulse usually Effect of the hormone may last
only lasts for a very short time longer

Figure 14.3.1 The organs of the endocrine system

Adrenaline
Adrenaline is produced by the adrenal glands which are located above the kidneys. The responses
necessary to survive in these “fight or flight” situations are coordinated by adrenaline, which gets
you ready for action by:

• increasing your breathing rate which causes more oxygen produced are supplied to the heart.
• Increasing your heart (pulse) rate. The heart rate to increase so that more glucose and oxygen
are delivered to the muscles of energy.
• widening your pupils so that more light enters your eyes.

27
• Adrenaline makes liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose, which is source of energy diffuses
into the blood for the rapid contractions, needed for sudden action.
• Dilation of the airways so more air reaches the alveoli in the lungs for more gas exchange.
• Vasodilation of arterioles in the brain and muscles, so more glucose and oxygen are delivered
to these organs.
• Vasoconstriction of arterioles in the gut and other organs, allowing blood to be diverted to the
muscles.

The endocrine glands and their functions

Endocrine Hormones Target organ Function

gland
Growth hormone Body cells Growth

Thyroid Thyroid gland Stimulate thyroid gland secretes

stimulating thyroxin
hormone
Pituitary gland
Gonad stimulating Testes, ovary Stimulate gonad to secrete sex
hormone (FSH, LH) hormones
Anti-diuretic Kidney Promote reabsorption of water
hormone
Thyroid gland Thyroxin hormone Tissue cells Control metabolic rate
Adrenalin Liver, heart, lungs, Prepares body for fight or flight
hormone alimentary canal, response
Adrenal gland
skin, pupil dilate
Regulates amount of blood glucose
concentration. Stores excess
Tissue cells and liver
glucose as glycogen in liver and
Insulin muscles

Glucagon Tissue cells and liver Regulates the concentration of

blood glucose when blood glucose
level is low
Pancreases
Development of primary and
secondary characteristics in males
Testes Testosterone Body cells and testes
Controls uterus and growth of
uterus wall
Ovary Oestrogen Uterus, ovary

28
 Progesterone Secondary characteristics in female
Control the menstrual cycle

Unit 14.4
Homeostasis
(Controlling conditions in the body)

Define the term homeostasis.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of constant internal conditions in the body, so that enzymes
control metabolism efficiently. (120/80 = blood pressure)(pH7.4)
(Glucose concentration = 100-180)

The brain has overall control of our body processes. The control of body temperature is an example
of homeostasis.
In humans, the normal temperature of the blood is 37ºC.
(When blood reaching the brain is warmer than normal temperature it sends impulses along
nerves to the skin to promote heat loss.
Our sweat glands produce sweat which evaporates and this helps us to cool down, returning
body temperature to normal.)
(When we feel cold our blood temperature falls below 37ºC. Then the brain will stimulate the
production of more heat in the muscles by shivering and by increasing the rate of respiration in the
liver.
It also stimulates the body to conserve heat by decreasing the production of sweat by sweat
glands.)

Define the term negative feedback.

- Negative feedback in homeostasis means – a mechanism that detects a move away from the
set point, and brings about actions that take the value back towards the set point.

Controlling blood glucose concentration

Blood glucose concentration increases in the blood -

● When you eat a high carbohydrate meal your blood glucose concentration can increase.

● However, it does not stay high because cells in the pancreas detect the high glucose

concentration in the blood.

● Pancreatic cells secrete the hormone insulin into the blood and stimulate the liver cells to

convert glucose into compound glycogen.

29
 ● This glycogen stimulates the liver cells to absorb lots of glucose from the blood so the

concentration of glucose decreases and return to the normal.

Blood glucose concentration decreases in the blood -

● When blood glucose concentration decreases in the blood some pancreatic cells detect this

decrease and secrete the hormone glucagon into the blood.

● Glucagon stimulates the liver cells to breakdown the glycogen to glucose, which diffuses

into the blood so the blood glucose concentration increases to normal.

● This is the example of the negative feedback of homeostasis.

Figure 14.4.1 Controlling the temperature of Figure 14.4.2 Controlling blood glucose concentration by
an oven is an example of negative feedback negative feedback

State the symptoms of diabetes type 1.

Pancreatic cells cannot make any insulin. (Type 1 is caused by immune system destroying cells in
the pancreas that make insulin to control blood glucose)
This usually happens rapidly and often before the age of 20.
Symptoms appear more quickly.
Weight loss, thirst, tiredness, frequent urination, blurred vision, mood swings, fatigue, and
emotional impact.

30
 Weight loss – cells use protein and fat instead of glucose as sources of energy.
Thirst – due to the increased concentration of glucose in the blood.
Tiredness – due to lack of glycogen that can be converted to glucose to provide energy
between meals.

Unit 14.5
Controlling body temperature

The skin – is the largest organ in the body and has several important and has several important
functions: protection, regulation and sensation
- protect the body from damage
- stops pathogens from entering
- prevents too much water loss
- loses heat by conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation
- detects changes in temperature
- detects pressure (touch) and pain

Figure 14.5.1 The structure of human skin Figure 14.5.2 Hairs are involved in
maintaining body temperature

The skin helps in controlling body temperature.

- We lose and absorb heat through our skin, mostly by radiation.
- We use our skin for heat loss when we are hot and to conserve heat when we are cold.
- Mammals have fur or hair, which traps a layer of air close to the skin.
- Air is a poor conductor of heat.
- When it is cold, hair erector muscles contract so that hairs stand erect to trap a thick layer of air
so reducing heat loss.

31
- When it is hot, hair erector muscles relax so that hairs lie flat.
- Less air is trapped close to the skin so more heat can be lost as convection currents flow closer to
the surface of the skin.
- Mammals have a layer of fatty tissue beneath their skin, which is a good insulator as it does not
conduct heat well.
- Mammals that live in cold environments have very thick layers of fat.

Controlling body temperature

- The human body temperature is 37ºC.

In the heat, the hypothalamus in the brain detects an increase in the blood temperature. The brain
sends impulses to the skin to increase the rate of sweating so that more heat is lost by evaporation
from the skin surface.
In the cold, the brain detects decrease in the blood temperature. The sweat glands stop producing
sweat and hair erector muscles contract to raise the hairs. The body starts to shiver as some of the
body muscles contract spontaneously and release heat from respiration. Blood flows through the
muscles and is warmed by the heat.
Vasodilation (Overheating)
- Arterioles (small blood vessels) widen to allow an increase in blood flow through
capillaries just beneath the skin surface. This process is called vasodilation.
- More heat is lost to the surrounding by convection and radiation.
- Sweat glands in the skin produce lots of sweat.
- The sweat on the skin’s surface evaporates and this cools the body.

Figure 14.5.3 Control of body temperature Figure 14.5.4 Vasodilation in skin

Vasoconstriction (Overcooling)

32
 - Arterioles near to the surface of the skin become narrower to reduce the blood flow
through capillaries near the surface of the skin. This process is called vasoconstriction.
- Less heat is lost by radiation.
- Sweat glands stop producing sweat.
- Shivering by the muscles which start contract spontaneously and release heat from
respiration.
- Blood flows through the muscles and is warmed by this heat.

Figure 14.5.5 Vasoconstriction in skin

Unit 14.6
Tropic responses
Tropisms
Plants response to stimuli such as light and gravity.

Define the term gravitropism.

A growth response to gravity is called a gravitropism.
E.g. roots are positively gravitropic and negatively phototropic.

Define the term phototropism.

A growth response to light is called a phototropism.
E.g. shoots are positively phototropic and negatively gravitropic.

Don’t confuse Phototropism and Phototaxis

• Phototropism – The movement of a plant towards or away from light.

33
 • Phototaxis – The movement of an organism either towards or away from the source of light.

Auxin
• A plant hormone called auxin controls the plant’s growth.
• Auxin in shoots stimulates growth by causing the cells to elongate.
• But roots auxin inhibits growth by slowing down cell elongation.
In the seedling the auxin builds up on the lower side of the shoot and root.

Figure 14.6.1 Which way is up?

34
 Phototropism
The cress seedlings have been put in a window for some time and their shoots have grown
towards the light.
This sort of growth response is called a phototropism. Because shoots grow towards the
light they are positively phototropic.

Figure 14.6.3 These cress

Figure 14.6.2 Auxin controls the seedlings have grown towards
positive phototropism of shoots the light

- This response is controlled by auxin made in the shoot tip.

- When the shoot receives light only from one side the auxin is unequally distributed so
most is found on the shaded side of the stem.
- The auxin stimulates cells on the shaded side to elongate more than the cells on the side
in direct light.
- The shoot grows more on the shaded side and bends towards the light.
- Roots are not sensitive to light.

35
 Figure 14.6.4 Auxin controls the positive gravitropism of roots
The potted plant in the photograph was placed in a horizontal position. After 24 hours, the plant
stem has grown upwards away from the stimulus of gravity. The plant stem is said to be negatively
gravitropic. In the roots, they will have changed their direction of growth to grow downwards. So
the plant’s roots are said to be positively gravitropic.

Unit 14.7
Investigating tropic responses
Investigating gravitropism in pea radicles

1. Soak some peas in water to get them to germinate. Collect about six pea seedling with
straight radicles. Grow them in a vertical roll of moist filter paper so that the radicles grow
straight downwards.
2. Pin the six pea seedlings in a horizontal position to the cork turntable of a clinostat.
3. Then pin another six pea seedlings in a horizontal position to the clock lid of a glass jar.
Use some modelling clay to keep the jar in a horizontal position.
4. A clinostat is a piece of apparatus that works by electricity or clockwork. It has a turntable
that rotates four times every hour so it will neutralize the effect of gravity on the seedlings
radicles. That is, the sides of each radicle will be exposed to gravity for the same period of
time.
5. The clinostat and the glass jar are then left in darkness for two days.
6. You can see from the diagram that the pea radicles in the clinostat continue to grow
horizontally. This is because the rotation of the clinostat allowed gravity to act equally on all
sides of the radicles.
The radicles in the glass jar have grown downwards towards gravity so they are said to be
positively gravitropism.
Clinostat – an apparatus for studying tropisms in plants

Advantages of tropic responses

Positive phototropism in stems is
the leaves expose the maximum surface
area to the light. They can absorb light
36 more efficiently for photosynthesis.
Also the flowers are more likely to be
pollinated by flying insects or their pollen
 Figure 14.7.1 Apparatus for
investigating gravitropism in pea Unit 15
radicles
Drugs
1. Define a term drug.
A drug is any substance that is taken into the body that alters or influences chemical
reactions in the body.

2. Explain about the uses of drugs.

There are several different types of drug. Some are the active ingredients of medicines and
are used to treat and cure people of disease.
E.g. Aspirin, paracetamol, morphine and antibiotics are useful drugs.

3. Explain how antibiotics act to kill pathogens like bacteria and fungi.
Antibiotics are a group of chemicals made by microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) that are
used in chemotherapy as they kill pathogens (destroy the cell wall of bacteria and fungi) or
stop their growth.

4. Explain how antibiotics can kill bacteria but not viruses.

Antibiotics are a group of chemicals made by bacteria and fungi that are used in
chemotherapy as they can kill bacteria. Antibiotics cannot kill viruses since they have no cell
wall and they have protein coat.
5. Explain about the antibiotics with examples.
Antibiotics are a group of chemicals made by microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) that are
used in chemotherapy as they kill pathogens or stop their growth. Antibiotics are prescribed
to treat and cure human and animal diseases caused by bacteria and fungi.
Penicillin was the first antibiotic to be discovered and mass-produced and acts on
bacteria by inhibiting cell wall formation, leading to a breakdown of the cell wall.
Other antibiotics are tetracyclines, polymyxins and sulfa drugs.

7. What are antibiotics?

Antibiotics. The ideal drug for curing disease would be a chemical that destroyed the
pathogen without harming the tissues of the host. Modern antibiotics like penicillin come
near to this ideal for bacterial infections.

37
8. Explain how using antibiotics only when essential can limit the development of resistant
bacteria such as MRSA
MRSA (Methicillin – resistant Staphylococcus aureus)

Gram-positive bacteria acquire resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics through the production of a protein called PBP2a (Penicillin binding
protein 2a), which is able to avoid the inhibitory effects of the antibiotics. This is the mechanism by which MRSA is able to persist despite
treatment with multiple beta-lactam antibiotics.
S. aureus can become resistant to methicillin and other β-lactam antibiotics through the
expression of a foreign PBP2a (Penicillin binding protein 2a),, that is resistant to the action of
methicillin but which can perform the functions of the host PBPs.
S. aureus သည် methicillin ၏ လုပ်ဆောင်ချက်ကို ခံနိုင်ရည်ရှိသော်လည်း လက်ခံဆောင်ရွက်ပေးသည့် PBPs များ၏ လုပ်ဆောင်ချက်များကို လုပ်ဆောင်နိုင်သည့် နိုင်ငံခြား PBP2a (Penicillin
binding protein 2a) ၏ ဖော်ပြချက်အရ S. aureus သည် methicillin ပဋိဇီဝဆေးများကို ခံနိုင်ရည်ရှိလာနိုင်သည်။

What makes Staphylococcus aureus resistant to methllin?

Gram-positive bacteria acquire resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics through the production of a protein called PBP2a, which is able to avoid the inhibitory effects of the antibiotics. This is the mechanism by which MRSA
is able to persist despite treatment with multiple beta-lactam antibiotics.

Staphylococcus aureus is a common human pathogen. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

biosynthesis, a core component of the bacterial cell wall. Consequently, even in the presence of methicillin or other antibiotics, bacteria can develop resistance. Due to genes responsible for
S. aureus

)-Quinazolinones, Pyrrolylated chalcone, Bis-2-Oxoazetidinyl macrocycles (-lactam antibiotics wi

38
 Unit 16
16.1 Asexual and sexual reproduction
Reproduction- means producing new living organisms. Animals and plants reproduce to make new
individuals of the same species. There are two types of reproduction: asexual and sexual
reproduction.
Asexual reproduction – is without fusion of gametes. It involves one parent only and produces
offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.
Prokaryotic cell
• In asexual reproduction there is only one parent.
• All the offspring are identical to the parent as they inherit exactly the same genetic
information.
• So, there is little or no variation amongst the offspring.
• Example- Bacteria, fungi and plants reproduce asexually.
Asexual reproduction in bacteria
• When bacteria reproduce asexually the DNA loop is copied so that there is some for each
new cell.

• And then, bacterial cell divides into two by making a new cell wall.

• This type is called binary fission, because the parent cell splits into two.

39
 Fig. 16.1.1 Binary fission in bacteria. Each new bacterial cell
is genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell

Asexual reproduction in fungus

• Pin mould reproduces asexually by making spores.

• These are small and light and they float through the air.

• When the spore’s lands on a damp surface, it splits open and a thread grows out.

• This thread or hypha, grows over the surface or bread forming a dense network of threads
called mycelium.

(Mycelium = a network of thin threads (hyphae) that make up the body of a fungus)
sporangium spore

Hyphae

• Eventually short hyphae grow upwards and produce spore cases or sporangia at their tips.

• Inside each sporangium hundreds of new spores are formed asexually by division of the
nuclei.

• Each nucleus gains a small quantity of cytoplasm and protective spore case.

• When ready, the sporangia break down and the spores are dispersed.

Asexual reproduction in potatoes

40
 Fig. 15.1.2 A seed potato showing
growth points

Fig. 15.1.3 Potato plant

• Potatoes reproduce asexually by means of stem tubers which are swollen underground
stems that grow from the parent plant.

• Sucrose is transported in the phloem from the leaves into these underground stems that
swell as they convert the sucrose into starch.

• The parent plant dies at the end of the growing season leaving the tubers in the ground to
survive over the winter.

• All the tubers produced from one parent plant are genetically identical.

• When they start regrowing, new shoots the roots emerge from the growing points of the
potato known as “eyes”.

Table 1 Sexual and asexual reproduction compared

Feature of the process Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

Gametes produced Yes no
Fertilization takes place Yes no
Genetic variation in offspring Yes no
Has survival value in: Changing environment Stable environment

Sexual reproduction
In sexual reproduction there are two parents. The parents have sex organs. The sex organs make
sex cells or gametes. In animals, the male gametes are sperm cells. In flowering plants, the male
gametes are nuclei inside the pollen grains. In animals, female gametes are egg cells. In flowering
plants, female gametes are inside the ovules.
During sexual reproduction in plant, the nuclei of the gametes fuse together at fertilization. The
fertilized egg or zygote divides by mitosis to form embryo, which may grow into a new individual
plant.
At fertilization, half the genetic material comes from the male gamete and half come from the
female gamete. The nuclei in the gametes each contain one set of chromosomes. A zygote has a

41
nucleus that contains two sets of chromosomes-one from each gamete. The offspring are not
genetically identical to the parents.
Each zygote receives half its genes from its male parent and half from its female parent. This means
that sexual reproduction brings about variation in the offspring.

Advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction of plants

Advantages Disadvantages

-only one parent needed -There is little or no variation.

- no wastage gametes - They are all genetically identical,

none may have resistance to the
disease and they may all be killed.

-rapid colonization of favorable

environments. Plants grow more
rapidly from tubers than from seeds.

Difference between asexual and sexual reproduction

Asexual Sexual
- Only one parent plant is involved. - Both male and female parents are involved.
- Occurs in unisexual plants. - Occurs in bisexual plants.
- Occurs in lower plants. - Occurs in higher plants.
- Reproductive organs are not - Reproductive organs are present.
present.
- Gamete formation or fertilization is - Fertilization of gametes give rises to zygote.
not seen
- No need of seeds. - Seed are used to get new plants from a flower
- harmful variation cannot occur -fertilization is random, so harmful variations
can occur

Unit 16.2

42
 Flower structure
Flowering plants carry out sexual reproduction by producing flowers, which have male and
female parts.
The male parts make pollen grains to carry male gametes to the female parts.
Pollination- is the transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower to the stigma.
Fertilization – is the fusion of the male and female sex cells, e.g. male nucleus and
egg nucleus fuse to form a zygote that grows into a new individual.

Fig.16.2.1 A half flower drawing of an insect-pollinated flower

Flowers- is the reproductive structure in flowering plants often conspicuously colourful and
typically including sepals, petals, and either or both stamens and or a pistil or carpel.
The formation of flowers
A flower is formed from a bud, which is a collection of cells at the end of the flower stalk. The cells
receive hormone messages from the main plant body, and gradually develop into four rings of
specialized leaves- the flower.
1. The outermost ring is sepal
2. The second ring is petals
3. The third ring is stamens or male reproductive organ
4. The innermost ring is carpel or female reproductive organ.

43
 Fig. Parts of the flower

The functions of parts of the flower

Flower parts Functions

Pollen To deliver the male gamete

Flower stalk To form a base for the flower

Style To hold up the stigma

Filament To support the anther

Anther To produce pollen

Sepal To protect the flower in bud.

Petal To attract insects

Nectar To secrete a sugary solution

Ovary To contain the female gametes

Stigma To receive pollen

Wind-pollinated flowers

44
 Fig.16.2.2 This species of rye grass is an example of a wind-pollinated
flower

Unit 16.3
Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. Pollination is needed
in order to bring the male gamete (inside a pollen grain) near to the female gamete so that
fertilization can occur.

Figure 16.3.1 A bee transfers pollen from one flower to another of the same species.

Insect pollination
The flower is pollinated by bees, which land on the petals. Bees have long tongues and are able to
reach the nectaries at the base of the petals.
The bees feed on the sugary nectar made in the nectaries. The anthers are positioned in such a way
that sticky pollen from them will brush against the bee’s back as it pushes it head down to the base
of the petals. When the bee enters another flower, it brushes some of the pollen against the ripe
stigma and pollination is achieved.
Table. 16.3.1 Comparing insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers

45
 Feature Insect-pollinated Wind-pollinated
stamens Present- usually with short filaments; Long filaments so anthers hang
anther attached firmly to filaments; inside outside the flower; anthers
the flower for insects to rub against loosely attached to the filaments
so pollen is easily blown away

carpels Sticky, small stigmas usually inside the Large, feathery stigmas to catch
flower for insects to rub against pollen grains in the air.
petals Present-colourful and scented to attract Absent or very small and difficult
insects to see
pollen Small quantities of sticky, spiky pollen Large quantities of smooth, light
grains that stick easily to insect’s bodies pollen that can easily be carried
by wind
Nectaries Present- they produce nectar, a sweet absent
liquid containing sugars

Figure 16.3.2 Two flowers of Bromus,

showing large, loosely attached anthers Figure 16.3.3 Long anthers
and leathery stigmas. hanging out of rye grass flowers

Wind-pollination
The anthers hang outside the flower to that they release their pollen when the wind blows them.
The stigmas are feathery and are also found outside the flower, where they act as a net to catch
pollen grains in the air. Wind-pollinated flowers have light, smooth pollen grains that can easily be
carried by the wind to another flower. The anthers produce many pollen grains so that some, by
chance, will land on the stigma of a flower of the same species. Most of the pollen produced will be
lost.
Pollination and variation
Self-pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from the anther to a stigma of the same flower or
another or to a different flower but on the same plant.
Self-pollination is much less variation, since genetic material is not unchanged with different plants.
Self-pollination is an advantage, if there are no pollinating insects.

46
Cross-pollination occurs when pollen is transferred from the anther to a stigma of another plant of
the same the species. Cross pollination is of a greater benefit to a species of plant, since it ensures
exchange of genetic material between different plants and results in greater variation upon which
natural selection can operate.
Unit 16.4
Fertilization and seed formation
Fertilization
Pollination is complete when the pollen grains land on the stigma of the female part of a flower. If a
pollen lands on a ripe stigma it starts to grow a pollen tube to take the male nucleus to the female
nucleus.
Fertilization occurs when the male nucleus fuses with the female nucleus inside the ovule.
Each pollen grain grows a pollen tube to take the male nucleus to the ovule. The first pollen tube
reaches the ovary. It enters the ovule through a small hole –the micropyle.
The male gamete nucleus then fuses with the egg cell nucleus. This is fertilization in which a zygote
is formed by fusion of two nuclei.

Figure 16.4.1 Fertilisation occurs within the ovule.

The formation of fruit and seed

After the male nucleus has fused with the ovum, the resulting zygote divides many times to
produce an embryo. Once fertilization is complete, the developing seed sends hormone
messages to the flower, and a number of changes take place. Many of the flower parts are
not needed when fertilization has occurred, so the sepals, petals and stamens wither and
fall off. They have completed their functions.

47
 Each fertilized ovule grows to form a seed. Each seed is made up of the embryo, an energy
store and a seed coat or testa. The ovary forms the fruit.

Define the term fruit.

A fruit is a fertilized ovary, and has the function of dispersing the seeds away from the
parent plant. The structure of fruit

Figure The structure of the seed

Germination
Define the term germination.
If the environmental conditions are suitable the embryo will begin to use the food store in the seed
and grow into a new young plant is called germination.
Conditions for germination
A seed needs the following to germinate.
- a supply of water
- oxygen for aerobic respiration
- a suitable temperature for the enzymes involved in germination

Unit 16.5
The male reproductive system

(Sperm duct))

48
 Figure 16.5.1 The male reproductive system
1. Testes
The testes are male sex organs. They produce the male gametes or spermatozoa.
Testes make the male hormone testosterone.
(This hormone stimulates changes in the boy’s body as he develops into an adult during
puberty. This happens between about 10 to 16 years of age.)
2. Scrotum- testes are located inside a sac called scrotum which hangs outside the body.
3. Sperm duct- A much wider tube called the sperm duct connects to the urethra.
4. Urethra – the two sperm ducts join with urethra which runs down the centre of the
penis. It also carries urine and semen out of the body. But urine and semen never pass
down the urethra at the same time.
5. The prostate gland and other glands secrete fluids in which the sperm cells can swim.
The prostate secretes mucus and other glands secrete sugars which sperm cells use as a
source of energy for their respiration.
6. Semen- sperm cells and the fluid together form semen.

Male and female gametes

Sperm cells
• Sperm cells carry genetic information from the male parent to the ovum of female parent.
• Sperm cell has three parts head, middle piece and tail. Head contains nucleus, cytoplasm
and acrosome gland.
• The acrosome contains enzymes that are released during fertilization.
• These enzymes digest a pathway through the jelly coat surrounding the egg.
• Nucleus contains the father’s chromosomes.
• Gametes contain half of the number of chromosome (haploid number).

49
• Each sperm cell has mitochondria, which releases energy to power swimming by the tail.

Egg or ovum
• An egg is much bigger than sperm because it provides the food store that supports the
embryo after fertilization.
• Eggs have a jelly coat to control the entry of sperm.
• Eggs are non-motile but sperm are motile.
• Nucleus contains the mother's chromosomes.
• An egg is fertilized by a sperm cell.
Q 1. Why an egg does is much bigger than the sperm?

Figure 16.5.2 Structure of a human sperm and egg.

Comparing male and female gametes

46 chromosomes
= Diploid number (2
sets of chromosomes)
Haploid number (1 set
of chromosomes)

50
 Unit 16.6
Parts of the female reproductive system
1. Ovaries – are attached to the inside of the abdomen just below the kidneys.
- Ovaries are female sex organs that produce the female gametes called egg or ova.
2. Oviducts or fallopian tubes - The tubes leading from the ovaries to the uterus.
3. Uterus – The organ in which a fetus develops before birth; also known as womb.
4. Cervix – The narrow opening leading from the uterus to the vagina is called the cervix.
5. Vagina (birth canal) – opening of the uterus to the outside of the body.
6. Urethra – Above the opening of the vagina is the urethra (carries urine out of the body)
7. Vulva – The outer opening of the vagina is called vulva.
8. Clitoris – Above the urethra is the sensitive anterior end of the vulva.

Figure 16.6.1 The female reproductive system: Figure 16.6.2 Female reproductive system side view
front

Unit 16.7
Fertilization and implantation
The process of fertilizing involves the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.
- Millions of sperms are deposited into the vagina during sexual intercourse.
- After intercourse, sperm cells swim through the mucus in the cervix into the uterus and then to the
oviduct.
- If there is an egg in the oviduct, a sperm cell may penetrate it.
- Enzymes released by the acrosome on the head of the sperm digest the jelly coat surrounding the
egg.

51
- After the sperm membrane has fused with the egg membrane the nucleus of sperm cell enters the
egg cytoplasm and the tail is left outside.
- The sperm nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus to form the zygote nucleus which is diploid as it
contains two sets of chromosomes one from mother and one from father.
- After fertilization, a membrane immediately forms around the zygote. This stops other sperm cells
from entering to the egg, so only one sperm is able to fertilize the egg.
- If there is no egg in the oviduct, no fertilization can take place.
- The sperm can stay alive for 2 or 3 days. So, if intercourse happened just before ovulation, the
sperm can fertilize an egg if it is released during this time.
-
-

Figure 16.7.1 Ovulation and fertilization Figure 16.7.2 Events at fertilization

Definition of Implantation – Implantation is the very early stage of pregnancy at

which the embryo adheres to the wall of the uterus.
Implantation
- After fertilization, fertilized egg or zygote begins to divide by mitosis to form embryo.
(Zygote divides once to form a two- celled and two to four and four to eight but after a while
this cycle of divisions become less regular)
- After a few hours the embryo moves down the oviduct, pushed along by peristaltic
contractions of the oviduct and the beating of the ciliated epithelial cells lining the oviduct.
- It may take a number of days (6 days) for the embryo to reach the uterus.
- The embryo embeds into the soft lining of the uterus. This is called implantation.
- The uterus lining has thickened and contains numerous blood vessels.
- The embryo obtains food and oxygen from these vessels by diffusion.

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 - Carbon dioxide and chemical wastes diffuse out in the opposite direction.

Figure 16.7.3 Implantation of the embryo

Unit 16.8
Pregnancy

Pregnancy – is the period of time between fertilization and birth, which in humans is 9 months.

What is meant by the term gestation period? How long does it last in human?
- Pregnancy is the period of time between fertilization and birth, which in humans is 9 months.
This period of time is called the gestation period.
How and when does the placenta form in the pregnancy woman?
- After implantation, part of the embryo grows into finger-like projection or villi that penetrate
the lining of the uterus.
- They are surrounded by blood vessels which supply nutrients and oxygen.
- This structure is called placenta.
Placenta- The placenta is the site of exchange of oxygen and nutrients for carbon dioxide and other
wastes; they diffuse between fetal blood and maternal blood.

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 Figure 16.8.1 The role of the placenta

The role of the placenta

- 1. The placenta is the gas exchange surface for the fetus.
- The artery carries carbon dioxide and other wastes from the fetus to the placenta.
- The vein brings oxygen and food from the placenta to the fetus.
- Carbon dioxide and wastes diffuse from the fetal blood into the mother’ blood.
- Oxygen and food diffuse from the mother’s blood into the fetal blood.
- Food includes glucose, amino acids, fats, mineral ions, vitamins and water.
- The placenta acts as a barrier to toxins and pathogens.
- Rubella (German measles) is caused by a virus that can get across the placenta and harm the
fetus.This is why all young women should also be vaccinated since they can act as a reservoir
of infection for the disease.
- The HIV virus that causes AIDS may cross the placenta, so a baby may be born HIV positive if
the mother is infected with the virus.
- However, with careful management during pregnancy a mother who is HIV+ can give birth to
a child who does not carry the virus.
- Nicotine can also pass across the placenta.

Fetus - Once all the organs have formed and the embryo has features that are recognizably
human, it is known as a fetus.
The fetus obtains all its food from its mother, including glucose, amino acids, fats, mineral ions,
vitamins and water. The fetus produces some urea which diffuses into the mother’s blood to be
excreted through her kidneys.

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Umbilical cord - Umbilical cord joins the fetus to the placenta. The cord contains an artery that
transports deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta and a vein that returns oxygenated
blood to the fetus.

What are meant by the term’s amnion and amniotic fluid?

- The fetus becomes surrounded by a membrane called the amnion or amniotic sac which
contains amniotic fluid.
- This fluid supports the fetus and protects it from mechanical damage in the uterus.
The main stages in the development into a baby ready to be born at the end of pregnancy are
summarized as follows:
- One month after fertilization, a human embryo looks a bit like a fish embryo or tadpole. The
heart is started to beat.
- Two months after fertilization, the embryo has a face, limbs, fingers and toes and looks
human. It is now called a fetus. Most of the organs are formed.
- Three months after fertilization, the nerves and muscles of the fetus are developing rapidly.
- Four months after fertilization, the mother feels the fetus start to kick.
- Five months after fertilization, although only about 180 mm in length, the fetus has perfectly
formed eyebrows, fingernails, fingerprints and body hair.
- Seven months after fertilization development is almost complete.

Figure 16.8.2 The fetus at Figure 16.8.3 The fetus at 8weeks Figure 16.8.4 The fetus at 5 months
26 days

Unit 16.9
Sex hormones

Puberty - Between the ages of about 10 and 14, the testes start to make sperm and follicles
start to develop in the ovaries. This is called puberty. Girls usually develop earlier than boy.
At the beginning of puberty the pituitary gland starts to make hormones that stimulate the
testes and ovaries. These hormones make the sex organs active. These sex organs start to
produce sex hormones which develop our secondary sexual characteristics.

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 Adolescence – the transitional period of physical and psychological development between
childhood and maturity.
A person becomes an adolescent when puberty starts. Adolescence finishes when you stop
growing at about 18 years of age. Adolescence can be an emotional time. Hormones can
bring about mood changes and increased sexual urges.

Puberty in boys
The testes start making testosterone, which stimulates:
• the growth of the male sex organs
• the testes to make sperm cells
• growth of hair on the face
• the deepening of the voice
• developing of muscles in the body
Puberty in girls
The ovaries start making oestrogen, which stimulates:
• the growth of female sex organs
• the start of the first menstrual cycle
• growth of hair on parts of the body
• growth and developing of breasts
• widening the hips
Stages in the menstrual cycle
- Girls are born with a very large number of potential egg cells in their ovaries.
- It is surrounded by a small group of cells and they form follicle.
- There are thousands of these follicles in each ovary.
- At puberty, some of the follicle start to develop by meiosis cell division which reduces the
number of chromosomes in the nucleus by half.
- Each month one or a few follicles start to develop.
- This is stimulated by hormones (FSH= Follicles stimulating hormone) released by the pituitary
gland.

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Ovulation
- The release of an ovum from the mature egg with follicle cells in the ovary into the oviduct is
called ovulation. This happens at around day 14 of the cycle.
-
Yellow body or Corpus luteum
- After ovulation, the follicle cells left behind in the ovary form the yellow body which remains
for the next two weeks. If implantation does not occur, the yellow body will then decrease in
size. If implantation occurs yellow body remains active during pregnancy.

Menopause
- Between the ages of 45 and 55 years a woman’s periods stop as her menstrual cycle have
stopped. This is called the menopause.

Unit 16.10
The Menstrual cycle
Menstruation – Girls start to have periods between the ages of about 10 to 15 years old. During a
period, the lining of the uterus breaks down, blood and cells pass out of the vagina. This is called
menstruation.
There are four hormones that control the menstrual cycle. The pituitary gland at the base of the
brain secretes:
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinising hormone (LH)
The ovary secretes:
• Oestrogen and progesterone
The hormonal control of the menstrual cycle
1. Effects of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
(i) At puberty, the pituitary gland secretes (FSH) hormone which stimulates the development
of a follicle inside the ovary
(ii) The secretion of oestrogen from the ovary.

2. Effects of Oestrogen
Oestrogen has three main effects.

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 (i) Oestrogen stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete the Luteinizing hormone (LH) which
stimulates the ovulation.
(ii) After fertilization, it causes the repair and growth of the uterus lining.
(iii) Inhibits the FSH production.

3. Effects of Luteinizing hormone (LH)

(i) LH stimulates ovulation and the formation of the yellow body (Corpus luteum) from the
remaining of the follicle cells.
(ii) The yellow body secretes progesterone which maintains the uterus lining in its thickened
state.

4. Effects of progesterone hormone

(i) Keeps the uterus lining thick and well supplied with blood, preparing it for the
implantation of the embryo.
(ii) Inhibits both FSH and LH.

Figure 16.10.1 in the centre is a yellow

body, which enlarges in the second half of
the menstrual cycle to produce and
release progesterone

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 Figure 16.10.2 Control of the menstrual cycle by hormones from
the pituitary gland

- FSH andoestrogen are the important hormones during the first half of the menstrual cycle
from day 0 to day 14.
- During this time the egg develops and increases in size within the follicle.
- LH stimulates the follicle to burst and release its egg. This happens at around day 14 of the
cycle.
- After ovulation, the remains of the follicle become the yellow body which secretes
progesterone.
- In the second half of the cycle, progesterone together with oestrogen secreted by the ovary
have these effects.
- They stimulate further growth of the lining of the uterus and they maintain to thicken of the
uterus lining and prevent it breaking down.
- They stop the secretion of the FSH and LH from the pituitary gland.
- The concentration of LH decreases in the second half of the cycle. This reduces the stimulation
of yellow body so eventually it stops secreting progesterone and decreases in size.
- As concentration of progesterone decreases there is less stimulation for the lining of the
uterus and menstruation occurs.
- If intercourse occurs around the middle of the cycle and the egg is fertilized, then it may
implant in the uterus lining so that pregnancy begins and the yellow body remains active
during pregnancy.

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 Unit 16.11
Sexual transmitted diseases (STDs)
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
- is a human pathogen that was first identified in the early 1980s.
- Like all viruses it is composed of few genes and a protein coat.
- It enters human cells and uses the cell to make more viruses which then enter even more
cells.
- HIV infection may lead to the development of AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).
- If someone has been infected with HIV they are described as being HIV positive (HIV+).
- The virus weakens the body’s immune system.
- It is easier for a person who is HIV+ to be infected by other diseases, such as TB and
pneumonia.
-
HIV and lymphocytes
- HIV attacks and destroys an important type of lymphocyte that coordinates the immune
system.
- During an infection these T lymphocytes stimulate other lymphocytes to produce
antibodies.
- And also, number of T lymphocytes decrease and so fewer antibodies are produced.
- HIV+ person develop diseases, as well as cancers, that form because the immune system
does not recognize and destroy them.
The symptoms of AIDS
- The early symptoms of AIDS are very much like flu, with swollen glands and a high
temperature.
- Later, weight loss, various types of cancers and decrease in brain function.

How is HIV transmitted?

- HIV is transmitted in the blood and semen.
- The virus can pass from one person to another during unprotected sexual intercourse.
- The virus can also be passed via hypodermic needles contaminated with infected blood.
- In this way, HIV has spread very quickly amongst drug addicts.
- Unborn babies are also at risk from HIV.

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 - This is because the virus can across the placenta to the fetus.
- Even more likely is its passage from the mother’s blood to the baby’s blood at birth
when the two bloodstreams come into close contact.
- HIV can also be transmitted in breast milk.
- Blood used for transfusions is another way in which HIV has been transmitted.

How can AIDS be prevented?

- There is no cure for AIDS and no vaccine for HIV.
- The treatments involve taking anti-viral drugs, some of which prevent the virus multiplying
inside the body’s cells.

How can HIV/ AIDS infection be prevented?

HIV infection cannot be cured, it is important to prevent the transmission of the virus.
- Scientists are trying to develop drugs that will in activate HIV, but the problem is that the
drugs may damage the host lymphocytes. There are anti-viral drugs e.g. Zidovudine (AZT)
and some of these prevent the virus multiplying inside the body cells.

Methods to reduce its spread include:

- the use of condoms during sexual intercourse; free needle exchange schemes to reduce the
use of shared needles amongst drug users; careful screening of donated blood used for
transfusions; Education programmes to make people aware method of transmission of HIV
virus and how it can be prevented.

Gonorrhea
- Gonorrhea is a bacterial disease which is spread during sexual intercourse with an infected
partner.
- It can be prevented by having just one uninfected partner or by using condoms.
- Its spread is controlled by tracing and treating any sexual contacts of an infected person.

How is gonorrhea transmitted?

- Gonorrhea is only transmitted during sexual intercourse.
- is caused by Neisseria gonorrhea, a small spherical bacterium.
- It can also survive inside the moist lining of the male or female reproductive tracts.
- If the bacteria are present in either the vagina of a woman or the urethra of a man, the
infection can be transmitted from one to the other during sexual intercourse.

Unit 17 Inheritance

17.1 Chromosome, genes and DNA

1. Genetics is the branch of biology concerned with heredity and variation.

2. Inheritance is the transfer of genetic information from generation to generation.

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3. Gene is a length of DNA that codes for a specific protein. Genes (the heredity units) which are
transmitted from one generation to the next.
(Humans have between 20000 -25000 different genes.)
4. Chromosome - is a thread like structure. Each chromosome is made up of long chain molecule
called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and protein.
5. Diploid – means that there are two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from the mother
and the other set inherited from the father.
6. Haploid – means half of diploid chromosome number. 2 n is diploid number so haploid number
is 2n/2 =n (haploid number) =23

1-22 pairs are homologous chromosomes (Autosomal)

1 pair is sex chromosome

X X
23
23
X XX XX
23 46 46

Male Y XY XY
Female
23 46 46
7. Chromatid – one of two duplicated chromosomes connected at the
centromere.
Human have 46 chromosomes in body cell.
Chimpanzees = 48,
Indian muntjac (Asian deer) = only six
Fruit flies = eight, Mouse = 40, Garden pea cell = 14, Kangaroo = 12,

Chromatin

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 Animal cell

17.1.1 A double-stranded chromosome

17.1.2 The arrangement of DNA in a chromosome

The structure of DNA contains bases. DNA also controls the production of other important proteins,
including antibodies and receptors for neurotransmitters.
DNA carries information to build proteins from amino acids. The messenger RNA (mRNA) moves
from the DNA to the ribosomes. mRNA is to carry the base sequence move out from the nucleus to
the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs.
The structure of DNA contains bases. DNA also controls the production of other important
proteins, including antibodies and receptors for neurotransmitters.
DNA carries information to build proteins from amino acids. The messenger RNA (mRNA) moves
from the DNA to the ribosomes. mRNA is to carry the base sequence move out from the nucleus
to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs.

Chromatids
Centromere A–T
C-G

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 DNA

The genetic code

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There are four different bases found in DNA. They are A, T, C, and G. Each amino acid is coded for
by a sequence of three of these bases on DNA. There are about 20 different amino acids and each is
coded for by a different base triplet on DNA.

The rule of base paring

In DNA, rule of base paring is - A bonds with T and C bond with G.
In RNA, rule of base paring is - A bonds with U and C bond with G.

Protein synthesis
Explain how a protein is made, limited to:
The three types of RNA such as messenger RNA (m RNA), ribosomal RNA (r RNA) and transfer RNA
(t RNA) made from a DNA template in the nucleus.
- The mRNA moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and arrives at the ribosomes.
- The mRNA strand contains the base triplets for each particular amino acid.
- The mRNA then passes through the ribosomes and each ribosome assembles amino acid
that carries by the tRNA from the cytoplasm.
- The amino acid bond together forming a long chain -the protein.
- The specific sequence of amino acids is determined by the sequence of bases in the mRNA
and each amino acids is joined to the next one by a peptide bond to form protein.

Codon 1 Codon 2 Codon3 Codon4 Codon 5 Codon6

mRNA

tRNA

Anticodon1 Anticodon2

Growing chain of amino acids

Triplet

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Important proteins
DNA controls cell functions by controlling the production of proteins including enzymes,
antibodies, membrane carriers and receptors for neurotransmitters.
Enzymes control the chemical reactions that take place in a cell. All enzymes are proteins. So, the
genetic code of DNA, by determining which proteins, particularly enzyme, and made in the cell, will
determine the cell’s structure and function.
The active site on the surface of enzyme has a complementary shape to the enzyme’s substrate.
This is important because it gives the enzyme its specificity.
Antibodies are proteins that are made by white blood cells called lymphocytes. Each antibody has
a binding site that can attach to pathogen like bacteria. Antibodies directly destroys the pathogen
or that can be detected by other white blood cell called phagocytes.
Each pathogen has antigens on its surface that have a particular shape, so only specific antibodies,
with a complementary shape can attach to a particular antigen.
Membrane carriers are proteins that control the movement of water-soluble ions and certain
molecules across the cell membrane. They are able to maintain different concentrations of ions on
either side of the cell membrane.
Receptors for neurotransmitters are proteins found in the membrane at the synapses between
neurons. They have a complementary structure to the transmitter molecules, which attach to them
and enable an impulse to pass across the synapse.

Figure16.3.5 A carrier protein

Figure16.3.4 The active site of the transport particle across the
enzyme has a complementary shape membrane
to that of the substrate

Difference bet ween DNA and RNA

DNA RNA
DNA has deoxyribose sugar RNA has ribose sugar
Double-stranded Single-stranded

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 Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine Adenine, Uracil instead of
and Guanine Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine
stays in nucleus Move to cytoplasm

One type Three types; mRNA, tRNA,

rRNA

17.2 Mitosis cell division

The process by which a cell divides into two or more cells. Cell division is also the source of
tissue growth and repair in multicellular organisms.
The two types of cell division in eukaryotic organisms are mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis (Copying division) – is the type of nuclear division that occurs during growth and
asexual reproduction. The daughter cells are genetically identical.
Meiosis (Reduction division) – occurs in sex organs to form gametes. It is the nuclear division
that gives rise to daughter cell s that are not genetically identical.

The significance of mitosis

Mitosis occurs in the following processes:

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 • Growth- in animals this happens all over the body, in plant it happens in special growing
areas such as the tips of stems and roots.

• Repair of wounds – your skin cells divide by mitosis to repair damaged tissues and wounds.

• Replacement of cells that wear out and die, such as red blood cells which only live for short
time.

• Asexual reproduction- this occurs in fungi and in plants, but is rare in the animal kingdom.

Stem cells
Some of the cells that form from an embryo remain as unspecialized cells. They do not develop into
any type of specialized cell. These cells keep dividing by mitosis to provide the body with a constant
supply of new cells. These cells are needed to replace cells that get worn out and die.
There is a layer of stem cells just under the outer layer of skin cells. These stem cells continually
divide to make cells that become toughened for protection. They get rubbed off and need to be
constantly replaced. When skin is wounded, these stem cells produce more cells to repair the
damage.
There are many stem cells in the bone marrow to produce new red blood cells and phagocytes as
replacements. Each time a stem cell divides, one daughter cell starts to become specialized for
some specific function and the other daughter cell remains unspecialized to go through the process
of mitosis again. The cells in meristems in plants have the same role as stem cells in animals.

Mitosis takes place in the meristem Cells at various stages of mitosis

behind the root tip.

17.3 Meiosis
Meiosis (Reduction division) – is a reduction division in which the chromosome number is
halved from diploid to haploid resulting in cells that are genetically different.
Meiosis halves the number of chromosomes so egg cells and sperm cells have only 23
chromosomes each. The zygote has 46 chromosomes, 23 from the mother, in the egg, and
23 from the father, in the sperm. In sexual reproduction the number of chromosomes stays
constant from generation to generation.

Meiosis occurs in sex organs in humans – the ovaries and testes. In flowering plants meiosis
occurs in the anthers and in the ovules. In meiosis, the daughter cells are not identical. They
are genetically different. Meiosis is called reduction division because it halves the number
of chromosomes in cells.
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 Meiosis cell division
(Reduction cell division)

Differences between mitosis and meiosis cell division

Genes and alleles

A gene is a length of DNA that is the code for making a protein molecule. Each gene is always
located in the same place on one of the chromosomes. Each species has its own genes and every
individual from the same species has the same genes.
However, genes vary between individuals within each species. The different versions of each gene
are known as alleles. There may be two alleles of a gene, but usually there are many more.
In Figure 17.5.2, you can see three genes on one pair of chromosomes. You can also see the alleles
A/a B/B and d/d

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 1. A gene - is a length of DNA that is the code for a specific protein molecule.
2. Genotype – the genetic constitution of an individual, eg. AA, bb, Bb etc. Two types of
genotype are (i) homozygous genotype and (ii) heterozygous genotype.
(i) Homozygous genotype – the union of gametes carrying identical alleles (aa, AA)
produced homozygous genotype. A homozygous genotype produces only one kind of
gamete.
AA A
(ii) Heterozygous genotype – the union of gametes carrying different alleles (Aa) produced
a heterozygous genotype. A heterozygous genotype produces two kinds of gamete. A a
Aa A a
3. Phenotype – The visible properties of an organism that are produced by the genotype
and their environment. (or) Physical appearance of an organism.
4. Dominant – Allele that is expressed when two different alleles (Ww) are present in an
organism’s genotype.
eg. W = white colour; w = black colour; Ww = white colour (because white W is
dominant over black w).
5. Recessive – Allele that is expressed only when no dominant allele is present (aa,dd,bb)
of an organism’s genotype. e.g, aa, bb, dd.
6. Cross – Mating of two organisms.

17.4
Monohybrid inheritance
It concerns the inheritance of a single characteristic, such as plant height or flower colour.
It involves the inheritance of the alleles of one gene. We will use the example of Mendel’s peas.
In pea plant, the gene for plant height has two alleles:
T = tall
t = dwarf
Tt x Tt
There are three possible genotypes for plant height.
TT = homozygous tall T t T t
Tt = heterozygous tall
tt = homozygous dwarf
The parental cross
Parental phenotype: tall × dwarf Genetic diagram
Parental genotype: TT tt Gamete T
t Tt
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Gamete: T t
F1 generation:
Genotype: Tt (heterozygous)
Phenotype: All tall plants
F2 generation = F1 × F1
F1 plants are allowed to self-pollinate. Genetic diagram

F1 phenotype: tall × tall Gamete T t

Genotype: Tt Tt T TT Tt
Gamete: T t T t
F2 generation: t Tt tt
Genotype: TT : Tt : Tt : tt 1/4 TT : 2/4Tt : 1/4tt
Genotypic ratio: 1/4TT : 1/2Tt : 1/4tt
Phenotypic ratio: 3/4 tall : 1 /4 dwarf

Genotypic ratio : 1TT : 2Tt : 1tt

25% TT : 50%Tt : 25%tt 100% =1
Phenotype: 3 tall : 1 dwarf 75% =0.75 (3/4 tall)
75% tall : 25% dwarf 50% = 0.5 (1/2
ability of dwarf = ¼ dwarf (or) 25% (or) 0. 25% =0.25

Test cross
We do not know the genotype of a tall plant.
⮚ Because tall plants with genotype TT or Tt have same phenotype.

⮚ So, a test cross is required to distinguish between them.

⮚ The test cross parent is always homozygous recessive for all of the genes under
consideration.
If the unknown tall plant is homozygous:
Phenotype: tall × dwarf TT =100% tall
Unknown genotype: TT tt Tt = 50% tall : 50%dwarf
Gametes: T t
Test cross offspring:
Genotype: 100% heterozygous (Tt)
Phenotype: 100% tall
If the unknown tall plant is heterozygous:
Phenotype: tall × dwarf
Unknown genotype: Tt tt
Gametes: T t t
Test cross offspring:
Genotype: 50% heterozygous (Tt) 50% homo (tt)
Phenotype: 50% tall : 50% dwarf

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Problem 1 ( Test cross problem)
A dominant gene W produces wire-haired texture in dogs; its recessive allele a produces smooth
hair. A group of heterozygous wire-haired individuals are crossed and their F 1 progeny are then test
crossed. Determine the expected genotype and phenotype ration among the test cross progeny.
Given:

gametes W w
W WW Ww
w Ww ww
In dogs
W = wire-haired
w = smooth-haired
W>w
Cross: hetero: wire-haired × hetero: wire-haired

Genotype: Ww Ww
Gametes: W w W w

F1 generation:
Genotype: WW : Ww : Ww : ww
F1 generation progeny are to be test crossed.

In test cross, the produced genotype is crossed with homozygous recessive.

So, WW × ww = Ww
Ww × ww = Ww : ww
Ww × ww = Ww : ww
ww × ww = ww
Test cross progeny
3
Genotype: /6 Ww : 3/6 ww
Phenotype: ½ wire-haired : ½ smooth-haired≠

Pedigree (Family tree)

Cat breeders know that if they breed together two cats which both have long hair, all the kittens
will have long hair. If two short-haired cats are bred together then there may be some long-haired
and some short-haired kittens in the litter, or there may be no long-haired kittens at all. Breeders
can make pedigree diagrams to show the features that appear within a family of cats as in Figure
17.5.1. You will see that a pedigree diagram looks very like a family tree, but symbols are used to
indicate the gender of individuals.

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 Codominance
Alleles which lack dominant and recessive relationships may be called codominance.

CWCW CRCR

CRCW
Codominances and multiple alleles

Example:
In snapdragon flowers,
Cross: Red × White
Genotype: CRCR CWCW
Gamete: CR CW
F1 generation:
Genotype: C R CW
Phenotype: All Pink
F2 generation:

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 Genotypes: 1 CR CR:2 CR CW:1 CW CW
25% CR CR :50% CR CW: 25% CW CW
Phenotypes: 25% red : 50% pink:25% white

Multiple alleles
• In human ABO blood group system are determined by one gene I, with three different
alleles: IA, IB and Io .
• IA and IB are codominant and Io is recessive allele. (or)
• Both A and B alleles are dominant over O
The allele IA and IB are codominant and IO is recessive.
IA - Determines the production of the A antigen
IB - Determines the production of the B antigen
IO - Determines that neither antigen is produced.
The genes for group A and B are dominant that for group O. I A = IB > IO (i)

Genotype Blood group (Phenotype)

IAIA or IAIO (IAi) A

IBIB or IBIO (IBi) B

I AI B AB

IOIO (or) ii O

Look at the genetic diagrams. Two parents have blood groups AB and O. The children will have
blood groups A or B. None of them will have the same blood group as their parents. Two parents
have blood groups A and B. They could have children with all four blood groups – A, B, AB and O.

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75
Sex determination
Your chromosomes determine which sex you are. In humans there are 46 chromosomes and these
occur in 23 pairs.
In females there are two chromosomes that are the same (XX).
In males there are two chromosomes that are not alike (XY).
In Figure 17.8.1 you can see how sex chromosomes in the gametes determine the sex of
individuals. Remember that the number of chromosomes is halved in meiosis so each gamete can
have only one of the two sex chromosomes.
All egg cells contain an X chromosome. Half of the sperm contain an X chromosome and half of
the sperm contain a Y chromosome.
At fertilization, the egg may fuse with either a sperm with an X chromosome or a sperm with a Y
chromosome.
Since there are equal numbers of sperm with the X chromosome and with the Y chromosome,
there is an equal chance of the zygote inheriting XX or XY and the child being female or male.

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Sex inheritance
In male sex determination XY, Y chromosome is very small and much smaller than the X.
Therefore, the Y chromosome has far fewer genes than the other chromosome and the X.
One gene on the Y chromosome stimulates the development of testes in the embryo.
It is not present or it is mutated then the body that develops is female
Sex linkage
• The sex chromosomes don’t just determine sex, they also carry genes for other
characteristics. These are called sex-linked genes.
• A sex – linked characteristic is one in which the gene responsible is located on usually the X
chromosome.
• Male only have one copy of the genes that are on X chromosome.
• In women have two X chromosomes they are less affected by sex-linked recessive allele.
• Therefore, sex-linked conditions are more common in boys than in girls.
Colour blindness
One of the genes on the X chromosome controls the ability to see red and green colours. The gene
works in the receptors, known as cones, in the retina of the eye. There is an allele of this gene
which does not produce a protein necessary for colour vision. The allele is recessive, so any girl or
woman who is heterozygous, Rr, has normal colour vision. Males only have one X chromosome so if
they have inherited the alleler they will be colour blind

Figure 17.8.3 shows what to expect if the mother is homozygous dominant and the father is colour
blind.

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Figure 17.8.4 shows what to expect if the mother is a carrier and the father has normal colour
vision.
Problem
Colorblindness is a recessive, X-linked trait. In marriages between a man who is colorblind, and a
woman who is a carrier, what percentage of the children can be expected to be:
a) sons who are color blind
b) sons who are not color blind
c) daughters who are color blind
d) daughters who are carriers of the trait
e) daughters who do not carry the trait at all
In man: Colorblindness is a recessive, X-linked trait.
XB XB = Normal-sighted woman
XB Xb = Carrier woman
Xb Xb = Color-blind woman

XB Y = Normal-sighted man
Xb Y = Color-blind man
Parental phenotype: man, who is colorblind X woman who is a carrier
Parental genotype: Xb Y XB Xb
Gametes: Xb Y XB Xb

Xb Y

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 XB XBXb XBY
Xb XbXb XbY

Genotype: XBXb : XBY :XbXb : Xby

Phenotype: 25% carrier woman : 25% normal man: 25% colour blind woman :
25% colour blind man
Answer:
a) sons who are color blind = 25%
b) sons who are not color blind =25%
c) daughters who are color blind =25%
d) daughters who are carriers of the trait =25%
e) daughters who do not carry the trait at all=0%

1. In tabby cats the pattern of stripes in the coat is controlled by a gene. The allele for parallel
stripes (T) is dominant to the allele (t) for a blotched pattern.

(a) Use genetic diagrams to predict the proportions of cats with different coat patterns in the next
generation in the following crosses:

(i) homozygous dominant × homozygous recessive, [4]

(ii) heterozygous × homozygous recessive. [4]

(b) Explain why it is possible to state the genotype of a tabby cat with blotched stripes, but not one
with parallel stripes. [3]

(c) Explain why male and female tabby cats with blotched stripes cannot produce a kitten with
parallel stripes. [2]

(d) Use the example of inheritance in this question to explain the terms gene and allele. [3]

3. (a) Explain how you would use a test cross to find the genotype of an organism that could either
be homozygous dominant or heterozygous. [3]

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(b)The four o’clock plant, Mirabilis jalapa, has a red-flowered variety and a white-flowered variety.
When these are cross-bred the offspring have pink flowers.
(i) Explain why this is so. [3]
(ii) Show, by means of a genetic diagram, the result of cross breeding the pink flowered plants
among themselves. [5]
(c) Plants with pink flowers were crossed with plants with red flowers. The seeds were collected
and grown. When they flowered, 64 plants were of the pink variety and 78 of the red variety.
(i) Use a genetic diagram to explain these results. [5]

(ii) Explain why there were no white flowered plants among the offspring in this cross.[3]

Unit 18 Variation and selection

18.1 Variation is the difference between individuals of the same species.

There are two types of variation within a species.

1. Continuous variation (height, skin colour, hair length)

2. Discontinuous variation (albino, blood groups in humans, fingerprints, ability to roll tongue,
ear lobed.
1. Continuous variation
Continuous variation is influenced by genes and the environmental conditions. e.g. height of
humans, skin colour.

Continuous variation

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Figure: Although we show a lot of variation, we are all one species. (Continuous variation)

Figure: Although we show a lot of variation, we are all one species. (Continuous variation)

2. Discontinuous variation
Discontinuous variation is caused by genes alone and results in a limited number of distinct
phenotypes e.g. A, B, AB and O blood groups in humans, fingerprints, ability to roll tongue,
ear lobed.

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 18.2 Investigations into variation
Investigation into continuous variation: the length of limpets on a rocky shore.
Limpets are aquatic snails with distinctive conical shell and a strong muscular foot. They are found
between the high and low watermarks on rocky shores. They are truly international, being found
on rocky shores of the Caribbean South Africa, Mediterranean and North Sea.
You cannot measure all the limpets on a particular rocky shore. This would be far too laborious and
time –consuming. The best strategy is to take a representative sample of the population.

Quadrats are often used when sampling in the rocky shore studies. A frame quadrat is a metal
square and the most common size is 0.25m2. About 10 to 15 quadrats can be laid down at random
sample points on the shore and length of any limpet shell found within each quadrat can be
measured with a caliper.
In our example the data was divided into six equal size groups and the number of limpets in each
group was recorded in a tally chart.

Figure: Tally chart for limpet shell length Figure 18.2.1 A quadrat in use

This was used to draw a histogram-which is used to show frequency distribution, in this case the
number of limpets of different lengths found on the rocky shore. As you can see, the graph displays
a normal distribution reflecting continuous variation.

Length of limpet/mm

Figure 18.2.4 Histogram

of continuous variation 82
in a limpet shell/length
 Figure 18.2.3 Measuring the length of a
limpet with a caliper

Investigation into discontinuous variation: the different coloured of sweet pea plants
With discontinuous variation, the characteristics can be divided into distinct categories into which
individuals can be placed. There is no overlapping between categories since categories are
distinctive, e.g., ABO blood groups.
Gregor Mendel tended to choose characteristics for his experiments that were controlled by a
single gene displaying discontinuous variation, e.g., shape and colour of pea seeds.
In this investigation, a group of students bought a packet of sweet pea seeds with a variety of
coloured flowers.
The seeds were sown in pots of soil, watered and placed into in sunlight so that they could
germinate.
Eventually they grew into mature plants and produced flowers. The flowers were placed into four
groups depending on their colour. Numbers were recorded in a tally chart.
This data was used to draw a bar chart since the independent variable (flower colour) was categoric
and the dependent variable (number of plants) was continuous.

Unit 18.3 Mutations

A mutation is a spontaneous change in a gene or DNA or a chromosome that may cause a change in
a phenotype characteristic.

Often this change can be harmful, but some mutations are beneficial and some have no effect at all.
There are two types of mutation; they are gene mutation and chromosome mutation.

(1) Gene mutation

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(a) Example of gene mutation
First mutation studied was in the fruit fly. Normal eye colour of fruit flies is red, but a
mutant form with white eyes was discovered. This was due to the change in the DNA so
that the gene no longer coded for the production of the red pigment.

(b) Example of gene mutation

Albino is the example of gene mutation.
A gene controls production of the skin, hair and eye pigment melanin, which protects
the skin and eyes from ultra-violet light. The gene can mutate that does not produce
melanin. It is a recessive allele and homozygous recessive individuals are albino (e.g.
aa, bb, cc)

(c) Gene mutations are the cause of many human genetic diseases.
Sickle cell anemia, color-blindness and cystic fibrosis
2. Chromosome mutation
Down’s syndrome is caused by a chromosome mutation.
The most common cause of this is a mutation that occurs during meiosis when an
egg cell is formed in the ovary.
The mutation occurs when two of the chromosomes do not separate properly.
Instead of the egg having 23 chromosomes there is an extra chromosome, giving a
Down’ syndrome. If this egg is fertilized the baby will have 47 chromosomes, one more than

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normal. Down’s syndrome affects about 1 in 1000 babies worldwide.

Causes of mutations
- Gene mutations are the only way in which new genetic material is produced.
- Ultra-violet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays are the most damaging.
- Benzpyrene in cigarette smoke is a cause of mutations.

Male Down’s syndrome

Sickle cell anemia- an inherited diseases of the blood

- The blood in the figure is from a person with sickle cell anemia (SCA)
- These red blood cells are in the shape of a sickle.

Sickle shaped
red blood cell

- A sickle is a C – shaped tool for cutting plants like grasses and cereals.
- These cells have abnormal haemoglobin which makes it difficult for the RBCs to carry
oxygen. This inherited disease is most common in West, Central and East Africa.

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 Genotype: 1HNHN :2 HNHS :1HSHS
: 25% HNHN : 50% HNHS : 25% HSHS
Phenotype: 25% normal hemoglobin: 50% resistance to Malaria: 25% abnormal

Unit 18.4
Adaptive features
Define the term adaptive feature.
An adaptive feature is an inherited feature that helps an organism to survive and reproduce in its
environment.
The following animals are adapted to extreme conditions:
- The mayfly nymph has a flattened, streamlined body and clings to the underside or rocks so it is
not washed away.
- In winter, Arctic fox grows white fur as a camouflage.
- In desert conditions, a camel has a large hump on the back, each hump stored up to 36 kilograms
of fat which consisting even months without food.
Adaptations of plants to different environments
Desert adaptations - All plants have to balance water uptake with water loss. It is important that
they maintain the turgor in their cells, or they will wilt. Very high rates of transpiration can kill a
plant if it cannot absorb enough water to prevent long-term wilting. Xerophytes are plants that are
able to exist in conditions where water is scarce. Cacti are xerophytes that survive in hot, dry (arid)
desert regions.
Cacti reduce water loss and conserve water in the following ways:
• Their leaves are reduced to spines. This reduces the surface area of the leaf over which water can
be lost.
• A thick, waxy cuticle covers the plant’s surfaces and reduces transpiration.
• They have swollen stems containing water-storage tissue.
• They have a shallow, spreading root system to quickly absorb any water from rain and overnight
condensation.
• Many cacti have a round, compact shape which reduces their surface area so there is less surface
through which water can be lost.
• They have shiny surfaces which reflect heat and light.

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• Their stomata are closed during the day to reduce water loss.
They open their stomata at night to absorb the carbon dioxide which they store for use in
photosynthesis during the day. Photosynthesis occurs in the outer layers of cells in their stems.

Pond plants (Hydrophytes)

- Hydrophytes are plants that grow submerged or partially submerged on water.
- Roots, if present, are for anchorage and there is no need for the roots to absorb water or mineral
ions, there are no root hairs.
- The leaves and stems have little or no cuticle; there is no need to conserve water.
- Hydrophytes is needed carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, diffuses through water much more
slowly than it does through air.
- Oxygen needed for plant respiration, it is not very soluble in water.
- Therefore, many hydrophytes have an extensive system of air spaces in their stems and leaves
through which gases diffuse quickly.
- The air spaces provide buoyancy to keep the plants close to the light and are a reservoir of oxygen
and carbon dioxide.

Water Hyacinth Water Lily

Pond plants (Hydrophytes)

Unit 18.5

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 Selection
Natural selection
Natural selection is the process by which organisms that are well adapted to their environment a
greater chance to breed and pass on their genes to the next generation than those that are less
well adapted.

The features of natural selection:

1. Struggle for existences (Competition for resources)
2. Survival of the fittest (Production of many offspring)
3. Variation within population

Describe natural selection with reference to:

(a) genetic variation within populations
-Variation is the differences that exit within a species.
-It is also produced by sexual reproduction between two individuals.
-Gene mutation in which completely new genetic material is produced.
-Some mutations may give an advantage to the individual.
e.g. If individual has good camouflage to avoid being seen by a predator.

(b) production of many offspring

Over-population
-The sockeye salmon females produce millions of eggs, many of which are fertilized.
-In spite of huge over- production of the eggs, sockeye salmon species remain fairly stable.
-That’s because, most of the salmon’s eggs are eaten by the predators and many young salmon die
from disease and starvation.
-

(c) Struggle for survival including competition for resources

Among the organisms that survive the early stages of life there is competition for resources.
- Plants compete for space, light, water and nutrients.
- Animals compete for food, water, space (territories) and mates.
- This competition is referred to by biologists as the “struggle for existence”.

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- There is a “struggle for existence” due to competition, predation and disease.

(d) A greater chance of reproduction by individuals that are better adapted to the environment
than others
(e) these individuals pass on their alleles to the next generation.

Adaptation
The organisms that survive their struggles are the best adapted individuals to their particular
environment.
Antibiotic resistance
- Antibiotics are chemicals that kill bacteria or inhibit their growth.
- The introduction of antibiotics in the 1940s. Some bacteria developed a resistance to their effects.
- The antibiotics such as penicillin killed most bacteria.
- Some bacteria that have a mutation and produce an enzyme that breaks down the antibiotic.
- Non-resistant bacteria have died.
- The resistant bacteria can survive to reproduce and pass on the gene for resistance to their
offspring. This is an example of natural selection.

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 Selective breeding
Define the term artificial selection.
The selection of plants and animals for breeding because of their useful characteristics, e.g. high
crop yield. Also called selective breeding.
Selective breeding (artificial selection) involves humans finding organisms with desirable features,
crossing them and selecting the best from the next generation.
Selective breeding has produced new varieties of animals and plants with increased economic
importance, e.g. high-yielding crops, cattle that produce more milk or better meat and sheep that
produce more wool.
Domesticated plants and animals have changed considerably over time due to the artificial
selection. These changes have happened in the following ways:
- Human choose a desirable feature of an animal or plant to improve, e.g. fast growth, short

stems, docile (not fierce) nature, high yield, disease resistance, resistance to drought.

- Animals or plants showing these features are bred to produce the next generation.

- Commercial farmers want to increase the yields of their crops and animals. They want to improve

features of economic importance to maximize their profits.

- Plants breeders have increased the yield of grain in cereal crops such as rice, wheat and maize.

- Animals breeders have increased the milk yield in dairy cattle, and meat quantity and quality in

beef cattle.

- Breeders of dogs and growers of ornamental plants are looking to improve other non-economic

features.

Differences between artificial selection and natural selection

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There are two main methods of carrying out selective breeding:
1. Outbreeding and
2. Inbreeding

1. Outbreeding involves the breeding of unrelated animals or plants. This may be used to combine
the good characteristics of separate individuals, for example crossing a crop plant with high yield,
and another crop plant that is resistance to disease. Outbreeding often results in tougher
individuals with a better chance of survival. This is called hybrid vigour.

2. Inbreeding involves breeding close relatives in an attempt to retain desirable characteristics.

However, there can be harmful effects as a result of inbreeding. These can include a loss of vigour,
with the population weakened by a lack of gene diversity and reduced fertility.

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 Artificial Insemination (IUI= Intrauterine insemination) and (IVF = In
vitro fertilization)

What is Artificial Insemination (IUI) and IVF?

In IUI, specialists wash the sperm and inject it into the uterus, where it fertilises the
eggs naturally. Conversely in IVF, they harvest and fertilise the eggs in the lab.

Differences between Artificial Insemination and In Vitro Fertilisation

Differences between Artificial insemination (IUI) and In-vitro fertilization (IVF).

Similarities
1. Sexual intercourse does not occur.
2. Collection of sperm from a father or donor.
3. Washing of sperms.
4. Both uses of fertilities drugs.
Differences
1. Eggs are removed from the ovary of the woman in IVF.
2.Embryos can be frozen in IVF.
3. Fertilization happen inside the petri-dish, outside the body in IVF woman
4. Fertilization takes place inside the woman body in AI.

Artificial insemination (AI)

- If the man is infertile, he does not produce enough sperm or there are problems with
ejaculation. It is possible the semen may be collected from the man and placed via a fine
plastic tube into the woman’s uterus. This process is called artificial insemination (AI).
- If the man does not produce enough sperm, or if the sperm are defective, then a donor may
provide a sample of semen for AI.

In vitro fertilization (IVF)

- In vitro means “in glass” (an ovum is fertilized outside the women’s body).
- Egg and sperm are collected from the potential parents and mixed together in a laboratory
dish where fertilization occurs.

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 - To increase the chance of success, the woman is often injected with FSH to stimulate the
development of several follicles, so that several eggs can be collected from her ovaries.
- A small incision is made in the body wall and a fine plastic tube inserted to collect the eggs
from the follicles on the surface of the ovaries.
- The eggs are kept in a solution that contains nutrients and oxygen.
- Semen is collected from the man (or a sperm donor) and is mixed with the eggs
- and left for up to 24 hours for fertilization to occur.
- A technician checks that fertilization has occurred and that the zygotes have started to divide
into embryos.
- These are kept in a solution for a few days and then a doctor places them into the woman’s
uterus. If the procedure is successful, the embryo will develop into a fetus.
- It is also possible to take the nucleus from a defective sperm cell and inject it into an egg.
- The zygote is then cultured for several days so it grows into an embryo and is then
transferred into the woman in the hope that is implants in the uterus.

Unit 19
Organisms and their environment

19.1 Energy flow

Sunlight is a main source of energy for biological systems. Light energy is absorbed by
photosynthetic organisms and made available to all other organisms as chemical energy. Sunlight is
the ultimate source of energy for almost all food chains.
Energy transfer – Energy is transferred to animals when they ingest food. Energy transfer occurs
when animals feed on plants and other animals. Eventually the energy is transferred to the
environment as heat and is ‘lost’.
Nutrient cycling – Nutrients consist of the chemical elements that make up living organisms. They
are taken up by plants, passed on to animals and eventually recycled back into biological systems.
This is known as nutrient cycling.

Population -A population is a group of individuals of the same species, living in the same
habitat at the same time.
Ecology – the study of organisms in their environment
A community – is all the organisms, of all the different species , living in the same habitat.

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Producers make their own organic nutrients from raw materials, such as carbon dioxide and water.
Green plants use light as a source of energy to make sugars from carbon dioxide and water by
photosynthesis. Some bacteria are producers.
Ecosystem – A unit containing all of the organisms in a community and their environment,
interacting together.
Producers make energy available for all the other members of the community in the form of
energy-rich carbon compounds, such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Consumers - obtain their energy by eating other organisms, either plants or animals or both. All
animals are consumers. They cannot make their own food.
Primary consumers – herbivores are primary consumers as they eat the producers.
Secondary consumers - carnivores are secondary consumers and they eat herbivores.
Tertiary consumers – are carnivores that eat other carnivores, and are sometimes called top
carnivores.
Decomposers - are fungi and bacteria that gain their energy from waste or dead organic material.
Trophic level- Each of the feeding groups is a trophic level or is the position of organisms in a food
chain or food web.
Habitat – A habitat is a place where an organism lives.

Food chains and food webs

• Food chains show the flow of food and energy from one organism to the next, beginning
with a producer in a community.

• Producers, consumers and decomposers are the trophic levels in food chains.

• Producers provide energy in the form of carbon compounds for consumers and
decomposers.

Look at this food chain from an ecosystem. The arrows show the direction in which energy in food is
transferred from one organism to the next. Producers gain their energy from sunlight.
Sun producers primary consumers secondary consumers

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But do not include the Sun in food chains, as it is not a food so food chains start with producers.
Food web
Food webs show a network of interconnected food chains in a community.
In most communities, animals will eat more than one type of living organism.
A food web gives a more complete picture of the feeding relationships in an ecosystem.
Niche: the role of an organism in its natural environment; the way in which it interacts with other
organisms and with the non-living parts of the environment.

Pyramids of numbers and biomass

Pyramids of numbers

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Pyramids of numbers show how many living organisms there are at each trophic level but give no
indication of their size.
e.g. grasshoppers feed on many grasses and other plants and many grasshoppers
and lizards are eaten by grey kestrels.
Plants 600 caterpillars 100 mice 10 owl 1
This information can be shown in a pyramids of numbers.

- Caterpillars feed on plant 600 and 100 caterpillars and 10 mice are eaten by an owl.
- This information can be shown in a pyramids or numbers.
- The area of each box in the pyramid shows roughly how many living organisms there are
at each trophic level.

Pyramid of numbers
Some pyramids of numbers can have unusual shapes.

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 Pyramids of biomass
Biomass is the mass of living material present in an organism.
Pyramids of biomass indicate the mass of living material at each trophic level, but no
indication of the rate of growth.

5.8g per m2Dog-whelks

Periwinkles
71g per m 2 (ever green
plants)

3987g per m2 Algae growing on seaweeds and the rock

MCQ. Fig. A pyramid of biomass for a rocky seashore community

Unit 19.3
Pyramids of energy

We can draw a pyramid of energy to show this. Following figure is a sketch of a pyramid of energy
for a food web in a lake ecosystem.
The energy pyramid in the following figure shows that 87000 kj per m 2 per year is passed to the
tadpole from the plant plankton.
The tadpole pass on 14000 kj per m2 per year to the small fish, and so on.

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 - The tadpoles obtain 87000 kj per m2 per year from the water plant but only 14000 kj per
m2 per year of this to the small fish.
- The remaining 73000 kj per m2 per year has been lost from the food chain.
- The tadpoles will have used a lot of energy in swimming and they will have passed out
some of waste- urine and faeces.
- The only energy that they do pass on to the small fish is the energy in their biomass- their
muscles and other organs that the fish eats every time it swallows a tadpoles.
- Energy is always lost in this way as it passes from one trophic level to the next.
- Of the 87000 kj per m2 per year of energy of the producers only 67 kj per m2 per year of it
becomes energy in the flesh of the top carnivore, the pike.

Explain why the transfer of energy from one trophic level to another is often not
efficient.
Why is energy transfer inefficient? There are several reasons. One is that not all the
organisms at a lower trophic level get eaten by those at a higher trophic level. Another is
that some molecules in the bodies of organisms that do get eaten are not digestible by
predators and are lost in the predators' feces (poop).
Energy losses
- Energy flow through ecosystem is relatively inefficient.
- Plants absorb only 2 to 5% of the light energy that strikes their leaves,
- Much of this energy is not trapped in photosynthesis because it is reflected from the
surface of the leaves.
- Plants use much of the energy they trap in photosynthesis in their own respiration. As an
energy transfer process, respiration is about 40% efficient so 60% is lost heat to the plant
and then to the atmosphere.
-
Released in respiration
Dead remain
Tertiary
consumers faeces, etc.
Production
Decomposers
Released in respiration Dead remain of heat
Secondary faeces, etc.

consumers

Released in respiration Dead

remain
Primary consumers

Released in respiration
Sun
Producers
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Energy input

Sun
- Fig. Energy
About 10% of energy trapped bylosses
plant in
is an ecosystem
available to primary consumers.
- So primary consumers make available only about 10% of what they have eaten to
secondary consumers.
- Energy losses occur between trophic levels as a result of respiration, and in waste
materials produced.
- More energy is available in foods for human consumption if we feed as primary
consumers rather than as secondary consumers.
- Animals such as pig, cattle and chickens, use up much of the energy in their food. This
means that there is not much energy available to us.
- A vegetarian diet can support far more people than one that includes meat products.

Discuss the advantages of using a pyramid of energy rather than pyramids of numbers or
biomass to represent a food chain.
Advantages of the pyramid of energy as a representation: It takes account of the rate of
production over a period of time. Two species of comparable biomass may have very
different life spans. Thus, a direct comparison of their total biomasses is misleading, but
their productivity is directly comparable.

Explain why it is more energy efficient for humans to eat crop plants than to eat livestock
that have been fed on crop plants.
In particular, plant-based diets tend to be much more energy efficient than livestock-based
diets. This is mainly because livestock animals must be fed lots of plants. For example, when
a person eats a plant about 20% of the energy within that plant will be passed on to the
person to use as fuel or rebuild body tissue.

Unit 19.4
Nutrient cycles
- There is a constant flow of energy into ecosystems from the Sun, and energy flows
through the different trophic levels and is then lost to the atmosphere.
- Most living matter (95%) is made up of six elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus and sulfur.
- Decomposers, like bacteria and fungi, have an important role to play in the recycling of
nutrients.
- Carbon is cycled through ecosystem by processes such as photosynthesis and respiration.

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 -
The Carbon Cycle
- Carbon is used to make carbohydrates, proteins, fats, DNA and other important biological
molecules.
- Carbon comes from carbon dioxide in the air.
- Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use it in photosynthesis to make
food.
- Animals get the carbon compounds by eating plants.

Carbon dioxide gets into the air in the following ways:

- Respiration of plants and animals releasing carbon dioxide, water and energy.
- Decomposers use some of the decaying material for respiration, releasing carbon dioxide,
water and energy.
- Fossil fuels are burned, carbon dioxide released into the air.
- The green plants use this carbon dioxide into the air to make their own food by
photosynthesis.
- So the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere remains constant.
- Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use it in photosynthesis to make
food.

Figure: Carbon cycle

Five key processes
1. Photosynthesis – plants convert carbon dioxide into sugar (carbohydrate).
2. Respiration – all living things convert glucose to carbon dioxide when they respire and
released carbon dioxide.
3. Decay – when decomposers (bacteria and fungi) feed on organic material and make it decay,
they release carbon dioxide.
4. Feeding – when animal feed on plants and other animals, organic substances containing
carbon, e.g. proteins, carbohydrates and fats are passed along the food chain.
5. Combustion – when organic matter is burned, carbon dioxide is released.

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Water circulates between the earth's oceans, atmosphere, and land, involving precipitation
as rain and snow, drainage in streams and rivers, and return to the atmosphere by
evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation and condensation are important processes in
the water cycle.

Figure: Water cycle

Evaporation – Rain water undergoes several physical changes. Some evaporates into the air
to form water vapour. Some travels from place to place and finally enters a lake or river.
Nevertheless, water from a lake or river surface also evaporates into the atmosphere.

Condensation – Water vapour gather together condenses in a cool atmosphere to form a

cloud.

Precipitation – at a suitable temperature, pressure and saturation, water is precipitated

again on to the earth. This may be in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail.

Q. 1 What is meant by the term cycle?

Cycle is a series of events that are regularly repeated in the same order.

Q.2 Name the six elements that make up 95% of living matter.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur.
Q.3 State two substances that are absorbed and recycled by living organisms.
Carbon and nitrogen that are absorbed and recycled by living organisms.

Unit 19.5
The Nitrogen Cycle
- Amino acids, proteins DNA and chlorophyll contain nitrogen.

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- Approximately 80% of the air is nitrogen gas (N2), but very few organisms can make
us of it.
- Plants, animals and most organisms cannot use it in this form.
- Most of the nitrogen that plants obtain they absorb in the form of nitrate ions (NO 2).
- They use this to make amino acids in their leaves.
- The amino acids are used to form proteins, such as enzymes.
- Animals eat plants and so obtain their nitrogen in the form of plant protein.
- Any excess amino acids are broken down by animals to ammonia by the process of
deamination.
- Animals that live on land, such as the cow in the cycle above, convert ammonia to
urea and excrete it in their urine.
- Decomposers (bacteria and fungi) break down dead remains and animal wastes
releasing ammonium ions (NH2+) into the soil.
- Bacteria also break down urea in urine to ammonium ions. This process is called
ammonification.

1. Nitrogen - fixing bacteria are found in the soil. These can convert nitrogen gas
from the air into compounds of nitrogen that they use themselves. When they die
and are decomposed, this fixed nitrogen is available to plants.
(nitrogen gas nitrate compound) (Nitrogen fixation)

2. Nitrifying bacteria in the soil change ammonium ions into nitrate ions.
These bacteria gain their source of energy from this oxidation reaction instead of
absorbing light or feeding as a decomposer.
(ammonia nitrite nitrate (Nitrification)

3. Denitrifying bacteria live in water-logged soil. They change nitrate ions to

nitrogen gas. It is thought that they balance the uptake of nitrogen gas by
nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
(nitrate nitrogen gas) (Denitrification)

Nitrogen – fixing bacteria

- They are also found in the roots of legume plants like peas, beans, and
clover and many tropical trees, such as flame trees.
The bacteria are inside swellings on the roots called root nodules.
- These bacteria change nitrogen gas into ammonia that the legume plants
can use to make amino acids.
- In return the legume plants provide a suitable environment for the bacteria
and also provide all the sugars that they need.
- Nitrogen fixation requires a lot of energy.
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 Lightning causes nitrogen and oxygen to react together at high temperatures.
Nitrogen oxides are formed in the reactions. These are washed into the soil by
rain where they form nitrate ions.

Nitrate ions are lost from the soil before plants can absorb them as they
can be washed out of the soil by rainwater. This is called leaching.

Six key processes

1. Nitrogen fixation – nitrogen fixing bacteria change nitrogen gas into nitrates.
Some of these bacteria live free in the soil, and some live in root nodules of plants
like peas, beans and clover (legumes).
2. Absorption by plants – plant roots absorb nitrate and it is used inside the plant to
make proteins and nucleic acids.
3. Feeding – when animals feed on plants and other animals, nitrogen (in protein) is
passed along the food chain.
4. Decay – when decomposers feed on organic matter containing protein, they
release ammonia (contains nitrogen).
5. Nitrification – nitrifying bacteria (in the soil) change ammionia into nitrate. This is a
twostep process.
Ammonia nitrite nitrate
6. Denitrification – denitrifying bacteria (in the soil) change nitrate into nitrogen gas.
Nitrate Nitrogen gas

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 Figure: Nitrogen cycle

Unit 19.6

Populations, communities and ecosystems

Population
- A population is a group of individuals of the same species, living in the same
habitat at the same time.
Population size
- Population size depends on birth rate and death rate,
immigration and emigration.
Population size increases due to increase birth rate and
immigration (coming into a country for the purpose of
permanent residence) .
[Population size increases = birth rate > death rate] [Immigration > emigration]
Population’s size decreases due to increase death rate and
emigration (persons out of a country or national region).
[Populations size decreases = death rate > birth rate] [Emigration > Immigration]

Community – includes all the populations of different species in an ecosystem.

Ecosystem – all the living organisms (the community) in a place, and the interactions between them
and their physical environment.
An ecosystem is made up of the biotic component (the community) and the abiotic component
(physical factors, such as light, water, p H, and temperature.)

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MCQ

Completion for resources

Plants compete for light, space, water and soil nutrients. Animals compete for food, space
(territory) and mates.
Completion for food is a common limiting factor for species of herbivores such as wildebeest in East
Africa.
Predation – Predators often take young, sick individuals or less well-adapted individuals.
Predators may limit the growth of a population of prey animals, by it is more often that the number
of prey animals limit the population size of predator.
Disease- Disease is an important control factor when populations increase. Pathogens are
transmitted between individuals more easily when organisms live close together.
Phases in bacterial growth
There are four main phases in the growth of a bacterial colony.
1. The lag phase- is the period when the bacterial are adjusting to the environment. There are
no limiting factors for population growth.
Bacteria take up water and nutrients, make new cytoplasm, DNA and enzyme.
2. The log phase (exponential)- when the population is increasing rapidly. The population
increases by doubling and there are no limiting factors, such as food or water.
3. The stationary phase- when bacterial cells are dying at the same rate at which they are
being produced. This may be because of shortage of food or waste products are building up.
4. The death phase- when more cells are dying than are being produced, so the population
declines.
produced, so the population declines.

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 Causes of death may be lack of food, shortage of oxygen or a
build-up of toxic waste products.

Fig. Growth of a bacteria colony

Unit 19.7
Human populations
Human population growth
- In early 2009, there were estimated to be about 6.75 billion people in the world.
- For thousands of years there was only a slow increase in the human population.
- This is because, lack of food and shelter, the effects of malnutrition, diseases and wars.
- So the mortality rates were high and people did not live long.
The human population has increased exponentially over the past 300 years for the following
reasons.
- Improved agriculture, so the most people are better fed. Better nutrition means they are
better defended against diseases.
- Public health has improved. There are clean water supplies, drainage of waste and sewage
treatment. This has decreased epidemics of waterborne diseases such as cholera.
- Medical care has improved. Since, 1940s doctors have used antibiotics: people are also
vaccinated against many infectious diseases such as diphtheria and polio.
- (Diphtheria – Respiratory tract infection.)
- (Polio – Abbreviation of poliomyelitis)
The effects of these improvements have been:
- Decrease in the infant and child mortality rates.
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 - Decrease in death rate from starvation and malnutrition.
- Increase in life expectancy – people are now living much longer.
- In Europe and North America, the average life expectancy is 76 years, in India is 68 years.
Controlling human population growth
- There are still controls on population increase.
- Famines, epidemics, floods, wars and tsunamis, earthquakes and other disasters lead to loss
of life.

Unit 20
Human influences on ecosystem
20.1 Food supply
Increased food production –
- Modern technology has resulted in advances in agriculture over the past 60 years and
improved food supplies in many parts of the world.
- Arable farms use large agricultural machines to work very large fields.
- Examples are tractors and ploughs for preparing land for sowing seeds and combine
harvesters for harvesting crops.
- Chemical fertilizers encourage the growth of crop plants, increasing the yield of the crop.
- Pesticides kills pests like that feed on crops.
- Herbicides kill weeds that compete with crop plants for water, light and nutrients.
- Selective breeding has increased yield and made crops more resistant to drought and
diseases.
- Genetic engineering – has transferred features, such as herbicide resistance, to crop plants
from unrelated species.

Intensive farming – is using modern technology to achieve high yields of crop plants and livestock.
This involves growing crop plants over large areas at high densities and keeping livestock in large
numbers, supplementing their food supply and often restricting their movement by keeping them
indoors.
The use of machinery, selective breeding and agriculture chemicals has resulted in an increase in
food production.
Monoculture - Crop plants are usually growing as large areas of a single variety. This is called
monoculture.
This has the advantage of allowing farmers to concentrate on growing large quantities of specific
crops, such as wheat, barley, maize, soya and rice.

Advantages of Monoculture
- Simplicity

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 - Results in higher yields.
- Lowers the amount of extra land required.
- It is efficient and more profitable to the farmer.

Disadvantages of Monoculture
- Destroys soil nutrients.
- Results in the use of harmful chemicals.
- Pollutes groundwater supplies.
- Adversely affects and alters the natural ecosystem.
- Destroys the overall soil's degradation and erosion.
- Requires lots of water to irrigate.

Negative Impacts of Monoculture

- If a natural disaster were to occur, the whole crop could be wiped out.
- If pests & disease attacked crop, it could harm it easily.
- Using large fields and pesticides kills not only the leafhoppers, but also other
harmless insects including predatory insects and spiders.
- In a monoculture, biodiversity is low.
- The pests transfer plant viruses to the rice, which cause serious diseases in the plants.
- Continuous use of these chemicals, resulting in the evolution of resistance among weeds, pests
and plant pathogens.
- The large scales use of chemical fertilizers can reduce the structure of the soil so no longer
supports the biodiversity of soil organisms that supports good crop growth.

Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock Production

- Welfare issues for the livestock
- Diseases can spread easily among them
- Waste can pollute land and waterways nearby

Figure: Monoculture
Unit 20.2
Habitat destruction
Reasons for habitat destruction

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The natural habitat of plants, animals and microorganisms are destroyed for a number of different
reasons:

-The clearance of land for crop production and for the production of biofuels.
-Space to build units for intensive livestock production and clearance of land for cattle rearing.
- Digging mines and quarries for the extraction of coal and mineral ores. Such as iron ore and
bauxite from which aluminum is produced.
-More people require more housing and the associated infrastructure roads, industries, and shops.
-The human population produces huge quantities of waste. Space is needed for long-term storage
of this waste and for recycling it.
-Marine pollution – Major pollutants of the sea include fertilizers, which are thought to cause algal
blooms in the sea, oil from oil wells and ships, and industrial chemicals.

Human influences on food chains and webs

Human have removed organisms either directly or indirectly.

- Killing of large predators – humans have killed many of these because they were dangerous.
- Killing of large herbivores for food, there were many different species of these in huge
numbers.
- Overfishing has had significant effects.

Deforestation
- Humans have been clearing forests for over 10,000 years to grow food and provide land for
settlements and provide transport links.
- There are now very few forests in temperate regions that have not been cleared at some
time in the past.
- Tropical forests in South East Asia and South America have been cut down over the past 100
years.
- Many of these forests are rainforests rich in biodiversity.
- Deforestation has resulted in a number of environmental problems.

● The increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

● An increase in flooding

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 ● The loss of soil (food chains and webs)

● The extinction of species

- Soils in tropical rainforests are very thin and when the vegetation is removed the soil is
easily washed away causing soil erosion, formation of gullies, and loss of plant nutrients.
- The land is rapidly degraded after all the trees are cut down.
- Local weather pattern changes with more frequent and severe storms
- Flooding happens more frequently as water runs off the land much quicker and is not
absorbed by plants and transpired into the atmosphere.
- Carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere because vegetation is burned.
- Rainforests have no effect on maintaining the correct balance of carbon dioxide and
oxygen in our atmosphere.

Unit 20.3 Pollution

Pollutants – are chemical substances, such as fertilizers, oil and carbon monoxide; biological
material such as animal and human wastes, heat released from power stations; and noise
from industrial and domestic sources.
Pollutants affect the air, ecosystems on land and aquatic ecosystems like rivers, lakes and the
sea.
Pollution – is the release of substances from human activities that are harmful to the
environment.
Pollution is the harm done to the environment by the release of substances produced by human
activities.

Pollutant Sources Undesirable effects of

pollutant on the environment
Carbon dioxide Burning fossil fuels Enhances greenhouse effect
Methane Cattle; paddy fields for Enhances greenhouse effect
growing rice; coal and oil
extraction
Sewage Human and livestock waste Reduces oxygen
contains urea, ammonia, concentration in rivers;
protein, carbohydrates, fats destruction of freshwater
and pathogens communities

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 Industrial chemical waste factories Can be fatal to wildlife and
includes a variety of toxic humans; can accumulate in
substances such as lead, organisms
mercury and cyanide
Fertilisers (mostly N and P) Arable agriculture Eutrophication in fresh water
(rivers, lakes)
Herbicides for killing weeds Arable agriculture Spray drift kills harmless
plants; persist in the
environment
Pesticides for killing pests and Arable and livestock Accumulates in food chains;
diseases agriculture kills harmless non-pest
species
Solid waste (biodegradable Domestic and industrial waste Buried in ground or left on
and non-biodegradable rubbish tips; health hazard;
rubbish) leakage of toxic liquids;
release of methane

Waste plastics – Some materials we throw away are broken down in the environment by
decomposers – these are called biodegradable.
Some materials are not broken down in the environment by decomposers are called non-
biodegradable.
Plastics are used for packaging because they last a long time and do not decay easily.
We can recycle many thermoplastics that we use by melting them and remoulding them into new
shapes. Burning plastics in incinerators reduces the volume of waste, but many plastics produce
toxic gases as they burn.
Non - biodegradable plastics pose threats to aquatic life too.
Sea turtles are threatened it they swallow plastic bags mistaking them for jellyfish.
Fish and other aquatic animals can get entangled in discarded plastic nets and other forms of plastic
waste. Some plastics are biodegradable; others are non-biodegradable but some can be recycled.

Water pollution
Pollution of rivers and seas
Domestic and industrial pollutants are often discharged straight into the rivers and into the sea.
River empty toxic wastes into the sea, resulting in the following:
1. Fertilizers and sewage encourage the growth of algae that release toxins.
2. Pesticides are concentrated in the tissues of some molluscs (shellfish).

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 3. Radioactive chemicals are found in higher concentration around coastal nuclear power
stations.
4. Toxic metals, such as mercury, copper and lead, are found in tissues of marine organisms.

Fertilizers – drains from the land into rivers and lakes. We have seen how using fertilizers can
increase the yield of crops.
But farmers need to know the best type of fertilizer to use for their particular soil and crop and how
much of the fertilizer to add.
Problems can occur if a farmer uses too much fertilizer or if the fertilizers is added at the wrong
time, e.g. before a period of heavy rain.
Eutrophication – The fertilizers can cause water pollution resulting in eutrophication, which means
that the water is enriched with plant nutrients. This is the sequence of events:
- Fertilizers can be washed through the soil into the rivers and streams – this is called
leaching.
- Once in the water, fertilizer stimulates population growth of algae.
- Algae cover the surface layers of water, reducing the light reaching plants at the bottom of
the lake.
- These plants and algae eventually die and rot on the river bed.
- Decomposers such as bacteria, feed on dead plants and algae.
- Bacteria respire aerobically, multiply rapidly and use up a lot of dissolved oxygen.
- The concentration of oxygen in the water decreases and this kill fish and invertebrates that
cannot respire properly.
The greenhouse effects
Greenhouse gases- A greenhouse gas is a gas that absorbs infrared radiation (IR) and radiates
heat in all directions.
Common examples of greenhouse gases include: water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide, ozone and any fluorocarbons (chlorofluorocarbons) CFCs.

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How greenhouse effects work?
- Solar radiation passes through the atmosphere and warms the earth’s surface.
- The earth radiates heat energy back into space. This is mainly infra-red radiation.
- Some of this heat energy is absorbed by the greenhouse gases.
- This causes the air to warm up.

Sources of carbon dioxide

- Power stations
- Factories
- Domestic heating
- Usage of fossil fuels for transport
- Deforestation and clearing of trees for farming
- Decomposition of remaining tree parts by microbes in the soil.

Sources of methane
- Expansion of rice cultivation and cattle rearing
- Bacteria in flooded rice fields and natural wetlands
- Rotting of materials in landfill sites and rubbish tips
- Extraction of oil and natural gas

The effects of global warming

Human activities are causing an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases so the
atmosphere is getting warmer.
This is causing the enhanced greenhouse effect. The surface of the Earth has warmed by
0.7˚C then the polar ice would start to melt. A rise in sea level. Flooding of many low-lying
areas.
This would cause a rise in sea level flooding of many low-lying areas for example in
Bangladesh.
Change in wind patterns.
Distribution of rainfall leading to more extreme weather.
Pattern of the world’s distribution is affected.

Ways to prevent global warming

- Reduce carbon emission
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 - Encourage public transport
- Use energy more efficiently
- Recycle the materials
- Change the diet of cattle to stop them releasing methane.

Unit 20.4
Conservation
A species becomes extinct if there are no individuals left alive anywhere in the world.
Sustainable resource: one that is produced as rapidly as it is removed from the
environment, so that it does not run out.
Conservation is the study of the conservation of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of
protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the
erosion of biotic interactions.
Describe how endangered species can be conserved, limited to:
Monitoring can involve labelling, radio tagging and counting flocks of birds and herds of animals.
Researchers in East Africa use aero planes to find herds of elephants and count them.
(a) Monitoring and protecting species and habitats - Endangered species can be conserved by
monitoring the sizes of their populations, protecting habitats, using captive breeding
programmes and putting seeds into long term storage in seed banks.
(b) Education: Educating people of all ages about the importance and practices of conservation
is essential for the survival of endangered species.
(c) Captive breeding programmes: Rescuing endangered animals and breeding them in
captivity and then returning them to the wild.
(d) Seed banks: are cold stores that conserve seeds of endangered or valuable species. Their
genes may be useful for crop improvement in the future or to produce valuable products
such as medicinal drugs. Seeds are stored by dehydration so they contain only 5% water and
can thus survive being kept at 20°C. Removing water from seeds slows down their
metabolism so they remain viable for many years.

Explain how forests can be conserved using: education, protected areas, quotas and
replanting.

● Growing endangered plants in botanical gardens and re-establishing them in the wild.

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 ● Reducing habitat destruction, eg. Issuing licenses for logging in forests to prevent

deforestation and protecting wetlands.

● Re-establishing of ecosystem where land has become degraded.

● Encouraging sustainable management of ecosystem. Trees removed from forests should be

replaced by planting.

● Seed banks are cold stores that conserve seeds of endangered or valuable species. Their

genes may be useful for crop improvement in the future or to produce valuable products
such as medicinal drugs. Seeds are stored by dehydration so they contain only 5% water and
can thus survive being kept at 20°C. Removing water from seeds slows down their
metabolism so they remain viable for many years.

Endangered species – An endangered species is at risk of becoming extinct because its population
is small with very little genetic variation that is needed to adapt to changing conditions.

The causes of species becoming endangered and extinct due to the habitat destruction, climate
change, pollution and overfishing.
Causes of extinction are climate change, habitat destruction, hunting, pollution and predation by
introduced species or competition with them.
● Hunting for food, sport and to kill animals that are a threat to human life, crops or livestock.

● Competition with species that humans have moved from one part of the world to another.

● Predation by introduced or alien species.

Threats to the survival of species

1. Climate change- was a feature of the past as the world cooled and heated at different times.
During the last ice age most of Europe, North America and much of Asia was covered in ice
sheet. As a world warmed, the ice melted and organisms colonized the land that was
exposed.
Now the world is warming even more, and plant and animals associated with tropical
regions are extending their range away from the equator.
Plants better able to survive in changing environments will outcompete other species.

2. Habitat destruction- Deforestation is not the only cause of habitat loss. Wetlands are very
important habitats as they provide ecological services for us and also feeding grounds for
migrating birds. Many wetlands across the world have been drained to provide land for
farming, housing, industrial development and leisure facilities.

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 3. Pollution – is occurring on a global scale. As we have seen, coral reefs are endangered
ecosystems as a result of coastal population. Sea otter like many marine animals, are at risk
of extinction thanks to oil pollution. Oil sticks to their fur and stops providing insulation and
they ingest toxic chemicals that cause organ damage.

4. Introduced species have been moved around the globe by humans. Sometimes introduced
animals for sport or to control pests.

▪ Almost half the small to medium-sized native marsupials in Australia have become
extinct due to competition with rabbits and predation by foxes introduced by
European colonists.
▪ The small Indian mongoose was introduced to Jamaica from India in 1872 to control
rats that were eating much of the sugar cane crop.
▪ Plant species can become extinct because of overgrazing by introduced species
especially goats, which have done untold damage to many islands.
5. Hunting has caused the extinction of some species. They have been hunted for food, for
sport, for trade and as a deliberate policy to remove dangerous animals or pests.
People have hunted “big cat” for sport and collected beautiful and interesting plants for
show. In Tasmania, people hunted the thylacine, or Tasmania wolf, to extinction partly
because it was believed to kill sheep.

Thylacine, or Tasmania wolf

Golden toad, become extinct

Golden lion, Tamarin its natural habitat is Brazil has involved captive breeding in many zoos.
Reasons for conservation
We should conserve ecosystem, habitats, and species because:
- Ecosystems provide us with services such as treating waste, providing food and fuels, giving
us areas for recreation and useful substances such as medicines.
- Ecosystems help to maintain the balance of life on the planet, e.g. nutrient cycles.

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 - Fuels – fossil fuels will not last forever. We still need timber to provide fuels, such as
biomass fuels.
- Drugs – for treating cancer have been discovered in plants.
- Genes – as a result of selective breeding there is very little genetic diversity in our three
main staples – rice, wheat and maize.
- Prevent species becoming extinct, especially those threatened directly by human activities.

Unit 21
Biotechnology and genetic modification
Unit 21.1 Microorganisms and biotechnology

State that bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic modification due to their rapid
reproduction rate and their ability to make complex molecules.
Biotechnology is the use of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi to make products that are
useful to humans.
The use of both bacteria and fungi in various process is widespread.
• Bacteria reproduce very quickly with a generation time (the time taken for numbers to
double) that is often as little as 30 minutes.
• Unlike animals or plants, microbes can convert raw materials into the finished product very
quickly, in hours rather than months or weeks.
• The use of bacteria means that food production can be independent of climate.
• Bacteria can produce complex proteins (like enzymes and antibiotics) that pass out into the
surrounding medium and can be harvested. Enzymes made by microorganisms are used in
the food industry.

Examples of enzymes that are produced by bacteria for use in the food industry are:
• amylase for breaking down starch in the production of glucose syrup.
• pectinase for extracting juice from fruit
• sucrase for breaking down sucrose in making confectionery
• protease for making meat more tender.

Discuss why bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic modification, limited to:
(a) few ethical concerns over their manipulation and growth
(b) the presence of plasmids

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Bacteriaare useful to genetic engineering as they reproduce very rapidly but still have the ability to
produce complex molecules. Bacteria contain plasmids, which are circular rings of DNA, into which
new genes can be inserted, removed or changed.
In addition to the single loop of DNA, bacterial cells also contain small circles of DNA called
plasmids. Plasmids are easy to work with because they can replicate very quickly. Plasmids can be
cut open by enzymes and a gene from another organism can be spliced into them. In nutrient
media, the bacteria multiply rapidly, making many copies of the plasmid and the inserted gene.
Fermentation and biotechnology
Fermentation meant any anaerobic respiration process involving microorganisms, such as the
fermentation of sugars by yeast.
Making alcoholic drinks –
[Wine is made by using yeast to ferment sugars in grape juice. Commercial wine production takes
place in large containers called vats which prevent air reaching the wine and ensure conditions
remain anaerobic.
Homemade wine is produced in small-scale fermenters fitted with an “airlock”, which allows carbon
dioxide to escape but prevents the entry of oxygen. The alcohol increases in concentration until it
kills the yeast cells, at which point fermentation stops.]
[Making beer – the first stage in making beer is to get barley seeds to germinate by placing them in
warm, moist conditions. When they start to germinate they produce the enzymes amylase which
breaks down starch into the sugar maltose. Later, the maltose from the seeds is fermented by
yeast in a large open vat.]
Making bread – Yeast is also used to make bread. Wheat flour and water are mixed together and
yeast added, forming the bread dough. Enzymes from the original cereal grains break down starch
to sugars, which are respired by the yeast.
In bread-making, the yeast begins by respiring aerobically, producing water and carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide makes the dough rise. When the air runs out, conditions become anaerobic, so the
yeast begins to respire anaerobically making ethanol (alcohol) and more carbon dioxide.
Later, when the dough is baked in the oven, the gas bubbles expand. This gives the bread a light,
cellular texture. Baking also kills the yeast cells and evaporates any ethanol from the fermentation.
Making fruit juice – Pectinases are enzymes that is used to extract fruit juice by breaking down the
pectin in the cell walls in fruits such as apple. Pectinases are used for extracting fruit juice and for
softening vegetables.
Making yoghurt – yoghurt is milk that has been fermented by lactic acid bacteria. To make yoghurt,
milk is first pasteurized at 85-95°C for 15 to 30 minutes to kill any natural bacteria that it contains,
then homogenized to disperse the fat globules. The milk is then cooled to 40-45°C and inoculated
with a starter culture of the lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus
thermophilis).
Lactobacillus bulgaricus breaks down proteins into short chains of amino acids.

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Streptococcus thermophilus uses the chains of amino acids to make formic acid.
L. bulgaricus then uses lactose and formic acid to make lactic acid.
These bacteria produce lactic acid, as well as starting to digest the milk proteins. The culture is kept
at this temperature for several hours while the pH falls to about 4.4 (Optimum pH for bacteria). The
mixture coagulates (thickens) at the drops of pH causes the milk proteins turns into semi-solids.
When fermentation is finished, the yoghurt is stirred and cooled to 5°C. Flavourings, colourants and
fruit may then be added before it is packaged for sale.
Mycoprotein – is a high material produced by fungus called Fusarium. The fungus is supplied with
oxygen, glucose, mineral salts and ammonia for the fungus to make amino acids. The fermenter is
kept at 30°C. The hyphae are processed to give a meat like texture. Flavourings are added so it can
be made into a variety of products, such as burgers, sausages, and pies.
Q: The production of yoghurt involves the fermentation of milk by two types of bacteria that use
the protein and sugar (lactose) in milk.
Lactobacillus bulgaricus breaks down proteins into short chains of amino acids.
Streptococcus thermophilus uses the chains of amino acids to make formic acid.
L. bulgaricus then uses lactose and formic acid to make lactic acid.
The flow diagram in Fig. 3.1 shows the production process.

Milk at pH 7 is sterilized (85˚C-95 ˚C)

˚C

Two types of bacteria are added

The bacteria are mixed with the milk

and then incubated at 45˚C

The bacteria use proteins and lactose in the

milk producing formic acid and lactic acid

Lactic acid clots the milk proteins to

thicken the yoghurt

Production stops when

the pH reaches 4.3
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(i) Explain why the milk is sterilised at the start of the process. [2]

(ii) Explain why the bacteria are incubated at 45 °C. [2]

(iii) State and explain what happen to the populations of the bacteria during the yoghurt-making
process. [5]

(iv) Explain why yoghurt cannot be made by using only one of the types of bacteria. [2]
(iv) At the end of the fermentation, food additives may be added to the yoghurt.
State three types of food additive that may be used in producing yoghurt.
1 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..[3]

Microorganisms and Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering – is the transfer of a gene from the DNA of one species to the DNA of another
species.
Recombinant DNA – DNA from one organism is being transferred to the DNA of another organism
to make a new combination of DNA is called recombinant DNA.
Advantages of recombinant DNA:
1. The product is very pure.
2. The product can be made large quantities; less expensive and more readily available. Insulin
produced in this way costs about 1% as much as insulin produced from pig pancreas.g
3. The process can be switched on and off easily as the bacteria can be stored until needed
again.
Gene therapy – is the transfer of healthy human genes into a person’s cells that contain mutant
alleles which cause disease. Gene therapy may be able to repair diseased human cells.
Enzymes that are chemical scissor and glue –
Restriction endonuclease enzyme (usually shortened to restriction enzyme) act as chemical scissor
to cut the human insulin making gene from the rest of the DNA.

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Ligase enzyme – is used to attach the sticky ends of the insulin-making gene of the plasmid.
Industrial fermentation – Production of the antibiotic Penicillin
1. The fermentation vessel is made of stainless steel and is filled with sugars and ammonium
salts. Sugars provide energy for respiration and ammonium salts are used by the fungus to
make proteins and nucleic acids. And then fungus Penicillium chrysogenum is added into the
fermenter. Bacteria with recombinant plasmid

2. A stirrer keeps the microorganisms suspended so they always have access to nutrients and
oxygen. Stirring also helps to maintain an even temperature throughout the fermenter.
3. An air supply provides oxygen for aerobic respiration of the fungus. /bacteria.
4. A water-cooled jacket removes the heat produced by fermentation to give a constant
temperature of 24 °C. (26 °C for insulin)
5. Probes monitor the temperature and make sure and pH is constant at 6.5 by adding alkalis if
necessary. (pH 5-6 for insulin)
After 30 hours, the fungus starts to produce penicillin. After 6 days the fermentation is
completed and mixture is drained and filtered. (Downstream process)

Industrial production of insulin

▪ Genetic engineering makes insulin quickly and cheaply on a large scale.

▪ The human gene that codes for the production of insulin is identified.

▪ Restriction enzymes act as chemical scissor to cut the human insulin-making gene from the
rest of the DNA.
▪ A circular piece of DNA called a plasmid is removed from a bacterium.

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▪ The same restriction enzymes are then used to cut open the plasmid.

▪ The two ends of the insulin-making gene are attached to the sticky ends of the plasmid
using the ligase enzyme.
▪ This plasmid is now known as a recombinant plasmid and is inserted back into the bacteria.

▪ This bacteria with recombinant plasmids use to make the production of insulin.

Restriction enzyme
Ligase Restriction enzyme

Recombinant plasmid

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123
 Biological washing powder
Microorganisms produce enzymes to digest complex carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Bacteria
such as Bacillus and fungus Aspergillus are grown in fermenters to produce enzymes for biological
washing powder. The fermentation process is similar to that of penicillin production.
Biological washing powder may contain one or more of the following types of enzymes.

▪ Proteases enzyme – break down protein stains, e.g. blood, grass and egg.

▪ Lipases – break down fats in grease stains, e.g. butter, lipstick and mayonnaise.

▪ Amylases – break down starch, e.g. Food stains containing starch

▪ Cellulases – break down cellulose fibres on the outside of cotton fabrics to remove the dirt
attached to them.
During the washing cycle, proteases break down protein into amino acids, amylases break down starch into
glucose and also cellulases break down cellulose into glucose.

Advantages of biological washing powder/

1. The enzymes are broken down into harmless products after they have been used.
2. They do not harm the environment.

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