AEROSPACE STRUCTURE ANALYSIS

CODE COURSE TITLE CREDIT T-P-PJ

CUTM1099 Aerospace Structure Analysis 6 3-0-3
MODULE I: AEROSPACE STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS USES (24 HRS)
 Monocoque, semi-monocoque, corrugated structure.
 Sandwich structure, reinforced and honeycomb structures,
 Aerospace materials, metallic and nonmetallic materials, use of aluminum alloy,
titanium, stainless steel, Composite and ceramic materials.

FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION
There are five major stresses to which all aircraft are
subjected:
 Tension (Thrust and drag)
 Compression (Squeeze parts)
 Torsion (Engine and fuselage)
 Shear (Skin joint)
 Bending (wings during flight)
Tension is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull
something apart. The engine pulls the aircraft forward, but
air resistance tries to hold it back. The result is tension,
which stretches the aircraft.
Compression is the stress that resists a crushing force.
Compression is the stress that tends to shorten or squeeze
aircraft parts.
Torsion is the stress that produces twisting. While moving
the aircraft forward, the engine also tends to twist it to one
side, but other aircraft components hold it on course. Thus,
torsion is created.
Shear is the stress that resists the force tending to cause one layer of a material to slide over
an adjacent layer. Two riveted plates in tension subject the rivets to a shearing force. Usually,
the shearing strength of a material is either equal to or less than its tensile or compressive
strength. Aircraft parts, especially screws, bolts, and rivets, are often subject to a shearing
force.
Bending stress is a combination of compression and tension. The rod in has been shortened
(compressed) on the inside of the bend and stretched on the outside of the bend.

Material use in Airframe Construction

 Wood (Sitka Spruce, Douglas Fir, and Birch)
 Steel & Its Alloys (Strong )
 Aluminum& Its Alloy (Commonly Use)
 Titanium Alloys (Heat Barriers)
 Magnesium Alloys (3 Times Lighter Than Al)
 Plastics & Composite Material

Airframe Materials Properties –

 High Strength to Weight ratio
  Light weight
 Corrosion Resistant
 Should be non flammable
 High quality

FUSELAGE
It is the main structure or body of the fixed-wing aircraft. (Space for cargo, controls,
accessories, passenger& other equipment)
 In single-engine aircraft, the fuselage houses the power plant.
 In multiengine it may be either in the fuselage, attached to the fuselage, or suspended
from the wing structure.
There are two general types of fuselage construction: truss and monocoque.

a) Truss Type : Made up of members, such as beams, struts, and bars to resist deformation
by applied loads. The truss-framed fuselage is generally covered with fabric.
 usually constructed of steel/aluminum tubing welded together in such a manner that all
members of the truss can carry both tension and compression loads.
 Truss fuselage frames may be constructed of aluminum alloy and may be riveted or
bolted into one piece or some time welded, with cross-bracing achieved by using solid
rods or tubes.

PRATT TRUSS WARREN TRUSS

 Early days  Longerons + only Diagonal Members
 Wooden or metal structure  Force transfer to every others
 Great weight structure
 Difficult to streamline  Capable carry tension+ compression
 Box with tubular longerons +  Reduce amount of webs work
vertical members  More space , strength , rigidity
 This truss is more efficient and  Better streamline.
economical for longer spans.  They distribute loads across multiple
 It's made up of diagonal members members.
that are in tension and vertical  It's a good choice for distributed
members that are in compression. loads, but it's less efficient when
  This design is cost-efficient easy to subjected to concentrated point
construct loads.
 quick and easy to construct, and
they require minimal materials.
 They're often considered less
versatile than newer, more reliable
designs
 Vertical Members : Formers • Frame • Ring • Bulkhead
 Longitudinal Members : Longerons • Stringers
 Used on small single engine aircraft

B1) Monocoque Type: Derived from French ward single shell

 Means single shell fuselage relies largely on the strength of the skin or covering to take
the primary loads.
 The design may be divided into two classes:
 Uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage.
 The heaviest of these structural members are located at intervals to carry concentrated
loads and at points where fittings are used to attach other units such as wings, power
plants, and stabilizers.
 Skin must carry the primary stresses and keep the fuselage rigid.
 Biggest problem involved in monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength
while keeping the weight within allowable limits.

B2) Semi monocoque

 Main Advantage: fail safe
 Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to either of the two classes,
 most modern aircraft are to be of semi monocoque type
 It To overcome the strength/weight problem of
 consists of bulkheads + formers+ Skin
 Additionally, the skin is reinforced by longitudinal members called longerons.
 Longerons usually extend across several frame members and help the skin support
primary bending loads. (made of aluminum alloy either of a single piece or a built-up
construction.
 Stringers are also used as longitudinal members are typically more numerous and
lighter in weight than the longerons. They come in a variety of shapes and are usually
made from single piece aluminum alloy extrusions or formed aluminum.
  Stringers have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of
the skin.
 Stringers and longerons together prevent tension and compression from bending the
fuselage.
 Other bracing between the longerons and stringers can also be used. Often referred to
as web members, these additional support pieces may be installed vertically or
diagonally
 constructed primarily of alloys of aluminum and magnesium, although steel and
titanium are sometimes found in areas of high temperatures.
Cut out window : Doublers(A doubler is a sheet metal piece used to strengthen and stiffen a
repair in an aircraft's sheet metal structure. Doublers are used to:
 Transfer load: Doublers transfer the load that a damaged section used to carry. The
load moves through the doubler, rivets, and healthy sections of the skin.
 Extend aircraft life: Doublers are a cost-effective way to extend the life of an
aircraft. For example, instead of riveting multiple metal plates, a single composite
doubler can be bonded to the damaged structure.
 Increase cross-sectional area: Doublers can increase the cross-sectional area of the
skin to compensate for increased load or loss of load carrying capability.
 Reduce fatigue cracking:Doublers are inherently more resistant to fatigue cracking
than an equivalent monolithic skin

 Doubler are used to reinforce, compensate or restore the strength lost by the primary
structural part. They are used on repairs, holes and reinforcements of aircraft parts.
 Individually, no one of the aforementioned components is strong enough to carry the
loads imposed during flight and landing. But, when combined, those components form
a strong, rigid framework. This is accomplished with gussets, rivets, nuts and bolts,
screws, and even friction stir welding.
 A gusset is a type of connection bracket that adds strength.(a connection bracket that
strengthens the structure of an aircraft by joining and reinforcing its parts)
 Longerons hold the bulkheads and formers, and these, in turn, hold the stringers,
braces, web members, etc. All are designed to be attached together and to the skin to
achieve the full strength benefits of semi monocoque design. It is important to
recognize that the metal skin or covering carries part of the load. The fuselage skin
thickness can vary with the load carried and the stresses sustained at a particular
location.
 The advantages of the semi monocoque fuselage are
 a) Streamlined fuselage
b) rigid and strong.
 Small aircraft fuselage are generally made in 2/3 sections, larger aircraft as many as 6
sections.
 Pressurization: Air is pumped into the cabin after takeoff and a difference in pressure
between the air inside the cabin and the air outside the cabin is established.
 Oxygen is made available at high altitudes.

C) Honeycomb
 Honeycomb structures, whether natural or man-made, feature a honeycomb
geometry that minimizes material usage, resulting in reduced weight and cost.
 It also increase payload and flight distance.
 These structures consist of hollow cells, typically columnar and hexagonal, formed
between thin vertical walls.
 This design provides materials with low density(Honeycomb cores can have a density
as small as 16 kg/m3)and high out-of-plane compression and shear properties.
 Man-made honeycomb materials are often created by sandwiching a honeycomb
core between two thin layers that provide tensile strength, forming a plate-like
assembly.
 These materials are extensively used in applications requiring flat or slightly curved
surfaces due to their high strength. Since the 1950s, honeycomb materials made
from aluminum, fiberglass, and advanced composites have been integral to the
aerospace industry, appearing in aircraft and rockets.
 Honeycomb replace the heavier conventional sheet and stringer or beam support
approach,
 Honeycomb sandwich panels are extremely efficient in stiffness-to-weight and strength-
to-weight situations.
 Whenever light weight is a premium, honeycomb sandwich construction is very difficult
to beat.
 There are numerous substrate materials with the honeycomb category.
 Every multi-engine airplane flying today in the world has some honeycomb core parts.
Uses of Honeycomb
1: Civil Aircraft: Advantage to
a) Strength and stiffness
b) Tolerance of temperature extremes
c) High resistance to corrosion and fatigue
 d) Weight saving opportunities.
2 : Defense Aircraft: advanced aerobatic manoeuvres,
3 : Helicopters: side walls, floor panels and main rotor components.
4 : Space : Space launching satellites into space creates the ultimate performance challenge
for composite materials. In addition to the crucial weight savings, extreme temperature
fluctuations.

Benefits of using Honeycomb Panels:

1 : High stiffness and strength: Durable, providing excellent fatigue(the weakening of metal
components due to repeated exposure to environmental factors and flight cycles), impact and
environmental resistance. High stiffness from structural materials reduces (even eliminates)
supporting framework, increases passenger room, carries fittings readily.
2 : Design flexibility: Design may be tailored to suit exact engineering requirements. Cut and
fold technique may be used to save time.
3 : Weight savings: Nomex® and Aluminum Honeycomb are extremely lightweight cores
with high temperature resistance brings associated benefits of high-speed and low fuel
consumption, resulting increased passenger satisfaction and improved airline profits.
4 : Corrosion Resistance: High resistance to fatigue as composites are rust and rot resistant
5 : Cost:Lightweight, easy to handle & install and offers rapid fitting, resulting man hour
savings. The noncorrosive materials reduce maintenance costs.
6: Safety : Enhanced safety features resistant materials and the elimination of sharp, jagged
edges include the incorporation of fire in a crash situation.

D) Sandwich Structure:
 A sandwich construction is a structural panel concept that consists in its simplest form
of two relatively thin, parallel face sheets bonded to and separated by a relatively thick,
lightweight core.
 The core supports the face sheets against buckling and resists out-of-plane shear
loads. The core must have high shear strength and compression stiffness.
 Most honeycomb structures used in aircraft construction have aluminum, fiberglass,
Kevlar®, or carbon fiber face sheets.
 The most common core material used for aircraft honeycomb structures is aramid
paper (flame resistant, fire retardant, good insulating properties, low dielectric
properties, and good formability)(Nomex® or Korex®). Fiberglass is used for higher
strength applications.
 Other are
 Kraft paper—relatively low strength, good insulating properties, is available in
large quantities, and has a low cost.
 Thermoplastics—good insulating properties, good energy absorption and/or
redirection, smooth cell walls, moisture and chemical resistance, are
environmentally compatible.
 Aluminum—best strength-to-weight ratio and energy absorption, has good heat
transfer properties, electromagnetic shielding properties, has smooth, thin cell
walls, is machinable, and has a relatively low cost.
 Steel—good heat transfer properties, electromagnetic shielding properties, and
heat resistant.
  Specialty metals (titanium)—relatively high strength-to-weight ratio, good heat
transfer properties, chemical resistance, and heat resistant to very high
temperatures.
 Aramid paper—flame resistant, fire retardant, good insulating properties, low
dielectric properties, and good formability.
 Fiberglass—tailorable shear properties by layup, low dielectric properties, good
insulating properties, and good formability.
 Carbon—good dimensional stability and retention, high-temperature property
retention, high stiffness, very low coefficient of thermal expansion, tailorable
thermal conductivity, relatively high shear modulus, and very expensive.
 Ceramics—heat resistant to very high temperatures, good insulating properties,
is available in very small cell sizes, and very expensive.
It is made of laminar composite materials including metal, fiber and ceramic.( at least one
layer each)
 metal layer is made of Al, Magnesium, titanium
materials or corresponding alloy materials,
 fiber layer is made of glass fiber, Kevlar fiber, carbon
fiber , silicon nitride ,silicon carbide zirconium dioxide
materials
 Ceramic layercomprises zirconium oxide and a
niobium/titanium/nickel toughening phase.
 The fuselage shell of the fuselage with the sandwich
structure is
 high in hardness,
 good in toughness,
 light in mass
 good in anti-impact property.
E) Geodesic Structure: also known as geodetic
 Used during World War II, geodesic fuselage
structures seek to enhance the aircraft’s shape to
reduce drag and improve speed.
 Multiple strip stringers are intertwined around the
formers in varying spiral directions, similar to a
flower basket.
 Geodesic fuselage structures are lightweight,
strong, and ultra-durable. They were typically
made of either wood and/or aluminum, featuring a fabric covering the shell for greater
comfortable and aesthetic value.
 Geodesic frames are good in transferring both bending and shear loads
 disadvantage of fabric-skinned aircraft is that they do not easily support cabin
pressurisation;
F) Corrugated :
 Corrugation has long been seen as a simple and effective
means of forming lightweight structures with
high anisotropic(of an object or substance having a physical
property which has a different value when measured in
 different directions. An example is wood, which is stronger along the grain than across
it) behaviour ,
 Stability under buckling load and energy absorption capability.
 “corrugated” in general describes a series of parallel ridges (a long, narrow hilltop,
mountain range, or watershed) or fluting (a groove or set of grooves forming a surface
decoration) and furrows (a line or wrinkle on a person's face) shape of corrugation
either made by folding, moulding, or any other manufacturing methods is called a
corrugated structure.

Purpose:The corrugations increase the bending strength of the sheet in the direction
perpendicular to the corrugations, but not parallel to them, because the steel must be
stretched to bend perpendicular to the corrugations. Normally each sheet is manufactured
longer in its strong direction.

AEROSPACE MATERIALS

a) The selection of aerospace materials is crucial in aerospace component design since it

affects many aspects of aircraft performance, from the design phase to disposal, including
1) structural efficiency 2) flight performance 3) payload,
4) energy consumption, 5) safety and reliability, 6) lifecycle cost,
7) recyclability, 8) disposability.
b) Critical requirements for aerospace structural materials include mechanical, physical, and
chemical properties such as
a) high strength, b) stiffness, c) fatigue durability d) damage tolerance,
e) low density, f) high thermal stability g) high corrosion h) oxide resistance,
c)commercial criteria such as
a) cost, b) servicing c) manufacturability.

Studies have indicated that the most effective way to improve structural efficiency is
reducing density (around 3 to 5 times more effective compared with increasing stiffness or
strength), i.e. using lightweight materials.

Aerospace materials can be broadly classified into four classes:

1) nonmetallic (Lightweight nonmetallic materials such as wood and fabric were also
used) or polymeric materials,
2) ceramic materials (ceramics)
3) metallic materials (metallics),
4) composite materials (composites)

NONMETALIC AND POLYMERIC MATERIALS

 1) Fabric
 Fabric covers are applied to various aircraft parts, such as wings, fuselages, and
control surfaces.
 Polyester fabric is often used to re-cover older aircraft because it's lighter, stronger, and
more durable than cotton.
 Early aircraft used organic materials such as cotton and cellulose nitrate dope; modern
fabric-covered designs usually use synthetic materials such as Dacron and butyrate
dope for adhesive.
 Modern methods are often used in the restoration of older types that were originally
covered using traditional methods.
Polyester and nylon fabrics are commonly used in aircraft interiors for seat covers, carpets,
and other upholstery. These textiles offer durability, ease of cleaning, and fire retardancy,
making them ideal for high-traffic areas within the cabin
Aircraft fabric covers have several purposes, including:
 Structural strength: Fabric covers can strengthen weak parts of an aircraft.
 Airproofing: Fabric covers create a light, airproof skin for control and lifting surfaces.
 Drag reduction: Fabric covers can reduce drag on non-lifting parts of the aircraft.
 Protection: Fabric covers can protect the aircraft's structure from the elements.

2) Wood
 Spruce has one of the greatest strength-to-weight ratios and is considered the cream
of the crop of natural aircraft building materials.
 Sitka spruce(most common wood used in aircraft construction) which is known for its
strength-to-weight ratio, uniform texture, and resistance to rotting
 Balsa wood: Used for streamlining, in wing tips, wing ribs, fuselage, and more. Balsa is
light but strong, and can absorb shock well.
 Western hemlock: Can be used as a substitute for Sitka spruce, but it's heavier and
harder to find. Western hemlock is 14 percent stronger and can be substituted for
spruce,
 Plywood: Another common material used in aircraft construction.
Wood is stronger along the grain than across it. The strength of a wood species is measured
by its compressive strength and bending strength. Compressive strength measures how
much weight a wood can resist parallel to the grain, while bending strength measures how
much force it can resist perpendicular to the grain.
 Walnut, Cherry and Birch are also used.
 3) Polymers
Polymers are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other
nonmetallic elements (e.g. O, N, and Si). Some of the common polymers are
# polyethylene (PE), # nylon or polyamide (PA), # polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
# polycarbonate (PC) # polystyrene (PS), # silicone rubber,
# epoxy, # phenolic.
 Polymers are different from the other materials in many ways but generally possess
lower densities, thermal conductivities. The lower densities of polymeric materials offer
an advantage for applications where light-weight is a requirement.
 The addition of thermally and/or electrically conductive fillers allows polymers to be
used for isolative or conductive applications. As a result, polymers may find
applications in lightning strike, electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, and
antistatic protection applications.
NOTE:Static electricity can build up on airplanes. As they move through the air,
airplanes generate friction between the hull and the atmosphere. This friction, if left
unchecked, leads to static electricity.

The amount of friction an airplane generates will vary depending on the type of
atmosphere through which it’s flying. If the skies are clear, it will generate a minimal
amount of friction. If it’s raining, snowing or cloudy, on the other hand, it will generate
more friction. And the more friction an airplane generates, the more static electricity it
will produce.
Lighting Strike:Commercial aircraft are designed to withstand lightning strikes and are
hit by lightning an average of once or twice a year. Here's what happens when lightning
strikes an aircraft:
Electromagnetic interference : Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is unwanted noise
or interference in an electrical path or circuit caused by an outside source. It is also
known as radio frequency interference. EMI can cause
 Polymers can further be classified into three basic polymeric categories:
1) Thermoplastics 2) thermosets 3) elastomers
 Thermoplastics: These materials soften and can be reshaped when heated. They can
be melted and reshaped multiple times. Thermoplastics are well-suited for making
complex shapes. Examples of thermoplastics include polyethylene, polypropylene,
PVC, and acrylic.
 Thermosets:These materials harden irreversibly when heated or chemically cured.
They retain their shape even when heated and are used to make permanent
components. Thermosets are well-suited for making unyielding structures.
 Elastomers:These materials are flexible and elastic, and can stretch and return to their
original shape. They are used to make products like shoe heels, wheels, and wetsuits.
 Thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs):These materials have both thermoplastic and
elastomeric properties. They can be melt-processed like thermoplastics, but are flexible
and elastic like vulcanized rubbers.
CERAMIC MATERIALS (CERAMICS)
Ceramics are used in aircraft for their durability, resistance to corrosion and abrasion, and
ability to maintain structural integrity at high temperatures.
Some ceramic materials used in aircraft include:
# Alumina #Boron carbide #Boron nitride #Silicon carbide
# Zirconia:
 Ceramics are also used in ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), which are made by
blending ceramic fibers with other materials to create a tough and durable material.
 CMCs are used to improve aircraft structural performance and can withstand extremely
high temperatures
 Modern aircraft engines heavily rely on ceramics; turbine blades and vanes, which
experience extreme heat and pressure, are commonly made from advanced ceramics.
METALLIC MATERIALS (METALLICS)
 Metallic materials are the most commonly used materials in building aerospace
systems of today.
# Aluminum alloys # Titanium alloys # Iron alloys (Steels),
# Superalloys, #Copper alloys.

BOEING Alluminium steel Titanium composite Misc

747 81% 13% 4% 1% 1%
757 80% 14% 2% 3% 1%
767 78% 12% 6% 3% 1%
777 70% 11% 7% 11% 1%
787 20% 10% 15% 50% 5%

 Generally accounting for more than 90% of the weight of airframes.

 From the 1920s to 2000: Metal used because of its high strength and stiffness,
especially aluminum alloy, Lightweight aluminum alloys were the leading aviation
structural materials — accounting for 70%–80% of the weight of most civil aircraft
airframes before 2000 — and still play an important role.
 1960s and 1970s, the proportion of composites used in aerospace structures has
increased due to the development of high-performance composites

ALUMINUM ALLOYS.
 Aluminum alloys still make up a significant proportion of aerospace structural weight.
  Aluminum alloys a popular choice of lightweight materials in many aerospace structural
applications,
 The development of heat-treatment technology provides high-strength aluminum alloys
that remain competitive with advanced composites in many aerospace applications.
Aluminum alloys can offer a wide range of material properties meeting diverse application
requirements, by adjusting compositions and heat treatment methods.(Annealing Softens the
metal , Hardening Increases the strength and hardness of the metal's surface, Tempering
Improves the toughness and ductility of the metal by heating it to a lower temperature Case
hardening: Protects the outer layer of the metal from wear ,Normalizing Eliminates internal
stresses that arise from cold working processes and enhances the material's mechanical and
electrical properties. Quenching Rapidly cools the metal to achieve the desired physical or
mechanical properties. Carburizing adds carbon to the surface of low-carbon steel to create
a high-carbon surface)
Advantages:
a) Exceptional Strength-to-Weight Ratio.
b) Goodductility
c) Corrosion resistance,
d) Low price,
e) Excellentmanufacturability and reliability
f) Effective Thermal and Electrical Conductivity.
g) Excellent Fatigue Resistance.
h) Malleability and Machinability.
i) Recyclability.
j) Compatibility with Advanced Manufacturing Techniques.

Disadvantages:
a) high cost compared with steels
b) relatively low fracture toughness in high strength conditions
c) Limited performance at elevated temperature.
d) Aluminum is a low melting point metal,
Uses:
a) Fuselage skin,
b) Upper and lower wing skins,
c) Wing stringers

TITANIUM ALLOYS.
 approximately 7% to 36% of structural weight of commercial a/c
 advantages make titanium alloys an excellent alternative to steels and aluminum alloys
in airframe and engine applications
 titanium alloys are used where high strength is required but limited space is available,
as well as where high corrosion resistance is required
 The current applications of titanium alloys in aerospace are mainly in airframe and
engine components, overall comprising 7% and 36% of the weight, respectively
Advantages:
a) Highspecific strength,
b) Heat resistance,
c) Cryogenicembrittlement resistance,
 d) Lowthermal expansion
e) Highcorrosion resistance
Disadvantage:
a)Poor manufacturability
b) High cost (usually about 8 times higher than commercial aluminum alloys)
Uses:
a) Fire wall
HIGH-STRENGTH STEEL.
 Approximately 05% to 15% of structural weight of commercial a/c
 Steel is the most commonly used structural material in many industry applications.

Advantages:
a) good manufacturability
b)availability,
c) extremely high strength and stiffness in the form of high-strength steels,
d) good dimensional properties at high temperatures
e) lowest cost
Disadvantage:
a) high density
b) relatively high susceptibility to corrosion
c) high susceptibility to embrittlement,
Uses:
a) gearing,
b) bearings,
c) undercarriage applications.(where extremely high strength and stiffness are required)

SUPERALLOYS:
 The term “superalloys” has been applied to the alloys used in some of the harshest
environments experienced by materials and components.
 Superalloys are most often associated with aerospace propulsion systems such as jet
and rocket engines

 Superalloys can be based on Ni, Fe-Ni, or Co as the primary ingredient.

 Early superalloys were an outgrowth of stainless steels and were thus developed on a
Fe-Ni-Cr base.

 Another Ni-20Cr, which relied on Cr to provide oxidation resistance. The strengthening

effect of adding Al and Ti to Ni-Cr alloys was discovered in 1929

 Continued alloy development over the past 70 years has resulted in over 100 different
superalloys containing as many as 15 alloying elements.

 Ni-base superalloys are used in the most demanding components of a jet engine, such
as the turbine disks and blades, which are exposed to both high stresses and
temperatures in an oxidizing environment. When a component’s stress/temperature
requirements are not quite as severe,
  Fe-Ni base superalloys are preferred over Ni-base alloys. These alloys tend to be less
expensive, plus they are more amenable to a wide variety in processing techniques,
including welding.it is the most widely used superalloy in the world, as a result of its
excellent mechanical properties up to about 600oC, combined with ease of
manufacture.

 The use of Co base alloys is restricted by the higher cost of Co compared to Ni, but
their unique combination of properties is nevertheless suitable for a substantial portion
of aerospace applications.
Advantages:
a) High temperature strength
b) Resistance to high temperature oxidation and corrosion attack
c) Significantdamage tolerance.
Disadvantages:
a)Uses only stress/temperature requirements are not quite as severe,
Uses:
a) jet and rocket engines
b) turbine disks and blades,(Ni-base super alloys)
COPPER-BASED ALLOYS:
 Copper-based alloys have unique electrical, thermal and wear characteristics that make
them well suited for certain aerospace applications.
 Copper-based alloys used for aircraft applications include
 Beryllium Copper (C17000, C17100, C17200),
 Nickel Aluminum Bronzes (C63000, C63020, C95510),
 Silicon (C65100, C65500) and Silicon Aluminum (C64200) Bronzes,
 Manganese Bronzes (C67300, C86300),
 High Lead Tin Bronze (C93700), and Aluminum Bronze (C95400)
 Copper alloys are used in re generatively cooled rocket engines where pure copper,
low alloy coppers (CuCr), and specially developed Cu-based alloys (NARloy-Z,
GRCop-84) are used.
 All of the alloys are notable for high thermal conductivity and good elevated
temperature mechanical properties. Another important application of Cu and Cu-based
alloys is electronics and electrical systems.Electrical wiring, electrical motors, electrical
actuators, etc., normally utilize Cu wire.

 Aircraft Applications Cu-based alloys offer two primary advantages for aircraft structural
applications. They are exceptionally resistant to wear and galling, and they are very
strong with high specific properties. Some are also nonsparking and can offer an
advantage over other alloys such as steel if sparks are a concern, e.g., near fuel where
the potential for a fire or explosion exists. This leads to their application in wear
surfaces, bearing applications and even as structural members.

Advantages:
a) electrical, thermal and wear characteristics
b) resistant to wear and galling (A form of wear caused by metal surfaces gliding
against one other, such as all the bolts and fasteners holding an aircraft
together.)
c) very strong with high specific properties
 d) non sparking (near fuel where the potential for a fire or explosion exists)
e) high thermal conductivity and good elevated temperature
Disadvantages:
a) Higher cost
Uses:
a) wear surfaces, bearing applications and even as structural members.
b) electronics and electrical systems.

AEROSPACE COMPOSITES.
 Composite materials are a combination of materials that are used in aircraft to improve
their durability and performance.
 Composite Materials in Aircraft Composite materials are fiber-reinforced matrix systems
 Composite is a broad term and can mean materials such as fiberglass, carbon fiber
cloth, Kevlar cloth, and mixtures of all of the above
 They are made up of two or more materials with different physical or chemical
properties that work together to enhance each other's quality.
 Composite materials used in aviation are typically made of a combination of different
materials, primarily reinforcing fibers such as carbon fiber, fiberglass, or aramid
fibers, and a matrix material such as epoxy resin. When cured, gives the part its
shape, but the fibers carry most of the load. These materials are combined to create
composites.

 High-performance composites such as fiber reinforced polymer and fiber metal

laminates (FML) are used.
 The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is an example of an aircraft that uses a high percentage of
composite materials. It is made up of 80% composite by volume, and 50% composite
by weight.
Reinforcing Fibers:
 Carbon Fiber: Carbon fiber is lightweight and has excellent strength properties,
making it a popular choice for aerospace applications where weight savings are
critical.
 Advantages:
 Stronger in tensile and compressive strength than fiberglass, and has
much higher bending stiffness. It is also considerably lighter than
fiberglass
 Disadvantages:
 relatively poor in impact resistance; the fibers are brittle and tend to
shatter under sharp impact. Carbon fiber is more expensive than
fiberglass
 Fiberglass: Fiberglass is made of thin glass fibers embedded in a resin matrix.
While not as strong or light as carbon fiber, fiberglass is still used in certain
aircraft components.
 Advantages:
 good tensile and compressive strength, good impact resistance, is easy
to work with, and is relatively inexpensive and readily available
 Disadvantages:
 relatively heavy, and it is difficult to make a fiberglass load-carrying
structure lighter than a well designed equivalent aluminum structure.
  Aramid Fibers (e.g., Kevlar): Aramid fibers, like Kevlar, offer high strength and
are often used in areas where impact resistance is crucial, such as protective
panels or components.
 Advantages
 Strength: Aramid fibers are five times stronger than steel and have
high tensile strength.
 Impact resistance: Aramid fibers are good at resisting impact.
 Heat resistance: Aramid fibers are resistant to heat and have low
flammability.
 Chemical resistance: Aramid fibers are resistant to organic solvents
and chemicals.
 Abrasion resistance: Aramid fibers are resistant to abrasion.
 Low density: Aramid fibers are lightweight.
 Disadvantages
 Moisture sensitivity: Aramid fibers absorb moisture, making aramid
composites more sensitive to the environment than other composites.
 Weak compression properties: Aramid fibers have relatively poor
compressive properties.
 Ultraviolet light degradation: Some grades of aramid fiber can
degrade when exposed to ultraviolet light.

carbon fiber, fiberglass aramid fibers

Matrix Material:
 Epoxy Resin: Epoxy resin is commonly used as the matrix material in composite
structures. It serves to bind the reinforcing fibers together, providing stability and
distributing loads across the structure.
Advantages:
a) Higher specific strength and specific stiffness than at moderate temperatures.
b) Improved fatigue resistance,
c) Resistance to corrosion
d) Resistance to moisture
e) Ability to tailor layups for optimal strength and stiffness in required directions
f) Extremely smooth skins
g) Ability to easily form complex curved or streamlined structures.
h) Lighter weight
i) Very smooth, compound curved, aerodynamic structure made from composites
reduces drag
j) good performance in a flexing environment
l) Durable

Disadvantages:
a) Lack of visual proof of damage
b) Cost: Composites are more expensive than aluminum, and the fabrication process is
labor intensive and complex.
c) Repair: Composites are difficult and expensive to repair. They may need to be
transported and stored in a refrigerator, and the melting temperature for repairs can be
very high. and have limited shelf lives also.
d) Brittleness: Composites are more brittle and more easily damaged than aluminum.
e) UV degradation: UV light can degrade composite materials over time.
f) Hail damage: Composite aircraft with hail damage usually need extensive repairs to
be airworthy again
g) Repair introduces new problems, for the following reasons: Hot curing is necessary
in many cases, requiring special equipment. Curing either hot or cold takes time. The
job is not finished when the last rivet has been installed.
h) Damage: If rivets have been used and must be removed, this presents problems of
removal without causing further damage.
i) Clean: Composites must be thoroughly cleaned of all contamination before repair.
j) Dried: Composites must be dried before repair because all resin matrices and some
fibers absorb moisture.
Uses:
a) wing box, empennage, and fuselage as well as control surfaces

TYPES OF COMPOSITES
A) GLASS FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER (GFRP)
Uses:
 radomes (a weatherproof enclosure that covers the radar antenna on an aircraft,
protecting it from the elements and allowing radar waves to pass through.)
 semi-structural (such as fairings: aerodynamic structures that cover gaps and
spaces between parts of the aircraft to reduce drag and improve its performance)
B) ARAMID FIBER POLYMERS
Uses:
 used where high impact resistance is required.
C) FIBER METAL LAMINATES, ESPECIALLY GLASS FIBER REINFORCED ALUMINUM
(GLARE), (especially in the Airbus A380)
Advantages:
 reduced density,
 high strength,
 stiffness,
 fatigue resistance compared with monolithic metals.
Uses:
 fuselage skin
 empennage
D) CARBON FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER (CFRP) REPRESENTS THE MOST WITH
THE
Advantages:
 extensively used aerospace structural material apart from aluminum alloys,
Uses:
 wing box, empennage, and fuselage
 control surfaces (e.g. rudder, elevator, and ailerons).
E) SHAPE MEMORY POLYMER COMPOSITES (SMPC)
Advantages:
 can change their form as a result of a certain
stimulus such as change of temperature, an
electric or magnetic field, particular light
wavelengths, etc. by releasing the internal
stress stored in the material.
 lower density, higher shape deformability and
recoverability, better processing, and lower
relative cost.
Uses:
 wing skin of morphing-wing aircraft, and the
solar array and reflector antenna of satellites

MOST COMMON MATRIX IS EPOXY RESIN (IS A

THERMOSETTING PLASTIC)
Advantages:
 stronger
 good high temperature