UNIT 2 (b):

ENGLISH PHONEMIC INVENTORY: CONSONANTS

1. the consonant system (classification based on three criteria)
a) voiced vs voiceless consonants (depending on the vocal cords)
b) manner of articulation
c) place of articulation
2. correspondence between spelling and pronunciation
3. phonemes and main allophones

1. CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS IN CONTRAST TO VOWELS

- the articulatory basis for vowels is different from that of consonants, which is why they are
classified in different ways
VOWELS CONSONANTS

height of the tongue whether they are voiced (lenis) or voiceless (fortis)

part of the tongue raised manner of articulation

position of the lips (rounded or not) place of articulation

PHONETIC AND PHONOLOGICAL CRITERIA FOR CONSONANTS

phonetic criterion: a consonant is a sound in the production ofd which there is an obstruction in
the air coming out, unlike vowels (manned of articulation)
phonological criteria: consonants are typically found at the beginning and / or end of syllables
(syllable boundary) while vowels are typically found in the middle (place of articulation)

a) VOICED VERSUS VOICELESS CONSONANTS

- VOICED CONSONANTS: /b/
• vocal cords vibrate during their articulation because they are closed

• they are also called Lenis, because the air expelled comes out relatively weakly (don ewith not

much force)
+ /b, d, g, v, ð, z, Ʒ, dƷ, m, n, ƞ, l, r, j, w/

- VOICELESS CONSONANTS: /p/

• vocal cords do not vibrate during their articulation because they are open
• they are calles Fortis because the air is expelled with a greater amount of force
+ /p, t, k, f, Ɵ, s, ∫, t∫, h/

b) MANNER OF ARTICULATION
- a distinctive frature in the English language: the air does not come out smoothly as in the case
with vowels. rather, there will be some time of obstruction
- the manner of articulation describes how the airflow is obstructing when coming out (from the
lungs out of the mouth and nose)
- left ones is voiceless and right ones are voiced
 TYPES

plosive fricative affricative nasal approximant

pb fv t∫ dƷ m l

td Ɵð n r

kg sZ ƞ j

∫Ʒ w

PLOSIVE / STOPS
- the articulation od a plosive consists of 3 stages
1. closing: the articulado move to forms obstruction
2. compression (hold): the compressed air is stopped from scaping
3. release: the articulators used to form the stricture are moved
away from each other so as to allow air to escape

pb

1. the lips are closed firmly

2. the soft palate is raised, so the breath cannot escape through either the
mouth or nose, but is trapped for a short while
3. before the lips are opened, the rest of the mouth takes uo the position
for the following sound: a vowel position (if a vowel follows, pay) or a
consonant position (if a consonant follows, play)
4. difference between the two
example
• /b/: strong (fortis) aspirated
• peak vs beak
• /p/ weak (lenis) never aspirated
• pull vs bull

td

1. The soft palate is raised, so the breath cannot escape through either the
nose of mouth but is trapped for a short while
2. The tip of the tongue is firmly against the middle of the alveolar bridge
3. The sides of the tongue are firmly against the sides of the palate, so that
the breath cannot pass over the sides of the tongue
4. When the tongue-tip os lowered, the breath rushes outwit a slight
explosion
5. Difference between the 2 example
• time vs potato
a. /t/: strong and aspirated
• do vs rider
b. /d/: weak and never aspirated
kg

1. The soft palate is raised, so that the breath is topped for a short time
2. The back of the tongue is in firm contact with the soft palate
3. When the tongue is powered from the soft palate, the breath rushes out
with a slight explosion
4. The difference between the 2 example
a. /k/: is strong and aspirated • cave vs gave
b. /g/: weak and never aspirated • card vs guard

FRICATIVE
- There is a narrowing of the air passage which causes audible friction when the air comes out
fv

1. The soft palate is raised so that the air is forced through the mouth
2. The lower lip touches the upper front teeth:this forms the narrowing
through which the air is pushed,causing slight friction
3. The tongue takes up the position necessary for the following sound:
feet(vowel) or front(consonant)
example
4. The difference between the 2
• fast vs vast
a. /f/ is longer and stronger (fortis)
• few vs view
b. /v/ is weak (lenis)

Ɵð

1. The soft palate is raised so that all the breath is forced to go through the
mouth
2. The tongue tip touches the rear of the upper teeth: this is the narrowing
where the friction is made
3. The difference between the 2: example
a. /Ɵ/ is longer and stronger (fortis) • thing vs this
b. /ð/ is weak (lenis) • thank vs that

sZ

1. The soft palate is raised so that all the breath is forced to go through the
month
2. The tip of the tongue is very clse to the alveolar ridge, leaving a narrowing
at this point
3. The teeth are very close together example
4. The friction is much stronger for: • basis vs vast
a. /s/ strong (fortis) than for • few vs view
b. /z/ weak (lenis)
∫Ʒ

1.The son plate is raised so that The soft palate is raised so that all the air
is forced to go through the mouth the tongue (tip,blade and front) makes near
contact with the back of the alveolar ridge and the front of the hard palate
2. The tongue is higher for these sounds than it is for / s / and / z /
3. The air is channelled through a narrow passage
4. The difference between the 2: example
a. /∫/ is longer and stronger • trash, pressure vs

b. /Ʒ/ weak • treasure, closure

+ It is the gasp of breath pushed up by the lungs.

+ Phonetically it is like a vowel (but voiceless)
+ Phonologically it is a consonant as ,in english,it only happens preceeding vowels
+ Importance: it is a full phoneme,so some words are distinguised by the presence or absence of
the /h /: hear vs ear

AFFRICATIVE
I. They consist of a two-stage process:
d) The air is completely blocked (start as plosives)
e) It is released slowly so that friction is heard (end as fricative)
II. English has two affricatives: [t∫](as in church) and [dƷ] (as in George)
III. For instance, “church” starts with a plosive (t), but instead of release with plosion, the tongue
moves quickly to the position of the fricative (f)

t∫ dƷ

1. Soft palate is raised,so the air is forced to go through the mouth

the tongue tip touches the back part of the alveolar ridge
2. The tongue tip moves away from the alveolar ridge and takes the position of
either t∫ or dƷ, so that friction is heard for a little while the friction for
both sounds is not as long as in the case of individual t∫ and dƷ
3. Differences between the 2:
example
a. t∫ : longuer and stronger
• chin vs gin
b. dƷ : weak
• choice vs Joyce
NASAL
- They are the result of complete blockage in the mouth and the air is forced to escape through
the nose
m

1. The soft palate is oared so that the ir is fired to go out through the nose
2. For /m/ the mouth ir blocked by closing the two lips
3. Apart from the fact that the air comes out through the nose, it should
remind you of phonemes /b/ and /b/
Example:
• monday

• mother

/m/: lenis

1. The soft palate is lowered so that the air comes out through the nose
2. For /n/ the mouth is blocked by pressing the tip of the tongue is against
the alveolar ridge and the sides of the tongue against the sides of the
palate
3. Apart from the fact that aire comes out through the nose, it should
remind you of phonemes /t/ and /d/
/n/: lenis
example:
• nose

• napking

1. The soft palate is lowered so that the breath is forced to go out through
the nose
2. The back of the tongue is in firm contact with the soft palate
3. Apart from the fact that aire comes out through the nose, it should
remind you of phonemes /k/ and /g/
4. Not to confuse /ƞ/ and /n/
example:
• thin vs thing /n/ vs /ƞ/

+ When the sequence “ng” is followed by a vowel (in the middle of the word) the /g/ will
SOMETIMES be pronounced; ¿when?
* if the word comes from a verb /g/ is not pronounced
• example: singer comes from sing

* otherwise it is pronounced
• example: stronger, finges, hunger
APPROXIMANT
- They are the result of complete blockage in the mouth and the air is forced to escape through
the nose
Lateral: l
- This consonant makes little obstruction to the airflow
- The passage of air through the mouth goes round the sides of the tongue(because of the
obstruction set up in the centre:tongue tip touching the alveolar ridge)
- English has one lateral consonant / l /
SOUND
• The soft palate is raised
• The tongue tip and blade are in firm contact with the alveolar ridge, obstructing the centre of

the mouth
• The sides of the tongue are not in contact with te sides of the palate as in t and d so the air

can pass through

• It is voiced and there is no frictionless
+ Example: Lost, letter

Frictionless continuan / gliding: r, j, w

- The articulators approach each other but without getting close enough to produce a “complete”
consonant sound /no blockage no friction) as the other types looked at
- No contact made
- 3 consonants sounds: /r/ /j/ /w/
- They consist of a quick, non-fiction glide towards a following vowel sound
SOUND [r]
• The tip of the tongue almost touches the alveolar ridge (similar to /t/ or /d/) but it does not

reach that far

SUMMARY
According to their manner of articulation
- Plosives: the air is completely block an the realised, there is little “explosion” called plosion
- Fricatives: there is narrowing of the air passage, which causes audible frictionless
- Affricative: air completely blocked and the released slowly so that friction is heard, they begin
as plosives and end as fricatives. English as two affricatives
- Nasal: the air passes through the nose
- Lateral: the air is channeled down the sides of the tongue while the front of the tongue makes
contact with the alveolar ridge (a passive articulator)
- Approximant: the articulators approach each other but without getting close enough to produce
a complete consonant sounds
c) PLACE OF ARTICULATION
- It refers to the place where the consonants is articulated (point of contact where there is some
obstruction between typically the tongue with some part of the mouth)

BILABIAL
- The lips are brought together(main articulators)
- 4 consonants: /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/
Example: baby

LABIODENTAL
- The top teeth touch the lower lip
- 2 consonant sounds: /f/, /v/
Example: foot

DENTAL
- The tongue touches the teeth
- 2 cons sounds: /Ɵ/, /ð/
Example: think

ALVEOLAR
- The tongue touches the alveolar ridge
- 6 consonant sounds: /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/
Example: tall

POST ALVEOLAR
- The tongue makes near contact with the alveolar ridge (back part) and the front of the hard
palate
- 5 consonant sounds: / /, /3/, /t /, /d3/, /r/
Example: ship

PALATAL
- The tongue almost touches the palate
- 1 consonant sound: /j/
Example: yellow

VELAR
- The tongue touches the soft palate
- 3 consonant sounds: /k/, /g/, /ŋ/
Example: ask

GLOTTAL
- The glotts (oppening between vocal cords) is narrowed. an obstruction causes friction but not
vibration of the vocal cords (voiceless)
- 1 consonant sound: /h/
Example: him
 19.03.24
2.3 PHONEMES AND MAIN ALLOPHONES

Plosive (voiced): /b/, /d/, /g/ & (voiceless): /p/, /t/, /k/
Voiced fricatives; /V/, /ð/, /z/, /Ʒ/
Lateral /l/
Syllabic consonants: /n/, /l/
About /r/
Shortened vowels (short & long) before fortis consonants (pre-fortis clipping)

2.3.1 VOICED PLOSIVES (b, d, g [bodega])

- In initial position they are voiced: big, go
- In medial position they are fully voiced: remember, baby, product, study, google, asparagus
- In word final position (and followed by silence): voiced plosives lose part of their voicing
(become partially devoiced since the plosion is not really released).
- Example: black bag black bak
- Diacritic: the diacritic for devoicing is ∘ (such as food —> fu:ḍ)

2.3.1 VOICED PLOSIVES (p, t, k [petaca])

- In initial and or stressed position: they are strongly aspirated: pain (ph), potato (th)
• Preceded by s- : it will be unaspirated → spain, speak, spark
- In final and/or unstressed position: they are weakly aspirated (the plosion following the release
of “p, t, k” is weak and often not audible).
- Example: pot, tomorrow, position (the schema frequently disappears)
- Diacritic: º (th)

EXAMN-LIKE QUESTION: what is the main difference between ‘p, t, k’ and ‘b, d, g’ when placed at
the beginning of a word?
- the difference is that they are voiced vs voiceless. but the main difference is that ‘p, t, k’
are more aspirated

2.3.2 LATERAL CONSONANT /l/ (allophones)

- Clear or light
• Initial position (beginning of syllables)
• Example: letter, lost, alveolar

- Dark: it is velarised (like catalán /l/)

• In final position (end of syllables): feel, kill

• Before consonants: help, milk

- Diacritic: for dark /l/ → [Ɫ*minúscula]

2.3.3 SYLLABIC CONSONANTS: NASAL /n/ and LATERAL /l/
- A syllabic consonant happens when the consonant does not rely on any vowel (it forms a
syllable on its own)
• That happens with /n/ and /l/ (sometimes ‘m’ as well)

- In unstressed syllables: when /ə/ is followed by /n/ or /l/, the vowel is not heard and the
consonant (lateral or nasal) becomes syllabic.
• Example: action, button, bottle, little, mountain, formal, syllable

• Syllable having this structure (CVC)

- Diacritic: ņ such as in /b tņ/

• Example: “syllable” [‘sIləb ~l ]

2.3.4 ABOUT /r/

- /r/ can be very different in different accents os english
- Rhotic accent: Scotland, ireland, canada, america, England (SW, NW, NE)
- Non-rhotic accents (-r dropping): Australia, South Africa, rest of England (SE), Caribbean,
New Zealand

- NON-RHOTIC ACCENT
- This phoneme only happens before vowels at the beginning of words, but it is not
pronounced in the middle or end of words
- example: roasted, raw, rhotic (+ pronunciation)
- first /f3:st/, cares /keəz/, car /k!"/

HOW TO MARK PRE-FORTIS CLIPPING

- Long vowels (i: !"# $"# %"# &"), when shortened by a following fortis consonant should be
transcribed → (i· !'#$'#%'#&')
- Short vowels (& diphthongs) have the symbol ˇ
• Example: peat → pi:t (phonemic)

- phi·t

02.04.24
syllabic consonants = no vowel

ņ: syllabic consonant
Ḁ: devoiced
ph: aspirated
Ɫ: dark l