STATES OF MATTER

The kinetic theory of matter describes the particles in solids, liquids and gases, the spacing,
arrangement and the movement of these particles.

Solids: Particles are touching (closely packed) and static (vibrate and rotate about fixed
positions) in an orderly arrangement. There are strong forces between the particles; the particles
have less kinetic energy than those in liquid or gas. Solids have high densities and cannot be
compressed. They have fixed shape and volume.

Liquids: particles are touching (closely packed) and move randomly within the liquid; strong
forces between the particles; particles have more kinetic energy than those in solids but less
kinetic energy than those in gases. Liquids have high densities and cannot be easily compressed.
They take the shape of the container but not necessarily the whole of it.

Gases: particles have spaces in between and move about haphazardly; they fill the whole
container, have more kinetic energy than liquids or solids. Gases have low densities and can be
easily compressed.
Both liquids and gases are called fluids-they can flow.

The state of a substance at room temperature and pressure depends on its structure and bonding.
Five types of structure found in elements and compounds are shown below:
Structure Bonding Examples
Monoatomic Weak van Waals forces of attraction Noble gases e.g argon
between atoms
Simple molecular Covalent between atoms; weak van der Carbon dioxide, CO2 ,
Waals forces of attraction between Fullerenes, hydrocarbons,etc.
molecules
Giant molecular Covalent between atoms The allotropes of carbon,
diamond and graphite and
silicon (IV) oxide
Giant ionic (lattice of alternating cations Ionic-electrostatic force of attraction All ionic compounds e.g
and anions) between oppositely charged ions. sodium chloride, NaCl.
Giant metallic (lattice of positive ions in a Metallic- electrostatic force of attraction All metals e.g copper
sea of delocalised electrons) between positive ions and the sea of
delocalised electrons

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THE GASEOUS STATE
Kinetic theory of gases
Basic assumptions of the kinetic theory as applied to an ideal gas:
• The molecules of an ideal gas have no volume (or have negligible volume compared to the
volume of gas)
• There are no forces of attraction between molecules
• Collisions between molecules or a molecule and an inert surface are perfectly elastic.
Real gases differ from ideal gas since their molecules occupy a measurable volume and have some
attraction for one another.

A real gas approaches ideal behaviour under the following conditions:

• At very low pressure-the molecules are far apart and there are relatively few molecules; hence
their volume is almost zero and the forces between them are virtually zero.
• At very high temperature (above the boiling point)-the molecules have a large kinetic energy
and cannot stick together when they collide.

Deviations from ideal behaviour: real gases show non-ideal behaviour under the following conditions:
• At high pressure-gas molecules become much closer together; increasing pressure decreases
the volume so volume of particles becomes more significant.
• At low temperature-reducing temperature reduces the kinetic energy of the particles so
intermolecular forces of attraction become more significant.

The ideal gas equation is given by 𝒑𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 where 𝑝 = pressure in Pascals (Pa)
𝑉 = volume in 𝑚3
𝑛 = number of moles of gas
𝑅 = molar gas constant = 8.31 J K-1mol-1
𝑇 = temperature in Kelvins (K)

NB: temperature in Kelvins (K) = 273 + temperature in oC

Volume in 𝑚3 = volume in 𝑐𝑚3 × 10−6
pressure in Pascals (Pa) = pressure in 𝑘𝑃𝑎 × 103
1 𝑃𝑎 = 1𝑁𝑚−2

The ideal gas equation describes the way a fixed amount of gas behaves as its pressure, volume and
temperature change.

An ideal gas is one that obeys the ideal gas equation perfectly; a real gas can satisfy this equation at
very low pressure and very high temperature.

Applying the ideal gas equation to deviations from ideality:

Plot of pV against P at a constant temperature for 1 mol of gas

Figure 4a: Influence of high pressure on gases. A plot of PV versus P for three gases H2, CH4
and NH3.

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An ideal gas has a value of 1 for PV/nRT at all pressures.
At very low pressure (0 atm) 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇, real gas behaves like an ideal gas. At medium pressure
range, 𝑝𝑉 < 𝑅𝑇; when gases are compressed the molecules get close enough for van der Waals’
forces of attraction to operate between them, making the gas more compressible than it is at low
pressure. Increase in pressure results in repulsion between gas molecules, thus at higher pressures,
repulsion makes the gas less compressible than it is at low pressure; 𝑝𝑉 > 𝑅𝑇.

As molecular size of gas increases, magnitude of van der Waals’ forces of attraction increases due to
increase in the number of electrons per molecule; so does the volume it occupies hence the gas
deviates from ideal behaviour.

In Fig 4a, H2 shows the least deviation compared to CH4 and NH3 as it has the smallest molecular
size thus fewer electrons per molecule hence weaker van der Waals’ forces. NH 3 has the greatest
deviation due to stronger hydrogen bonds operating between the molecules.

Calculations based on the ideal gas equation

Quantities of P, V, n and T can be determined by simple mathematical manipulation and appropriate
substitution. NB: when using the ideal gas equation, consistent units must be used always.

Example: Calculate the volume occupied by 1.15mol of an ideal gas at 101kPa and 20 oC.

Ans: First do the necessary unit conversion i.e P = 101 x 103 Pa; T = 20 + 273 =293K
Then make V the subject of the formula and substitute each term.
𝑛𝑅𝑇 1.15 × 8.31 × 293
𝑉 = = 3 = 0.0277 m3
𝑃 101 × 10

Determination of relative molecular mass, Mr of a gas or volatile liquid

The ideal gas equation allows us to calculate the Mr of gases or volatile liquids.
𝑚 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑚𝑅𝑇
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 but 𝑛 = hence 𝑝𝑉 = thus 𝑀𝑟 =
𝑀𝑟 𝑀𝑟 𝑝𝑉

Example: In an experiment, 0.300g of a vapourised liquid was found to have a volume of

84.0cm3 at 97oC and pressure of 105kPa. Calculate the Mr of the vapour.
Ans: Unit conversion gives T = 97 + 273 = 370K; V = 84 x 10-6m3; P = 105 x 103Pa
𝑚𝑅𝑇 0.3 × 8.31 ×370
𝑀𝑟 = = = 105
𝑝𝑉 101 × 103 ×84 × 10−6

The liquid state

The concept of distribution of energies also applies to molecules in the liquid state and is an important
factor in evaporation, the conversion of molecules from the liquid phase to the gas phase. To escape
from a liquid, a molecule must have a kinetic energy that is sufficient to overcome the forces of
attraction from the other molecules in the sample. For any temperature at which the liquid state is
stable, only a small fraction of the molecules possesses enough energy to evaporate, or vaporise—
that is, have enough energy to escape from the surface of the liquid. Molecules remaining in liquid are
of lower energy than those that escape hence temperature of liquid falls on evaporation. All liquids
can evaporate, with the rate of evaporation depending on the temperature of the liquid. With
increasing temperature, average kinetic energy of molecules increases; intermolecular forces are
more easily broken. The higher the temperature, the greater the fraction of molecules that have
enough energy to evaporate, and the faster the evaporation. Evaporation will continue until no liquid
remains.

If the liquid is in a closed container, molecules in the vapour state can collide with the walls of the
container and some are directed back towards the liquid-condensation occurs; equilibrium is reached
when rate of evaporation = rate of condensation. When the rate of condensation becomes equal to
the rate of evaporation, the pressure in the vessel no longer changes. The constant pressure that is
achieved is called the vapour pressure of the liquid. Vapour pressure increases with temperature;
molecules of liquid have more kinetic energy and so can escape more easily from the surface. When
the vapour pressure equals the external pressure, the liquid boils. The boiling point of a liquid is the
temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the surrounding pressure.

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The solid state
Structure of solids-solids have a crystalline structure with particles arranged in a lattice. A crystal is a
3-D arrangement of particles. The lattice particles may be atoms, ions or molecules. A crystalline solid
is one in which the units that make up the substance are arranged in a regular, repeating pattern.
We can classify crystalline solids according to the nature of the forces that hold the units together in a
regular arrangement, which are usually referred to as lattice forces. The main types of crystalline
solids are ionic, simple molecular, giant molecular and metallic. Properties of ionic solids, simple
molecular solids and metallic structures have been discussed under chemical bonding.

Ionic solids

An ionic solid consists of oppositely charged ions held together by electrostatic attractions
that are very strong-ionic bonds. Example of an ionic solid is NaCl in which each 𝑁𝑎 + ion is
surrounded by six 𝐶𝑙 − ions while each 𝐶𝑙 − ion is also surrounded by six 𝑁𝑎+ ions, as shown Fig.4b.

Magnesium oxide has a structure similar to that of NaCl.

Figure 4b Crystal structure of NaCl.

Simple molecular solids consist of small covalent molecules held together by any one of the
following lattice forces:

• weak van der Waals forces/id-id forces (e.g in solid I2)

• permanent dipole-permanent dipole attractions (e.g in solid HCl) or
• hydrogen bonds (e.g in ice and solid ammonia).

Examples of simple molecular solids:

i) solid iodine which has a simple 2-D lattice structure composed of simple molecules; atoms are
covalently bonded as I2 molecules with separate layers held together by weak van der Waals
forces, hence its high volatility. Iodine does not conduct electricity as it has no delocalised electrons
and is insoluble in water as it is non-polar.

Figure 4c Crystal structure of solid I2

ii) ice, which is hydrogen-bonded (see notes on chemical bonding).

iii) Fullerene molecules-Fullerenes are a form of carbon molecule that is neither graphite nor
diamond. They consist of a spherical, ellipsoid, or cylindrical arrangement of dozens of carbon
atoms. (Fullerenes were named after Richard Buckminster Fuller, an architect known for the
design of geodesic domes which resemble spherical fullerenes in appearance). Spherical
fullerenes look like a soccer ball, and are often called "buckyballs," whereas cylindrical fullerenes
are known as "buckytubes" or "nanotubes."

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The first fullerene to be discovered is Buckminsterfullerene C60, a buckyball.

Fig 4d Buckminsterfullerene C60

Buckyballs have unusual properties - they

• may be harder than diamond
• may be more slippery than Teflon
• may be insulators or conductors

Giant molecular structures

e.g. allotropes of carbon-diamond, graphite and graphene, and silicon (IV) oxide consist of many
atoms joined together by very strong covalent bonds.
Structure and properties of diamond - Each C atom is covalently bonded to four others, in a
tetrahedral 3-D arrangement.

Figure 4e Diamond

Since diamond is giant molecular with strong C-C covalent bonds, it has very high melting and boiling
points(>3500oC). Diamond is the hardest known substance, thus it is used in drilling, cutting and
grinding and as bearings. Pure diamond is used in jewellery due to its high refractive index which
gives it a sparkle. Diamond does not conduct electricity since it has no delocalized electrons (which
are localized within the covalent bonds).

Structure and properties of graphite

In graphite, each C atom is bonded covalently to three others. The C atoms are arranged in hexagons
within a layer structure. Every C atom has four outer electrons, but only three are involved in covalent
bonding. The nonbonded electrons are delocalised and flow along, but not up or down between, the
layers. The layers are held together by weak van der Waals’ forces, so can slide over each other.

Figure 4f Graphite
Because the layers can slide over each other, graphite is soft and slippery hence can be used as
lubricant. Graphite conducts electricity due to presence of delocalised electrons, hence its use as an
(inert) electrode in electrolysis. The strong C-C covalent bonds give graphite its high melting and
boiling points.

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Uses of aluminium and its alloys
Aluminium is a structural material, used where lightness and corrosion resistance are important as it
has low density and is corrosion resistant-it forms a thin protective layer of 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 which prevents
corrosion.

Use Property

Aluminium Overhead electrical cables Light; good electrical conductor

Cooking utensils Good thermal conductor; corrosion resistant
Food packaging Corrosion resistant
Duralumin (Al + Mg + Cu) Construction of aeroplanes Low density for Al; Corrosion resistant; high
and boats tensile strength

Recycling materials
Large amounts of energy are needed to extract and purify metals. It is often cheaper to collect used
metals and recycle them rather than extract them from their ores.
Recycling has several advantages:
• it saves energy (this helps tackle global warming, as we burn less fossil fuel)
• it conserves supplies of the ore
• landfill sites do not get filled up as fast and there is less waste
• it is cheaper than extracting the metal from the ore.