UNIT-1

PLANE CURVES AND FREEHAND SKETCHING

1. What is a Scale?
Scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a drawing
to the actual dimensions of the same element of the object itself.
a) Full size scale: In this type the actual dimensions of the object are considered for drawing
it.
b) Reducing scale: In this type the actual dimensions of the object are reduced by some ratio.
c) Enlarging scale: In this type the actual dimensions of the object are increased by some ratio.

2. What is representative fraction (R.F.)?

It is defined as the ratio of the measurement represented in the drawing to the actual
measurement of the object and is referred to as R.F.
Representative fraction = Length of the drawing ∕ Actual length of the object

3. In a drawing, 2mm represents 8m.What is its RF?

2/8 x 10-3 = 0.25 x 10-3 = 2.5 x 10-2

4. What is the function of a set square in engineering drawing?

A set square is used for drawing perpendicular and parallel lines. It has two arms, one of which
is usually a right angle.

5. Define a template and explain its role in engineering drawing.

A template is a pre-designed pattern or stencil used for drawing specific shapes or symbols
consistently.

6. What are the conic sections?

The sections obtained by the intersection of a right circular cone by a sectional (cutting) plane
in different positions relative to the axis of the cone are called conics or conic sections.

7. What should be the position of section plane with respect to a right circular cone to get
the section as a) circle , b) ellipse c) parabola, d) Hyperbola , e) Rectangular Hyperbola,
f) Triangle.
a) When the section plane is parallel to the base and cuts all the generators.
b) When the section plane is inclined to the axis and cuts all the generators on one side of the
apex.
c) When the section plane is parallel to one of the generators
d) When the section plane cuts both the parts of double cone on one side of the axis.
e) When the section plane is parallel to axis (or perpendicular to base) and cuts both the parts
of double cone on one side of the axis.
f) If the section plane passing through the apex cuts the cone then the true shape of the section
is a triangle.

8. Define a conic. Explain focus, directrix, eccentricity, axis and vertex?

The conic may be defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane in such a way that the ratio
of its distances from a fixed point and a fixed straight line is always constant. The fixed point
is called the focus and the fixed line is called directrix. Eccentricity is defined as follows.
Eccentricity = Distance of the point from the focus / distance of the point from the directrix
The line passing through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called axis. The point
at which conic cuts its axis is called vertex.

9. What will be the eccentricity in case of a) ellipse, b) Parabola, c) Hyperbola e)

Rectangular Hyperbola
Eccentricity for ellipse is less than 1
Eccentricity for parabola is equal to 1
Eccentricity for hyperbola is greater than 1
Eccentricity for Rectangular Hyperbola is √ 2

10. What are the different methods to construct an ellipse?

1) Arcs of circles method.
2) Concentric circles method
3) Oblong method
4) Loop of thread method
5) Trammel method.

11. What are the different methods to construct a parabola?

1) Rectangle method
2) Tangent method.

12. Define Ellipse.

Ellipse is defined as a curve traced out by a point, moving in the same plane as and in such a
way that the sum of its distances from two fixed points is always the same.

13. Define Hyperbola

Hyperbola is defined as a curve traced out by a point, moving in the same plane as and in such
a way that the difference of its distances from two fixed points is always the same.

14. What is a rectangular hyperbola and what are the asymptotes?

It is a curve traced out by a point moving in such a way that the product of its distances from
two fixed lines at right angles to each other is a constant. The two fixed lines are called
asymptotes. Asymptotes are the tangents to the hyperbola at infinite distance. The curve
represents the boyle’s law (PV = constant) is an example for rectangular hyperbola

15. Explain the construction of a cycloid and its applications in engineering.

The cycloid is constructed by tracing a point on the rim of a rolling circle. Its applications
include designing gears and understanding the motion of particles.

16. Define Involute,

Involute is a curve traced by an end of a piece of thread when unwound from a circle or a
regular polygon.

17. State the applications of different curves:

Name of the curve Application
In arches, bridges, dams, monuments, man holes, glands
Ellipse and stuffing boxes.
Parabola Arches, bridges, sound reflectors, light reflectors.
Hyperbola Design of water channels.
Cycloidal curves Profile of teeth of gear wheels.
Involute Teeth of profile of gear wheels and in some of the cam.
Archimedian spiral Teeth profile of helical gears, profile of cams, threads and
chuck of a lathe.

18. Explain the use of the following types of lines in Engineering Drawing (a) Dashed
line, (b) hatching line, (c) Chain line (d) Staggered Line.
a) Dashed line: Hidden features of the object are shown by lines made up of short dashes at
approximately equal lengths at about 3mm spaced at equal distance of 1mm.
b) Hatching line: This is a continuous thin line. It is used for shading areas.
c) Chain lines: This is a continuous thin line. It is used for shading areas.
d) Staggered Line: When two hidden lines are very close then the alternate dash and space
should be alternated. This arrangement is called staggered line.

19. State the assumptions made in orthographic projection.

The assumptions are:
i) The observer views the object from a theoretically infinite distance.
ii) The rays of sight meet the principal planes orthogonally.

20. What is a Projection?

The figure or view formed by joining in correct sequence the points at which these lines meet
the plane, is called the projection of the object.
21. What is meant by an orthographic projection?
ORTHO means right angle and ORTHOGRAPHIC means right-angled drawing. When the
projectors are perpendicular to the plane on which the projection is obtained is known
orthographic projection. In orthographic projection the observer is imagined to look the object
at infinite distance.

22. Describe the layout of views in freehand sketching of multiple views from
pictorial views.
The layout involves arranging multiple orthographic views systematically, ensuring front
view, top view and the side views are collinear and parallel. Also the edges are projects in
collinear fashion.

23. What are reference planes or principal planes?

The two planes employed for the purpose of orthographic projections are called reference
planes or principal planes. Vertical plane (V.P.) and horizontal plane (H.P.) are the reference
or principal planes.

24. What is a profile plane?

The plane which is perpendicular to both the principle planes, is called profile plane

25. What is meant by projectors?

The lines drawn from the points on the contour of an object to the plane, which are
perpendicular to it, are called the projectors.

26. What are different Types of projections?

i) Pictorial Projection
a) Perspective projection
b) Isometric projection
c) Oblique projection.
ii) Orthographic projection

27. Describe about first-Angle projection method?

When the object is assumed to be placed in the first quadrant i.e. in front of VP and above HP,
and projected on the principal planes, the method is called first angle projection. In this method,
the object lies between the observer and the plane of projection, and the top view is below XY
line and the front view is above the XY line.
28. Describe about Third-Angle projection method?
When the object is assumed to be placed in the third quadrant i.e.behind VP and below HP,
and projected on the principal planes, the method is called third angle projection. In this
method, the plane of projection lies between the observer and the object. and the top view is
above XY line and the front view is below e the XY line.

29. What is ground line?

In third angle projection, the line for the ground is called the ground line (G.L.), which is drawn
parallel to XY and below the front view.
 UNIT-2
PROJECTION OF POINTS, LINES AND PLANE SURFACE
1. Explain the process of projecting points in Orthographic Projection.
Points are projected onto the principal planes by dropping perpendiculars from the object to
the planes, creating corresponding points in the top, front, and side views.

2. What is an oblique line?

At straight line inclined to both HP and VP is called as Oblique line.

3. What is an apparent angle with reference to projection of straight lines?

The angles of inclination of the top and front views of a straight line inclined to both VP and
HP are called apparent angles of inclination. Apparent angles of inclination are greater than the
true angles of inclination.

4. In the projection of straight line, when the top view will have true length?
If the line is parallel to HP its top view will have its true length.

5. 17 In the projection of straight line, when the front view will have true length?
If the line is parallel to VP its front view will have its true length.

6. Explain the concept of traces in projection of lines inclined to both planes.

Traces are the points where an inclined line intersects the principal planes. They are used to
project the line onto each plane, determining its true lengths and true inclinations.

7. What is a trace of a line?

The point of intersection of a line or extended part of line with a plane is called its trace on that
plane.

8. What is reference line?

The line at which the principal planes (HP and VP) intersect is termed as Reference line and is
represented by the letters XY.

9. When a straight line will not have traces?

When it is parallel to both HP and VP.

10. When a straight line will not have HT?

When a line is parallel to HP and inclined to VP,it will not have HT.
It has only VT.
11. When a straight line will not have VT?
When a line is parallel to VP and inclined to HP, it will not have VT.
It has only HT.

12. Define top view and front view.

Top view (plan) is the projection obtained on the horizontal plane. It is obtained by looking at
the object from directly above.
Front view (Elevation) is the projection obtained on the vertical plane. It is obtained by looking
at the object from a position directly in front.

13. Define side or profile view.

Side ( or profile) view is the projection obtained on the profile plane.

14. How to project a straight line:

The projections of a straight line can be drawn if the projections of the two points forming the
two ends of the straight line are shown. The line joining the top views of the two points will
give the top view of the straight line joining them. The front view of the line is the line joining
the front views of the two end points.

15. Define an oblique plane

The planes, which are inclined to both reference planes, are called oblique plane.

16. What are regular and Irregular Planes?

A plane figure having equal sides is called a regular plane. A plane figure having unequal sides
is known as irregular plane.

17. What is a trace of a plane?

The line along which a plane meets the reference plane is called the trace of the plane surface
on that reference plane.

18. Define vertical trace of plane?

The line of meeting of a plane with the VP is called the vertical trace of the plane.

19. Define horizontal trace of a plane.

The line of meeting of a plane with the HP is called the horizontal trace of the plane.

20. When a plane has no HT?

When a plane is parallel to HP, it has no HT.
21. When a plane has no VT?
When a plane is parallel to VP, it has no VT.

22. Define AVP and AIP.

AVP: An auxiliary plane perpendicular to the HP and inclined to the VP is called auxiliary
vertical plane.
AIP: An auxiliary plane perpendicular to the VP and inclined to the HP is called auxiliary
inclined plane.

23. Explain the concept of true inclinations and their importance in Orthographic
Projection.
True inclinations refer to the actual angles formed by lines with the principal planes in space.
They are crucial in orthographic projection for accurately representing objects.

24. What is an auxiliary front view and auxiliary top view?

The projection obtained on an AVP is called auxiliary front view.
The projection obtained on an AIP is called auxiliary top view.

25. Advantage of change of reference line (auxiliary plane) method over change of
position method:
In change of position method re-production of a view accurately is likely to take considerable
time, especially when the solid has curved surfaces or too many edges and corners. In such
cases change of reference line (auxiliary plane) method is adopted as it is easiest and more
convenient method, which will take less time.
 UNIT-3
PROJECTION OF SOLIDS
1. What is a solid?
An object having three dimensions i.e. length, breadth and height is called a solid.

2. What is the minimum no. of views required to represent solid in orthographic

projection?
Two

3. What are different types of solids?

(i)Polyhedra (ii) solids of revolution
Polyhedra are further classified into the following three types
a) regular poly hedra b) prism c) pyramid.

4. Define polyhedral and regular polyhedra

POLYHEDRA: The solid which is bounded by plane surfaces (faces) is called a polyhedra.
Two types of polyhedra are I) regular II) irregular or oblique polyhedra.
REGULAR POLY HEDRA: Is a solid bounded by planes, surfaces which are equal and regular
Ex: i) tetrahedron ii) hexahedron iii) octahedron iv) Dodecahedron

5. Define. Prism and Pyramid

PRISM: The polyhedron having two equal and similar end bases, parallel to each other and are
joined by other faces which may be rectangles or parallelograms is called a prism. The
imaginary line joining the center of the bases is called the axis.
PYRAMID: It is a polyhedron having a plane figure as a base and a number of triangular faces
meeting a point called the vertex or apex. The imaginary lines joining the apex with the center
of the base is its axis.

6. Discuss the advantages of using the rotating object method in projecting solids.
The rotating object method provides a systematic approach for projecting solids, ensuring
accurate representation in orthographic views.

7. How are the projections of simple solids used in engineering drawings?

The projections help in creating detailed engineering drawings for manufacturing and
assembly purposes.

8. What is solid of revolution?

The solids formed by the revolution of plane figures are known as solids of revolution. ex.
Cylinder, cone sphere.
9. Define Cylinder, Cone, and Sphere.
CYLINDER: the solid, which is generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one of its
sides, which remains fixed, is called a cylinder.
SPHERE: the solid, which is generated by the revolution of semicircle about its diameter,
which remains fixed, is called a sphere.
CONE: The solid, which is generated by the revolution of a right-angled triangle, about one of
its perpendicular sides, which remain fixed, is called a cone.

10. Differentiate square prism and hexahedron (cube)?

Square prism is having two bases as squares and bases are joined by four rectangles.
Hexahedron (cube) is having all its six faces are squares only.

11. Differentiate triangular pyramid and tetrahedron.

Triangular pyramid is having one equilateral triangle and three isosceles triangles Tetrahedron
has four equilateral triangles as its faces.

12. Define frustum, truncated solid.

FRUSTUM: when a pyramid or a cone is cut by a plane parallel to its base, thus removing the
top portion, the remaining portion is called its frustum.
TRUNCATED SOLID: when a solid is cut by a plane inclined to the base it is said to be
truncated solid.

13. Differentiate frustum and truncated solid?

Section plane is parallel to the base in case of frustums and inclined in use of truncation.
Frustums are applicable to pyramids and cones only. Where as truncation can be applicable to
general solids.

14. Differentiate right solid and oblique solid?

In right solid, axis is perpendicular to the base. In oblique solid, axis is inclined to the base.

15. When we will get the true shape of base in side view.
If the axis is parallel to both H.P. and V.P.

16. State the rules of visibility in projection of solids.

The base which is far away from reference line XY (when compared to other base) in one view
will be fully visible in the other view and called visible base in the other view.
Lines passing through the visible base are invisible.
When two lines cross each other, one of them must be hidden.
Faraway edges from XY in one view are visible in other view.
If a solid rests on an edge of its base on V.P then the orientation of edge with respect to H.P
Perpendicular to H.P.

17. What is meant by Auxiliary projection?

Projections of solids obtained on auxiliary vertical plane and auxiliary inclined plane are called
as auxiliary projections of solids.

18. What initial position has to be chosen if a solid has to rest on an edge of base?
One of the base edges is kept perpendicular to the VP in the initial position.

19. What is the difference between the polyhedrons, prisms and pyramids?
Prisms and pyramids are also polyhedrons. But they are not regular polyhedrons like cube and
octahedron. In other words in the case of regular polyhedron all the faces are equal in shape
and size. Whereas for the prisms and pyramids the base shape is different from the
side/lateral/slant faces.

20. What is meant by platonic solids?

The regular polyhedra such as Tetrahedron, cube, Octahedron, Dodecahedron, icosahedron are
called the platonic solids.
 UNIT-4

SECTIONS OF SOLIDS AND DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES

1. Explain the important of the section of solids.
In the orthographic projection, the invisible and interior details of an object are usually
represented by dotted lines. When these dotted lines are numerous, it is difficult
to interpret the drawing and it becomes almost impossible to read to it clearly.
To overcome his difficulty, it is imagined that the object is being cut through completely
or partially by a plane called cutting or section plane. This is the importance of the
chapter section of solids.

2. What is meant by sections of solids? .

Solids, which are cut by the section planes to visualize the internal constructional
details of the invisible features, are known as sections of the solids.

3. What is a section (cutting) plane?

It is an imaginary plane, which is assumed to cut the object as required is called
cutting plane or sectional plane. Sectional plane is perpendicular to one of the reference
planes.

4. Define a section and sectional view?

SECTION: The surface produced when a section plane cuts a solid is termed as
section.
SECTIONAL VIEW: The drawing showing that part of the object, which is in between,
the plane of projection and section plane is called sectional view. Ex: sectional top view,
sectional front view etc.

5. What is an apparent section?

The projection of the cut section on the plane to which the cutting plane is inclined to
be the apparent section.

6. How can you get true shape of a section?

We can get the true shape of a section by projecting the section on a (Auxiliary)
plane, which is parallel to the section plane.

7. Why solids are sectioned?

Solids are sectioned to visualize the internal constructional details of invisible features.

8. A solid cylinder is standing vertical on HP. How is it to be cut to obtain ellipse as

true shape of the section?
It is to be cut by a plane perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP.

9. A cone of base diameter 30mm and height 60mm is cut by a plane parallel to its
base and bisecting the axis. What is the true shape of the section?
The true shape of the section is a circle of radius 15mm.

10. What are the positions of the cutting plane to obtain ellipse, parabola and
hyperbola as the true shape of the section?
Ellipse – Cutting plane perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP
 Parabola – Cutting plane is parallel to its generator
Hyperbola – Cutting plane makes small inclination with the axis
11. How is a section view represented in an engineering drawing? A section view is
usually indicated by cross hatching or shading in the cut portion, making it distinct from
the external surfaces of the object.

12. In what industries or fields are section views frequently used?

Section views are commonly used in mechanical engineering, architecture,
manufacturing, and any field where detailed visualization of internal structures of
objects is essential for design and construction purposes.

13. What distinguishes the process of obtaining sections from prisms versus
pyramids?
Prisms have identical parallel ends, simplifying sectioning. Pyramids have a unique
shape, making their sectioning more complex due to their triangular faces.

14. The base diameter of the cone is equal to its slant height. What is the shape of it’s
development?
The development of a cone is a semi circle of radius equal to the diameter / slant height
of the cone.

15. What is meant by the development of a solid?

When all the surfaces of a sold are stretched out on a single surface, the resulting figure
is known as the development of the solid. The development shows the true shape of all
the surfaces of the sold.

16. Define the term. Stretch out line.

Stretch out lines are two parallel lines drawn from the front view of the object and
separated by a distance equal to the height of the object being developed. Length of the
stretch out line is equal to perimeter of the solid.

17. What are the methods of development?

a) Parallel line method b) Radial line method
c) Triangulation method d) Approximate method

18. Write the applications of Development of surfaces.

Development of surfaces finds applications in the sheet metal work for making
hoppers, boilers, funnels, various ducts, chimneys, ventilating pipes etc., major
industries like ship building, automobile and air craft.

19. What types of solid can be accurately developed?

Solids like prisms, pyramids cylinders and cones can be accurately developed in a
single plane.

20. In development, we have to take all the dimensions are true lengths, Why?
Developments are used to make objects of required size and shape. Hence, true
lengths are employed in drawing the development. In a development all the lines are
of true length.
21. Describe the parallel lines method used in development of a solid.
Parallel lines method: This method is used for cubes, prisms and cylinders. In
this method, two parallel lines, separated by a distance equal to height of the object
are drawn just by the side of the elevation. These two lines are called stretch out
lines and they have their true shape and size, and length equal to the perimeter
of the sold. The lateral surfaces of the solid are shown in their true shape and
size between these stretch out lines.

22. Describe the radial lines method used in development of a solid.

Radial line method: Radial line method is adopted for pyramids and cones. An
arc is drawn with the true length of the slant edge of the pyramid or the length
of the extreme generator of the cone is radius and the apex as center. The development
is completed on this arc.

23. What is the development of the lateral surface of a cylinder? What are the
dimensions of the development?
The development of cylinder is a rectangle of length equal to circumference of the circle
and the height equal to the height of the cylinder.

24. What will be the development of lateral surface of a cone?

The development of lateral surface of a cone will be a sector.

25. How is the sphere developed?

Since the surface of sphere cannot be developed in a single plane, approximate
method is employed for developing the same. In this method, a sphere is divided
into a number of zones or lunes and accordingly the method is termed as Zone
method or Lune method
 UNIT-5
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION AND PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION

1. What is an isometric projection?

It is one type of pictorial projection in which the three dimensions of a solid are shown
in one view only and also the actual sizes can be measured directly from this
view.

2. Define Isometric scale.

It is necessary to convert true lengths into isometric lengths before drawing the
isometric projection. Such a scale wherein isometric lengths corresponding to true
lengths are available is called isometric scale.

3. State the ratio of isometric length of surfaces.

Isometric Length Ratio = Isometric length / True length = 0.816

4. State the different methods of drawing the isometric projection.

(a) Box method (b) offset or co-ordinate method.
5. When do you use Box method in isometric projection?
Box method is used for solids like cube and prism

6. What is the isometric projection of a sphere?

The isometric projection of a sphere is a circle of true radius.

7. Distinguish between isometric view and isometric projection.

The picture drawn with true length is called isometric view or isometric drawing.
Picture drawn with isometric lengths (reduced length) is called isometric projection.

8. What are non-isometric planes?

Non-isometric plane is any plane that is not parallel to nay of the three isometric
planes.

9. List the uses of Isometric projections.

Isometric drawings are extensively used in preparing advertisement hoarding,
catalogues of products like instruments, furniture and meters. Piping networks and
diagrams are shown pictorially by using isometric projection. Day to day technical
discussions in industries, workshops etc.

10. Define isometric axes.

The three principal lines making 120˚with each other, one of them being a vertical line
are called isometric axes.

11. What is a pictorial drawing?

Pictorial drawing is a single view of an object that shows all the three dimensions
of the object.

12. What are the uses of pictorial drawings?

These are used to convey specific information to persons who cannot visualize
an object from orthographic views and they are used to complicated structures
such as aircraft, rocket cell etc.
13. What are some limitations of Isometric Projection?
It can distort the actual appearance of objects, making it less suitable for realistic artistic
representations that require accurate perspective and depth.

14. What is perspective projection in engineering drawing?

Perspective projection is a method used to represent three-dimensional objects on a
two-dimensional surface, creating the illusion of depth and distance.

15. What are the types of perspective projections?

Common types include one-point perspective, two-point perspective, and three-point
perspective.

16. Compare Isometric Projection and Perspective Projection.

(i) Both give pictorial drawings.
(ii) Perspective projections give photographic views and are therefore more realistic
than Isometric Projections.
(iii) Isometric Projection is more suitable for small objects and Perspective Projection
for large objects.

17. List the factors influencing the size and position of Perspective Projection.
a. Position of the object, b. Height of the eye above the ground plane,
c. Distance of the eye from the picture plane.

18. When will the size of the perspective be greater than that of the object?
When the object is positioned in front of the Picture Plane, the size of the perspective
will be greater than that of the object.

19. What is the significance of the horizon line in perspective projection?

The horizon line represents the viewer's eye level and is where the sky appears to meet
the ground or other elements in the scene.

20. Name the different types of vanishing point method of drawing perspective
projection.
Single Point Perspective, Double Point Perspective and Three Point Perspective

21. What is the Visual Ray Method?

The Visual Ray Method is a technique used in perspective drawing to determine the
placement of objects and their sizes in a scene by tracing sightlines from the viewer's
eye through points on the object to the picture plane.

22. What is foreshortening in perspective projection?

Foreshortening is the visual effect that shortens objects or lines in the distance, making
them appear smaller or compressed in the drawing.

23. How does the Visual Ray Method work?

It involves establishing a line of sight (visual ray) from the viewer's eye through specific
points on the object being drawn to where they intersect the picture plane.

24. What is the significance of the visual ray in this method?

 The visual ray represents the line of sight or the path along which the observer views
the object. It determines how the object appears in the drawing.

25. What role does perspective projection play in animation and game design?
It allows animators and game designers to create immersive environments and
characters by portraying depth and realism.