Interesting

CHEMICAL COORDINATION Information

Dopamine
Hormones are_____ in nature
A) Protien b) Steroid c) Amino acid d) organic ("Reward Hormone")

• The cellular functions needed to be continuously regulated. The nerve fibres do

not innervate all the cells of the body; a special kind of coordination system is Serotonin
thus required.
("Mood Stabilizer")
• The endocrine system serves the role to coordinate most body cells.
• The hormonal system is concerned with control of the different metabolic
functions of the body, such as the rate of chemical reactions, the transport of Oxytocin
substances through the cell membranes, growth, and secretions. This
("Love Hormone")
coordination is called chemical coordination.
• In animals, it involves an endocrine system which comprises endocrine glands in
various parts of the body, which secrete hormones. Endorphins
• The endocrine or ductless glands are, with a few exceptions, discrete groups of
("Pain Relivers")
cells, which make specific chemical compounds called hormones (Greek
hormone is exciting, setting in motion).
• The endocrine system consists of some 20 endocrine glands/tissues lying in Adrenaline
different parts of the body.
(" Fight or Flight

HORMONES ("Hormone")

• Glands are the tissues that produce and release some products called secretions.
• There are two types of glands in the body, exocrine gland and endocrine glands. Cortisol
• An endocrine gland or ductless gland secretes chemicals called hormones which ("Stress Hormone")
affect the cells in other parts of the body.
• A hormone is a small soluble organic molecule which is effective in low
concentration. Melatonin
• It is essentially a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to ("Sleep Hormone")
another.
• It has its effect at a site where specific receptors are present, called the target;
hence it is termed as messenger. Testosterone &
Estrogen
FTB (" Sex Hormone")

• In 1902, Bayliss and Starling prepared an extract from the duodenum which
stimulated secretion of pancreatic digestive juices when it was injected into the Growth Hormone
bloodstream.
("Regenerative
• They called the product ‘secretin’ and coined the term ‘hormone’, meaning ‘to
excite’ or ‘to set in motion. Hormone")

PTB Prolactin
("Relaxation Hormone")
• Hormones are organic compounds of varying structural complexity.
• They do not initiate new biochemical reactions but produce their effects by
regulating enzymatic and other chemical reactions already present.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 1 of 32

 KPK
• They may either stimulate or inhibit a function.
Exocrine glands (exo
• Hormones may also control some long-term changes, such as rate of growth,
= outside; crine = to
rate of metabolic activity, and sexual maturity. secrete), secrete
their products onto
Pheromones the target surface
directly or through
• They are hormone-like chemical messengers but removed outside the body. ducts. Liver, salivary
These are small, volatile chemicals that function in communication among glands, sweat glands,
animals and fungi. They act by influencing the physiology and behavior of the and the tear glands
receiving individuals. have ducts; the
unicellular goblet
cells, on the other
Steroid hormones hand, directly release
mucin on the target
• surface.
• These are derivatives of cholesterol.
Endocrine glands
Steroid hormones (endo = within; crine
= to secrete) are
ductless glands. They
produce hormones
Adrenal Ovaries Testes Placenta and secrete by
Cortex exocytosis directly
into the extracellular
Estrogen spaces. From there,
Cortisol Estrogen Testoster hormones enter the
hormone one blood or lymphatic
s fluid and travel to a
Aldosterone specific target site.
Progesterone Progesterone

Derivatives of amino acid tyrosine

• W. O.F is example of hydrophilic

hormone
A) T3 b) oxytocin
• Two groups of hormones are derivatives of amino acid tyrosine.
C) cortisol d) all

Amino acid derivatives Receptor for this hormone is

present inside the cell
A) GH b) TSH
Thyroid Adrenal C) adrenaline d) Aldosterone
Glands Medulla
Pick up an example of hormone
Thyroxin Triiodothyr that utilizes secondary
Epinephrine Nor-
• onine messenger pathway to carry
epinephrine out action.
A) cortisol b) prolactin
C) estrogend) d) none

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 2 of 32

 Proteins or Peptides BTB

• Chemically, there are

• Many important endocrine hormones are proteins, peptides, or immediate three basic types of
derivatives of these. Growth hormone and prolactin are proteins, while hormones, which are:
antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin are peptides of nine amino acids each.
1. Steroid ,
2. Amino acids or their
Proteinaceous Hormones derivatives, proteins,
and glycoproteins.
3. Few belong to the
fatty acids, e.g.,
prostaglandin.
Protein Peptides Polypeptides
Glycoprotein hormones
are: Follicle Stimulating
Hormone (FSH)
Antidiuretic Luteinizing Hormone
Growth Insulin (LH)Human chorionic
hormone
hormone gonadotropin (HCG)
Thyroid and Stimulating
Glucagon
Oxytocin Hormone (TSH)
Prolactin

Para-
thormone
Key Point
STH is Tropic or
Trophic ?
PTB

Key Point
• A hormone is a messenger molecule that can stimulate an immune response.
• Chemically, hormones may be of the following four types: Which Hormone
induce the vomiting
Classes Of Hormones in pregnant women ?

Proteins Amino Acid & Polypeptides Steroids

Derivatives

Past Paper MCQs Differentiate Between

Rennin & Renin.
Differentiate Between
Mucous & Mucus.

Male & Female Gonads

produce steroid
hormone.
Which organelle is most
abondant
A) RER b) SER

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 3 of 32

 PTB

Hormones

Proteinous Catechol Peptide

Hormones Amine Hormones

Anterior Lobe Pancreas Adrenal Melanocyte

Of Pituatry medulla stimulating Hormone

Somatotrophic Insulin Adrenaline

Adreno corticotropic
Hormone
Hormone
Noradrenaline
Thyrotrophic Calcitonin

Gonadotrophic

Mode Of Action Of Hormones

Mode Of Action Of
Hormones

FIxed Membrane receptor Mobile receptor mechanism

mechanism

Nucleus Cytoplasm

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 4 of 32

 Fixed membrane receptor mechanism W.O.F is Example of
Largest endocrine
• There are two mode of action of hormones. gland.

W.O.F is Example of
• The peptide and protein hormones cannot pass through the cell’s plasma Smallest endocrine
membrane because they are water-soluble. gland.
• Thus, attached with the receptors on the plasma membrane of the target cell
and then start a series of steps in the cell. W.O.F is Example of
• Adenylate cyclase is an enzyme of the plasma membrane, which is involved in Smallest exocrine
ATP metabolism as a catalyst, the transformation of ATP into the second gland.
messenger, the Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP).
W.O.F is Example of
• The cAMP triggers various changes in the cell including activation of enzymes, Largest exocrine
and gene activation (another term used to describe this entire process is called gland.
signal transduction). A) Goblet Cell
B) Liver
Mobile Receptor Mechanism (Gene/Signal Modulation) C) Tthyroid gland
D) Pancreas
• Steroid and amino acid derivative hormones can easily pass through the plasma
membrane because both are lipid soluble.
• Their receptors are placed inside target cells i.e., either in the cytoplasm or
nucleus. W.O.F is Example of
• These together with target receptors form a hormone-receptor complex, which endocrine glands.
then travels to the particular gene, acting as a transcription factor.
• The transcription factor binds with the promoter region of a particular gene.  Hypothalamus
 Pitutary
• The target gene is transcribed into messenger RNA then it is translated into
 Adrinal
polypeptide (protein) in the cytoplasm.
 Thyroid
• Thus, the activities of target cells are modified by altered gene expression.  Parathyroid
 Thymus
ENDOCRINE & EXOCRINE GLANDS OF HUMANS  Kidneys
 Gonadss
• The human endocrine system includes about 20 different endocrine glands,  Pancreas
some of which are hypothalamus, pineal, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids,  Pineal
thymus, adrenal, pancreatic islets, and gonads.  Corpus luteum
Goblet Cell  Placenta
Unicellular
Exocrine gland Lacrimal gland
Sweat gland
Multicellular W.O.F. has low
Sebaceous gland molecula weight.
Seminal vesicle
W.O.F requires
NEUROSECRETORY ROLE OF HYPOTHALAMUS substrate .

W.O.F may be
reversible or
• It is a part of the forebrain. It is here that many of the sensory stimuli of the irreversible.
nervous system are converted into hormonal responses.
• It is believed that oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) are produced in the A) Enzyme
B) Hormone
hypothalamus and travel down the nerves to the posterior lobe of the pituitary C) Both
to be stored.
Key Point:
Hypothalamus involve in chemical coordination as well as nervous coordination.
Hypothalamus is super master gland while anterior pitutary is known as master gland

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 5 of 32

 BTB
• They are released from their storage after receiving nerve impulses from the It also affects exocrine
hypothalamus. glands or individual
• Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus produce and secrete a variety of cell or tissue that
hormones. secrete chemical
substances.
The glands which
• One of the nerve clusters synthesizes oxytocin and vasopressin, then stores
secrete other
them in nerve endings located in the posterior pituitary. substances such as
• Upon proper stimulation from the brain, oxytocin and vasopressin are released digestive enzymes,
into the blood supply of the posterior pituitary. milk, sweat, bile and
• Other nerve clusters in the hypothalamus produce and secrete a battery of route their secretions
releasing and inhibiting hormones, which are carried by the blood to the to specific destinations
anterior pituitary. by means of ducts are
• There they regulate the secretion of various tropic hormones, growth hormones, called exocrine glands
and prolactin manufactured by the anterior pituitary cells. or ducted glands.

Hormones are
"chemical
FTB messengers", secreted
by cells that affect
other cells. Hormones
• It regulates a wide spectrum of physiological functions such as hunger, thirst,
that travel within The
sleep, and temperature. bloodstream and
• The hypothalamus also monitors metabolites and hormone levels in the blood. affect cells in another
• The hypothalamus is the master control center of the endocrine system. part of the body are
• Its endocrine signals directly control the pituitary gland. known as "endocrine
• It contains special groups of neurosecretory cells. hormones."
• These cells conduct impulses and have developed secretory capacity to a high
level. While those hormones
• The hormones produced by the hypothalamus are either the releasing factors that do not travel
which stimulate secretions of pituitary hormones or inhibiting factors which within the
inhibit secretion of pituitary hormones. bloodstream but only
affect cells lying near
• These are produced in the cell bodies of the cells and packed into the granules
the secretory cells are
and are transported down to the axon by cytoplasmic streaming.
known as "local
• The axon endings of the neurosecretory cells synapse with blood capillaries and hormones", e.g.,
release their hormones into the blood when stimulated. serotonin,
prostaglandin,
Hypothalamic hormones and their effect gastrointestinal
hormones, etc.
Hormones from hypothalamus
Hormones either
increase or decrease or
modify the secretion of
Oxytocin ADH Trophic hormones other glands. They also
increase or decrease
body structure.
Pituitary gland

• In man, the pituitary gland or hypophysis cerebri is an ovoid structure about

0.5 gm in the adult.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 6 of 32

 Lobes of pituitary

anterior median posterior

Adeno-hypophysis Neuro-hypophysis

• The anterior lobe is often referred to as the master gland, because in addition
to producing primary hormones it produces the tropic hormones which control KPK
the secretion of hormones in many of the other endocrine glands.
TSH release is regulated
• It is located just below the hypothalamus. It is red gray in colour and about the
size of a pea. by the negative
feedback of thyroxin
acting on
Infundibulum hypothalamus and
anterior pituitary.

Short stalk Connects Composed of

brain &
pituitary

blood vessels fibres of

neuro- BTB
secretory cells
TSH controls the
secretion and
development of
thyroid gland.
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
Low TSH level may be
harmful for health,

Hormones of anterior pituitary heart disease and

osteoporosis may
occur.
GH TSH ACTH FSH LH ICSH
While high TSH level
in blood indicates
• The anterior pituitary gland secretes six hormones, four of which are tropic hormones.
• Tropic (Tropi=turn on, change) hormones regulate the secretory action of other hyperthyroidism.
endocrine glands.
• Therefore, anterior pituitary gland is known as master gland of the endocrine system.
• The tropic hormones are thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH), follicles stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
Glucagon is released from: Neurosecretory cells are present in which part of brain:
a) Liver c) Spleen a) Hypothalamus b) Mid brain
b) Isles of Langerhans d) All are secreted by placenta b) c) Pons d) Cerebellum

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 7 of 32

 • Past Paper MCQs
• The other two anterior pituitary hormones are called primary hormones, such as
growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (PRL), these directly affect body structure or
exocrine gland. Thyroid stimulating
hormone is released by:
(PMC-2021)
a) Hypothalamus
Growth hormone (GH) or Somatotropic Hormone (STH b) Posterior pituitary
c) Anterior pituitary
d) Thyroid gland
• Growth hormone (GH) or Somato-trophic hormone (STH).
• It is released under the influence of hypothalamic growth hormone releasing The nature of adrenaline
hormone is: (PMC-2021)
factor (GHRF) and are inhibited by hypothalamic somatostatin.
• GH has a direct effect on growth and development, skeleton and skeletal a) Amino acid derivative
muscles. GH stimulates cell growth and cell division. b) Lipid in nature
• It also stimulates uptake of amino acids into cells and increases rate of protein c) Protein in nature
synthesis. d) Not a hormone
• Deficiency of GH results in dwarfism in which development is much
• slower and individual has short stature, however, the body parts stay in Goiter is formed in which
disease? (PMC-2021)
proportion and brain development and IQ are unaffected.
• Gigantism is result of over secretion of GH during childhood in which the bones a) Hyperthyroidism
are still capable of growth and person increase in height abnormally. b) Epilepsy
• Over secretion of GH in adult life causes acromegaly in which bones are no c) Hypothyroidism
longer capable of increasing in length but grow in thickness. d) All of above

Addison’s disease is
Structure enlarged in acromegaly caused due to destruction
of: (UHS-2011)
a) Adrenal cortex
b) Pituitary gland
Hand Feet Skull Nose Jawbone c) Adrenal medulla
d) Hypothalamus

• Somatotrophin releasing factor (SRF) is secreted from hypothalamus Which group of hormones
throughout the life. is made up of amino acids
• When growth has mostly ceased after adolescence, the hormone continues to and their derivatives?
(UHS-2011)
promote protein synthesis throughout the Body.
• If there is under secretion, dwarfism results, as well as other symptoms a) Vasopressin & Oxytocin
associated with lack of thyroid and adrenal hormones. b) Estrogen &
testosterone
c) Epinephrine & Nor-
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone Epinephrine
d) Insulin & Glucagon

• Thyrotrophin releasing factor (TRF) from hypothalamus stimulates the synthesis Ductless glands are
and release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary. known as: (UHS-2012)
• TSH regulates the endocrine function of the thyroid gland. It increases the
a) Endocrine glands
number of cells and secretory activity of the thyroid gland.
b) Salivary glands
• Over secretion of TSH causes hyperthyroidism i.e., excess of thyroxin and its c) Exocrine glands
under secretion causes hypothyroidism i.e., lack of thyroxin. d) Bile glands

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 8 of 32

 PTB
Key Point:
• Release of thyrotrophin releasing factor from the
• Hypothalamus is controlled by the levels of thyroxine in the blood. Neuroypophysis
Means posterior lobe
• In the presence of low levels of thyroxine, there is increasing production of TSH
of pitutary gland and
and vice versa. Adenohypophysis
• It is secreted throughout life but particularly reaches high levels during the means the anterior
periods of rapid growth and development. lobe of Pitutary gland

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) (Corticotrophic

hormone) Addison’s Disease is due to
lower secretion of all
• Release of corticotrophin releasing factor from the hypothalamus is cortical hormone.
• controlled by steroid levels in the blood by direct nervous stimulation of the
hypothalamus as a result of stress e.g. cold, heat, pain, infections. W --- Weakness in muscel
A--- Loss of ability to stress
S--- salt loss & Dar skin
• Excess and deficiency results in disturbance of normal adrenal functions. I--- Ignore
• ACTH acts on the adrenal cortex and stimulates the secretion of corticosteroids M--- Metabolic disorder
(cortisone and aldosterone).
• ACTH acts on adrenal cortex and stimulates the secretion of glucocorticoids and
androgens.
• Cushing disease is caused by a pituitary gland tumour, that over secretes the
FSH is tropic or trophic
hormone ACTH, thus over stimulate adrenal cortex to secrete cortical or both ?
production.

Gonadotrophins
• Gonads are the male and female sex organs (testes/ovaries). The gonadotropins GnRH controls the
are hormones that affect these sex organs, thus considered endocrine glands secretion of …..
because they secrete sex hormones i.e., follicle stimulating hormone and
A) FSH
Luteinizing hormones.
B) LH
• These hormones act upon the reproductive system and regulate its function. C) Both

FSH

• In human females, FSH targets the ovary and triggers the maturation of one egg LH acts on _____
(sometime more than one egg) per month.
• Its secretion is stimulated by GnRH from the hypothalamus. A) Corpus luteum
B) Antral Follicle
C) Primary Follicle
LH D) All

• Its secretion is also controlled by gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH).

• In females a surge of LH near the middle of menstrual cycle stimulates the
release of an egg from grafian follicle of ovary.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 9 of 32

 Past Paper MCQs
• In addition, LH triggers the development of cells within the rupture follicle to
Blood solute
form a glandular structure called corpus luteum which secretes a hormone
potential is controlled
known as progesterone (to prepare uterus for coming embryo).
by following
• FSH is also responsible for multiple births. hormone?
• In male, LH is also known as Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH). (NUMS- 2018)
• It promotes production of the male sex hormone testosterone.
• Low secretion of both FSH and LH leads to delay sexual maturation. a) Estrogen
• The GnRH deficiency may be by birth or acquired. b) Epinephrine
• The target site of LH is the ovary. It triggers ovulation and ovarian production of c) Thyroxine
d) Vasopressin
estrogen and progesterone.
Hypothalamus
Prolactin Hormone (PRL) initiates the release
of hormones, by their
• It works in conjunction with estrogen, progesterone and other hormones. releasing factors,
• It causes enlargement of the mammary glands and prepares them for the while--- is directly
production of milk (lactation) after birth. It stimulates mothers to care their released by it:
young ones. (NUMS-2020)

• During the menstrual cycle, milk is not produced or secreted because prolactin
a) TSH
level in the blood is very low.
b) Oxytocin
• It inhibits menstrual cycle in lactating women. c) ACTH
d) FSH e) GH
PTB
Which is steroid
• These are follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinising hormone (LH also called Hormone? (NUMS- 2022)
interstitial cell stimulating hormone ICSH, in the male), prolactin (sometimes
inappropriately called luteotrophic hormone, LTH). a) Cortisone
• FSH and LH/ICSH share a common hypothalamic releasing factor. b) Adrenaline
• Prolactin is continuously produced from the pituitary and is inhibited by c) Insulin
prolactin inhibiting factor (PIH) from the hypothalamus. Prolactin stimulates d) Thyroxin
milk production and acts with LH as described below.
In female androgens
• FSH in females stimulates ovarioles, development and secretion of oestrogens are secreted by:
from the ovaries; in males it stimulates development of the germinal epithelium (PMC-2021)
of the testis and sperm production.
• LH works with FSH to stimulate oestrogen secretion and rupture of mature a) Adrenal cortex
follicles to release egg or ovum. b) Adrenal medulla
c) Pancreas
• It also causes the luteinisation (lit. "turning yellow") of the latter and acts
d) Thyroid gland
synergistically with prolactin to maintain the corpus luteum (and hence the
progesterone it secretes).
• ICSH in the male stimulates the interstitial cells of the testis to secrete
testosterone. W.O.F is responsible for
production of Milk ?
MEDIAN LOBE
W.O.F is responsible for
• In humans, the median lobe of pituitary is not very prominent. It is a thin layer Ejection of Milk?
of cells between the anterior and posterior pituitary.
A) Oxytocin
• It produces melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH). Secretion of MSH is B) Prolactin
regulated by hypothalamic MSH inhibitory hormone. C) Both
• Melanocyte stimulating hormone increases in humans during pregnancy too.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 10 of 32

 • It stimulates the production and release of melanin by melanocytes in skin and BTB
hair.
It helps to regulate
• The Median Lobe is the smallest in human.
volume of the blood
• External light governs the secretion of MSH.
by regulating the
• Melanin darkens the skin. Excess MSH is secreted in Addison’s disease. amount of water
• One of the symptoms of which is darkening of the skin. reabsorbed by the
kidneys.
POSTERIOR LOBE
For example,
• The posterior pituitary is not glandular by itself. It does not synthesize any osmoreceptors in the
hormone. It is largely made up of axons of neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus. hypothalamus can
• Posterior pituitary stores antidiuretic hormones (ADH or vasopressin) and detect a low blood
oxytocin. These hormones are released in response to nerve impulses from volume by detecting
hypothalamus. when solute
concentration of the
blood is high. The
Anti-diuretic Hormone or Vasopressin neurosecretory cells
of the hypothalamus
• Its secretion is caused by decrease in blood pressure, blood volume, and make ADH, which is
osmotic pressure of the blood which is detected by osmoreceptors in transported within
hypothalamus. axon to the posterior
• External sensory stimuli also influence hypothalamic neurosecretory cells. pituitary, then
• Increased levels cause increased water reabsorption in distal parts of nephron. released into the
• A lack of this hormone produces diabetes insipidus, characterized by blood stream.
production of large quantities of dilute urine and great thirst.
ADH binds to target
cells in the collecting
FTB ducts of the
nephrons of the
kidneys.Increasing
their permeability for
• Under certain conditions, such as severe blood loss, exceptionally large amounts water reabsorption,
of ADH are released, causing a rise in blood pressure. thus urine becomes
• The alternative name for this hormone, vasopressin, reflects this particular concentrated.
effect. Blood volume increases
and solute
concentration becomes
Oxytocin (Oxytocia = Child birth) normal.

• Its release is stimulated by distension of cervix, decrease in progesterone level ADH also acts on the
in blood, and neural stimuli during parturition and suckling. smooth muscles
• Primary action is on smooth muscle, particularly in the uterus during childbirth, surrounding arterioles,
and causes milk ejection from mammary glands. an action that helps to
raise the blood
• The letdown reflex also known as milk ejection reflex is set off by this pressure.
hormone.
FTB Alcohol suppresses
ADH release, that is
why excessive drinking
• It is released during childbirth and in nursing women. During birth it is released leads to the production
in waves, and results in labour contractions. of excessive quantities
of urine and eventually
to dehydration.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 11 of 32

 • Over secretion causes rupturing of uterine wall while under secretion of KPK
oxytocin inhibits normal labour process. Diuresis means urine
• In lactating women, suckling causes the release of oxytocin. production.
• During this feeding process, it causes the dilation of milk ducts of mother’s Antidiuretic is any
mammary glands and thus promotes milk ejection. substance which
inhibits urine
THYROID GLAND formation

Key Point:

Both lobes of
thyroid gland are
connected
through isthmus

BTB
• In mammals, it consists of two lobes situated below the larynx.
Oxytocin binds to
THYROID GLAND target cells of the
uterus, increasing
the contraction
Thyroxine Tri- Calcitonin
iodothyronine which is already
taking place

• The thyroid is active continuously but produces higher levels of secretions

during periods of rapid growth and sexual maturation and in stress situations In which disease
excessive production
such as cold and hunger.
of Melanin takes
• The two hormones act in essentially the same way. place.

• They act on the basal metabolic rate by stimulating the breakdown of glucose A) Addison’s disease
B) Pregnancy
and release of heat and generation of ATP. C) Both

• They also act in conjunction with somatotropin in bringing about growth, and
act directly on brain cells causing them to differentiate.
• In amphibians, they bring about the process of metamorphosis.
• If secretion of thyroid is deficient, tadpole larva of frog does not metamorphose
to develop into a frog, but instead grows to a large-sized tadpole.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 12 of 32

 Graves’ Disease

• Excess thyroxine produces a condition called Graves’ disease.

• Exophthalmic goiter and increase in the basal metabolic rate. KPK
• This can lead to cardiac failure if prolonged. The cause of Graves' disease is the The level of thyroxin
circulating in the blood
production of an abnormal body protein that continuously stimulates the
regulates the secretion of
thyroid to excessive secretion. these hormones from the
thyroid gland via negative
feedback mechanisms
Deficiency of Hormone involving the
hypothalamus and
• If congenitally deficient, the lack of thyroxine causes cretinism. anterior pituitary.

Symptoms of Cretinism

Fails to Small Hair Skin Mental

develop retardatio
n
coarse Thick Key Point:

Pineal gland poduces

Scanty Yellowish melanotonin or
melatonin?

Scaly

• They also fail to develop sexually.

• Deficiency later in life, perhaps due to iodine shortage in diet, produces swelling
of the neck (goiter) and may lead to the deposition of excess fat, resulting in Undersecretion of
increased weight. medullary hormone
• The condition is known as myxoedema, which is characterized by puffiness of can lead to
hands and skin.
A) Addison disease
• All bodily and mental processes are retarded. B) Cushing disease
• Table salt with iodine is recommended to prevent iodine deficiency and ensure C) Death
adequate thyroxine production in the body. D) None

Calcitonin

• High Ca²⁺ ion concentration in the blood stimulates the synthesis and release of
calcitonin; low levels of Ca²⁺ ions suppress its manufacture.
• Excess or deficiency leads to disturbances in calcium metabolism, causing
irregular impulses affecting the skeleton, muscles, blood, etc.
• Calcitonin is antagonistic to the parathormone hormone.
•

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 13 of 32

 FTB BTB

• The thyroid gland is composed of two lobes. The thyroid gland is

butterfly-shaped,
with both lobes
T3 and T4
connected by a
bridge of thyroid
• These are iodine-containing hormones. tissue known as the
• Tri-iodothyronine (T3) contains three iodine atoms, while thyroxine (T4) isthmus.
contains four iodine atoms in their structures.
• TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) from the anterior pituitary stimulates the Tri-iodothyronine
production and release of these hormones. (T3) accounts for
about 10% but is four
times more potent
Physiological Effects than T4.

• These hormones show a variety of physiological effects. It is more active in

• Enhance the synthesis of cholesterol in the liver. mammals.
• Promote nervous system development in fetuses and infants.
• Act on muscles for their growth and functioning. Tetra-iodothyronine
• Promote growth and maturation of the skeleton. (T4): About 90% of
• Help maintain normal motility of the gastrointestinal tract. the major hormone
(also called
thyroxin).
Hyperthyroidism
The duration of
action of T4 is four
• Hyperthyroidism is the condition of excess secretion of thyroid hormones. times longer than T3.
• Over-secretion of T3 and T4 leads to Graves' disease.
Exophthalmic goiter
is called bulging
eyes. It may result in
Hypothyroidism profuse perspiration.

• Hypothyroidism refers to the under-secretion of thyroxine.

• In adults, full-blown hypothyroidism is called myxedema, which is characterized
by: Low metabolic rate, Feeling chilled, Puffy eyes, Thick and dry skin, Hair loss
from scalp and eyebrows, Oedema, Tongue swelling, Constipation , Enlarged
thyroid gland (goiter), Myxedema may result due to iodine deficiency in the diet.
• Hypothyroidism may lead to: Poor physical growth , Disproportionate body size ,
Severely delayed bone maturation and puberty , Infertility

Key Point
Calcitonin In adults, The full
blown hypothyroid
• Calcitonin increases calcium deposition in the bone matrix. syndrome is termed
• Inhibits Ca²⁺ absorption by the intestine and decreases its reabsorption in the as...Myxedema
kidneys, allowing excretion in urine.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 14 of 32

 • Calcitonin is more important in childhood, when the skeleton grows rapidly and
bones change in mass, size, and shape.
• If deficient, Ca²⁺ is not deposited in bones, and high blood Ca²⁺ levels disturb
muscle and nervous system functions and may lead to kidney stones. Insulin is antagonistic
to ...
A) Cortisol
Hyperthyroidism B) Glucagone
C) Both

• Overactivity of the thyroid causes Graves' disease, which is believed to be an

autoimmune disease.
• The serum of patients contains abnormal antibodies that mimic TSH and
continuously stimulate thyroxine release.
• Symptoms include: High metabolic rate , Rapid and irregular heartbeat ,
Nervousness , Increased ventilation rate , Increased body temperature , W.O.F is dual gland...
Sweating , Weight loss despite adequate food intake A) Stomach
• Exophthalmia (protrusion of the eyeballs) is a classic symptom of Graves' disease. B)Pancreas
• Exophthalmia occurs due to swelling of tissues around the eye and within the C) Duodenum
D) All
orbit, in response to high thyroxin levels.

Hypothyroidism

• Underactivity of the thyroid gland may result from: Lack of TSH production by
the anterior pituitary , Iodine deficiency in the diet , Failure of enzymes involved Example of shattered
in thyroxine production gland.
• Thyroid hormones cannot be synthesized without iodine, which leads to A) G- cell B) S cell C)
problems in regions where soil and drinking water have little or no iodine. Both
• In the absence of iodine, thyroid hormone levels in the blood decrease.
• The anterior pituitary detects the decrease and secretes more TSH excessively.
• Excess TSH overstimulates the thyroid gland, causing it to enlarge. , (Since
thyroid hormones are not being synthesized, this still results in hypothyroidism.)
• This tissue enlargement leads to goiter. , Goiter caused by iodine deficiency is
now rare in countries where iodized salt is widely used.
• However, hundreds of thousands of people worldwide still suffer from this
preventable disorder.
• Myxedema means "mucous swelling", as body weight increases due to the
formation and storage of a semifluid material under the skin. W.O.F is produced by
Heart.

Symptoms A) ANP
B)BNP
C)Both
• Lethargy and mental sluggishness (but not mental retardation).
• Myxedema may result from iodine deficiency, causing the thyroid gland to
enlarge and protrude.
• This condition is called endemic or colloidal goiter.

Calcitonin
Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 15 of 32
 • This hormone plays a minor but direct role in controlling extracellular calcium
ion (Ca²⁺) levels.
• It also inhibits potassium ion reabsorption in kidney tubules.

Effect of Under Secretion (Hypothyroidism)

Hypothyroidism Leptin and resistin are

produced by....
A) Heart
B)Skin
Myxoedema Cretinism Goitre
C) Adipose tissue
D) None

• Hypothyroidism may be due to the absence of iodine or failure of enzyme

system, which is involved in the production of thyroid hormone or due to lack
of TSH.

Cretinism

• In infants, less secretion of thyroxin causes dwarf condition known as cretinism.

It is characterized by stunted growth, mental retardation, coarse facial features, Hormone produced by
coarse scanty hair, retarded sexual development. kidney....
A) Renin
Myxoedema B)Calciterol
C)Erythropoitin
D)All
• The patient has brittleness of hair and nail, intolerance to cold, low pulse rate
and low body temperature.

Goitre

• It is more common in mountainous areas where iodine is less in the soil or

water. (Thus, table salt with iodine is recommended). Thyroid gland works
hard to produce sufficient amount of thyroxin.
• Goitre may lead to lying down of excess of fat and weight increases

Parathyroid Gland

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 16 of 32

 BTB

It is oval in shape.
• Humans have four parathyroid glands located on the thyroid gland.
Parathormone
• These are small, light-colored masses that protrude from the posterior surface
regulates the level
of the thyroid gland.
of calcium and
• Parathormone is the most important hormone of the parathyroid gland,
phosphorous in the
regulating calcium balance in the blood.
blood and influence
• Its release is triggered by low blood Ca²⁺ levels and inhibited by high Ca²⁺
gene activation.
levels.
• Parathormone acts antagonistically to calcitonin.
Over Secretion of
parathormone
causes increase of
Over secretion of parathormone calcium level in the
blood, low
• Over secretion of parathormone is usually a result of a parathyroid gland tumour. phosphate
Calcium is released from the bones, and bones deform soften and tend to concentration. It
fracture spontaneously. Blood calcium level elevates (hypercalcemia) which causes weakness of
depresses the nervous system and causes weakness of muscles. Excess calcium skeleton similar to
salts precipitate in the kidneys leading to stone formation. rickets.

Nerves and muscle

Under secretion of parathormone do not respond well
to stimuli
• Under secretion of parathormone causes hypocalcemia. This increases the (movement of Ca²⁺
excitability of neurons. Also, it can lead to tetany in which muscles remain in to extracellular
contracted state. If untreated, it can be fatal. fluids).
• In man the glands are found embedded in the posterior part of the lateral lobes
of the thyroid. It increases
• Over-activity would lead to a progressive demineralization of the bones like reabsorption of Ca²⁺
rickets. by the kidneys,
causing massive
PANCREAS kidney stone
formation.
• This is under control of the pituitary trophic hormones STH and ACTH and also
responds directly to the level of blood glucose. These both
• The islets contain a large number of beta cells associated with insulin production. conditions may be
• The smaller number of alpha cells secrete glucagon. In general, insulin depresses fatal. The removal of
blood glucose levels, in a variety of ways which these glands causes
• include increasing glycogen synthesis and increasing cell utilization of glucose. death.

BTB
• It also stimulates conversion of glucose into lipid and protein, which in turn
Parathormone
reduces glucose levels. stimulates osteoclasts
• Insulin inhibits the hydrolysis of glycogen in the liver and the muscles. to reabsorb bone
• Failure to produce insulin leads to a condition called diabetes mellitus. mineral and liberating
• The symptoms of this are high level of blood sugar, sugar in the urine, a calcium.
disturbance of the body's osmotic equilibrium and derangement of the nervous
absorption of calcium in
system.
the small intestine and
its reabsorption in
kidney tubules.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 17 of 32

 • Toxic metabolites from fat (which need 'glucose energy' for their oxidation) also
KPK
accumulate and are only lost from the kidney with valuable metal cations.
• The body becomes dehydrated. If excess insulin is produced the utilization of The pancreas is a double
gland as it serves both as
sugar is too great and its level falls in the blood (hypoglycaemia) which upsets exocrine and endocrine
gland.
nerve and muscle functioning.
The bulk of the gland is
• Glucagon is essentially antagonistic to insulin and causes an increase in blood
exocrine and is formed of
glucose levels. Glucagon is a hyperglycemic agent. It does this mainly by acinar cells which
synthesize pancreatic
promoting breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver and muscles. juice rich in digestive
enzymes.
• It also increases the rate of breakdown of fat.
Pancreatic juice is
• Glucagon abnormalities seem rare as endocrine disorders. delivered to the
• Tumors on the cells will cause excess glucagon secretions and consequently high duodenum by pancreatic
duct during food
blood glucose levels. digestion.

• This in turn damages the alpha cells with the results described above. Endocrine pancreas
consists of islets of
Langerhans.

In human pancreas has

FTB about one million islets
scattered among the
acinar cells.
• Pancreas is composed of two types of tissues.
Each islet is a small mass
• Exocrine tissue produces and secretes digestive juice. of cells with two major
types of cells: glucagon
• Endocrine tissues are distributed in the form of patches in the pancreas and producing alpha cells and
insulin producing beta
these patches are called Islets of Langerhans.
cells.
• Pancreatic acinar cells are the functional unit of the exocrine pancreas. They
synthesize, and secrete inactive digestive enzymes into the lumen of acinus.
• The Islets of Langerhans secrete two hormones insulin and glucagon.
• These cells respond directly to the level of blood glucose. Insulin is secreted
when the level of blood sugar rises, such as right after a meal.
• Its overall effect is to reduce blood glucose level to the normal level by
increasing the rate of glucose uptake by most body cells especially skeletal
muscles and fat cells.
• It promotes glycogenesis (conversion of glucose to glycogen), increases the use
of glucose in cellular respiration, promotes the conversion of excess glucose to
fats and inhibits gluconeogenesis (glucose synthesis).

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 18 of 32

 Islets of Langerhans

Alpha cells Beta cells

Produce insulin
Lesser in number Produce glucagon Greater in
number

• The under secretion of insulin leads to the metabolic disease known as diabetes
mellitus which is characterized by high glucose levels in the blood and urine.
• Glucagon is released by a cell when blood glucose level is low.
• The sympathetic nervous system also stimulates its secretion.
• High blood glucose levels, insulin and somatostatin suppress its secretion.
• Its role is to increase the blood glucose level.
• It acts antagonistically to the insulin and thus reverses the activities performed
by insulin.
• It promotes glycogenolysis.
• It promotes gluconeogenesis, synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and other
non-carbohydrate compounds like proteins and fats.
• Promotes release of glucose to the blood by liver cells, which causes blood
glucose levels to rise.

INSULIN

• Increases the rate of uptake of amino acids into the cells and the rate of
protein synthesis.

Cardinal signs of Sugar

Polyuria Polydipsia Polyphagia

• If insulin is deficient or is hypoactive, blood glucose level after meal remains

high (hyperglycemia).

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 19 of 32

 • Kidneys cannot reabsorb such high volume of glucose from the filtrate and
excess of glucose begins to be lost from the body in the urine (glycosuria).
• This metabolic disease is known as diabetes mellitus.

Polyuria

• A condition in which an abnormally large volume of urine is produced.

Polydipsia

• A condition of excessive thirst.

Polyphagia
A condition of excessive hunger and ingestion of food.

• Low blood glucose level causes breakdown of muscle tissue, loss of weight, and
tiredness.
• If untreated, diabetes finally leads to the disruption of heart activity and oxygen
transport, and severe depression of the nervous system leads to coma and death.
• Hypersecretion (a rare disorder) of insulin results in hypoglycemia.
• Other effects include hunger, sweating, irritability, double vision,
unconsciousness, and even death.

Symptoms of Hyperglycemia

Symptoms of Hyperglycemia

Frequent Abnormal thirst. Rapid weight loss Drowsiness and

urination. & weakness. fatigue.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 20 of 32

 Name Insulin Glucagone
Glycogenesis ✔ Glycogenesis: Glucose ---> Glycogen

Glycogenolysis ✔ Glycogenolysis: Glycogen ---> Glucose

Lipolysis: Lipid ----> Glucose

Lipolysis ✔
Lipogenesis: Glucose ----> Lipid
Lipogenesis ✔
Gluconeogenesis: Non carbohydrate -->Glucose
Glyconeogenesis ✔
Proteogenesis: carbohydrate ----> Protein
Proteogenesis ✔

Disorder due to Excess of Insulin

Causes Glucose Blood fat Upset

hypoglycemia utilization level high nerve/muscl
increases e actions.

Other Types of Endocrine Cells in Pancreas

• There are three other types of endocrine cells in the pancreas (about 15%)
which secrete three types of hormones.

Uncommon Hormones of
Pancreas

Somatostatin Pancreatic Glycine

Polypeptide

Inhibits the release

of GIT hormones Self-regulates neurotransmitter. Deficiency
pancreatic
secretion.
Type-II diabetes.
Affects the hepatic
glycogen level.
Increases insulin
receptor in people
without diabetes
Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 21 of 32
 • Glycine is used as a supplement by type-II diabetes patients.

Adrenal Gland

• A pair of adrenal glands is present, one on top of each kidney. BTB

• The outer layer is called the adrenal cortex, and the inner portion is the adrenal
medulla.
Beta cells are about
• The adrenal cortex appears reddish-brown, while the adrenal medulla appears
greyish. 60% and alpha cells
are about 25%.
Adrenaline and Noradrenaline Hormones
Insulin is made of
51 amino acids.
• Both adrenaline and noradrenaline are secreted in stressful situations.
• Adrenaline: Dilates blood vessels in certain parts of the body, such as skeletal
muscles.Increases heart output. It facilitates
• Noradrenaline: Constricts blood vessels, but only in certain areas like the glucose transport
gut.Works synergistically with adrenaline to raise blood pressure.
• Both hormones promote the release of glucose from liver glycogen and across the plasma
reinforce the effects of the sympathetic system. membrane.
• Rarely found in excess, but when they are, they lead to abnormally high blood
pressure.
Adrenaline It stimulates the
(Epinephrine) uptake of glucose
Adrenal Medulla by adipose tissue

Noradrenaline (fat-storing cells).

(Norepinephrine
Hormones of ) Glucagon is made
Adrenal
Glands of 29 amino acids
Adrenal Cortex Cortisol
(Corticosteroids)
:

Corticosterone

Aldosterone

Androgenic
Hormones

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 22 of 32

 KPK
In rats whose adrenal medulla has been removed surgically, their ability to The adrenal gland produces
withstand stress (e.g., cold) is markedly diminished.
many steroid hormones,
collectively known as
corticosteroids or
Cortical Hormones corticoids.

Aldosterone is the chief

• The adrenal cortex is active at all times, but especially under certain
mineralocorticoid.
physiological conditions.
• Cortisol is a glucocorticoid that increases blood glucose levels by stimulating its
production from protein and by antagonizing insulin action. It is secreted in response to
low blood pressure and low
• Corticosterone is both a glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid; it increases levels of Na⁺ (sodium) and
blood glucose levels and regulates mineral ion balance.
high K⁺ (potassium) in the
• Aldosterone is the principal mineralocorticoid, which conserves Na⁺ (sodium)
ions in the body by preventing their loss from kidney tubules. blood.

ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic

ADDISON’S DISEASE Hormone) also plays a role

in aldosterone secretion.

• Destruction of the adrenal cortex, as seen in Addison’s disease, leads to

It helps increase blood Na⁺
metabolic disturbances, especially muscle weakness and loss of salts.
• Cause: Lower secretion of corticosteroids. levels by acting on kidney
• Symptoms: , Low blood sugar , Lethargy , Bronze skin tone tubules to enhance sodium
• Stress situations (e.g., cold) that would normally be overcome can lead to and water reabsorption.
collapse and death.
Adrenal medulla consists of
modified ganglionic
CUSHING’S DISEASE sympathetic neurons that
synthesize epinephrine and
• Opposite of Addison’s disease – due to excess production of cortisol. norepinephrine.
• Symptoms: Obesity , Fat deposition on neck , Muscle wasting , Hypertension
(high blood pressure)
The two hormones exert the

CUSHING’S DISEASE same effects.

Epinephrine is used
clinically as a heart
obesity Fat deposition Muscle wasting hypertension
on neck stimulant and to dilate the
bronchioles during acute
• Effects: asthmatic attacks.
o Excess protein breakdown → muscle and bone weakness
o High blood sugar → metabolic disturbance (similar to diabetes)
o Androgen excess → Development of secondary male characteristics

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 23 of 32

 • Rare Case: Tumor in the adrenal cortex of females can cause excess androgen
production, leading to development of male characteristics. BTB
Epinephrine dilates
FTB blood vessels in the
brain, heart, skeletal
muscles, thus
• Epinephrine is the more potent stimulator of metabolic activities, bronchial increasing alertness
dilation and increased blood flow to skeletal muscles and the heart but to overcome stress
norepinephrine has the greater influence on peripheral vasoconstriction. and heartbeat,
• The net effect is the rise in blood pressure. breathing rate and
• Over secretion of these hormones may cause hypertension and aggressive metabolic rate
increases.
behaviour during routine life. Under secretion causes failure to combat
emergency situation. Epinephrine is
• The two major types of hormones produced by the adrenal cortex are sometime given
glucocorticoids, e.g., cortisone, which help to regulate the blood glucose level through injection as
and mineralocorticoids, e.g., aldosterone, which help to regulate the level of an emergency
minerals in the blood. treatment in cardiac
• Both are produced under the influence of ACTH. arrest (stopping of
heart beat),
• The major site of secretion of testosterone is male gonad that is called testes.
anaphylactic shock
(sun stroke) and
acute asthma.

GONADS Norepinephrine
constricts blood
vessels elsewhere.

• Gonads are special type of endocrine glands which beside hormone secretions .i.e., in digestive
also produce gametes. system and
• Female gonads are ovaries while male gonads are testes. peripheral
vasoconstriction. It
also sustains blood
Gonads pressure.

Cortisone is involved
Ovaries Testes in glucose
metabolism and is
produced during
Testosterone 17 β-hydroxy anxiety, fever, and
Estrogen Progesterone
testosterones disease.

It promotes the
hydrolysis of muscle
Ovary protein to amino
acids, then amino
acids to glucose.
• The human female contains two ovaries in the abdominal cavities.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 24 of 32

 KPK
Estrogen
Negative feedback tends
• Estrogen is secreted by ripening follicles (and, in many species, by interstitial to stabilize a system,
cells of the ovary) whose development has been initiated by FSH from the correcting deviations
from the set point.
pituitary.
• Estrogens bring about the development of the secondary sexual characteristics. A good example of
negative feedback is
• Characters in the female, cause thickening of the uterine wall and, at a point with the hormone
during the oestrous or menstrual cycle, exert positive feedback which results in insulin. Insulin is
a sharp rise in LH output by the pituitary. produced by the
pancreas.
• They also aid in healing and repair of uterine wall after menstruation.
• Under the influence of estrogen, some of the cells of uterine wall become Insulin is released by the
glandular and start secreting proteinaceous secretions which are taken up by pancreas in response to
the embryo during its early stages of development. the consumption of
• Deficiency of the sex hormones, for one reason or another, leads in the young glucose.
of failure to mature sexually and sterility in the adult.
The amount of
Progesterone Glucose in the blood
rises and the pancreas
detects this increase.
• Produced by the ruptured follicle in response to LH from the pituitary.
It then secretes insulin.
• Progesterone inhibits further FSH secretion from the pituitary, thus preventing Insulin increases
any more follicles from ripening. glucose uptake in
• It also affects the uterus, causing further thickening and vascularization of its target cells.
wall, and other areas of the female body, preparing it for maintaining the state Glucose uptake by cells
of pregnancy. decreases blood
• It suppresses ovulation. glucose levels, this
decrease is detected by
• That is why it is a major constituent of birth control pill.
the pancreas, and in
response, it stops
secreting insulin into
Testes the bloodstream.
If blood glucose levels
fall below normal
• The testes consist of many coiled seminiferous tubules where the spermatozoa levels, insulin secretion
develop and, between the tubules, regions of interstitial cells produce gonadal is inhibited.
At the same time, the
hormones called testosterone and 17 ß-hydroxy testosterones.
alpha cells of the
• After the initiation of development, the sex organs in the foetus produce them, pancreas respond by
and their level rises fairly consistently until puberty. secreting glucagon.
• After puberty the supply of LH (ICSH), and therefore, the level of testosterone, It accelerates the
remains constant. breakdown of glycogen
• In the foetus, it initiates the development of the sex organs. At puberty it brings to glucose in liver and
about development of the male secondary characteristics and promotes the sex skeletal muscle cells.
drive.
It increases the
• The castrated male fails to develop secondary sexual characteristics and his breakdown of fats to
body tends more towards the form of the immature female. fatty acids and glycerol
in adipose tissue and,
consequently, the
release of these
• substances into the
blood.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 25 of 32

 KPK
FTB
Acting with
progesterone,
• Estrogen is secreted by Graffian follicle under the stimulation of FSH, but estrogens promote
breast development
estrogen has negative feedback upon FSH.
and cyclic changes in
• Estrogen is secreted at the time of puberty. the uterine mucosa in
• Its over secretion may lead to the development of fibroids (abnormal growth) in the menstrual cycle.
uterus and polycystic ovaries.
• Progesterone is produced and released from placenta during pregnancy. Progesterone causes
the development of
breasts during
Under secretion of pregnancy.
progesterone

During menstrual During pregnancy

cycle

Miscarriage Abortion
Decreases chance May cause early
of pregnancy menstruation

• Testosterone, which is secreted from interstitial cells among seminiferous

tubules under the influence of ICSH. It also helps to
• It maintains the reproductive organs in their mature functional state in adult neutralize the
males. inflammatory
responses that lead to
pain and swelling
joints in arthritis, etc.

ESTROGEN It favors metabolism

of fatty acids rather
than glucose,
antagonistic to insulin.
• There are three types of estrogen which are almost similar in function (oestrone,
oestriole, and oestradiole). Aldosterone promotes
• At puberty brings about secondary sexual characters. renal absorption of
sodium and renal
excretion of
potassium, maintains
blood volume and
blood pressure

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 26 of 32

 Fat deposition
Rounded appearance
due to

Large pelvic cavity

Wide hips
Glucagon also
Secondary sexual stimulates liver cells to
characters in females increase glucose
Enlargement of Vagina synthesis (from glycerol
accessory sex organs absorbed from the
blood) and glucose
release into the blood.
Uterus
High pitch of voice These effects
collectively cause an
increase in blood
Oviduct glucose levels back to
normal.

Ovary Positive feedback

enables childbirth. The
hormone oxytocin
External reproductive stimulates and
organ enhances labor
contractions.
• Conception and maintenance of pregnancy.
• More active in childhood. As a baby moves
towards the birth canal,
• It is responsible for the development and differentiation of T-lymphocytes it presses against the
before they leave the thymus. pressure receptors in
the muscular part of the
• The hormone of this gland is called thymosin or thymin. uterus.
• Certain lymphocytes that originate in the bone marrow and then pass through
the thymus are transformed into T lymphocytes with the help of this hormone.

PINEAL GLAND

• It is attached to the hypothalamus.

• It is a tiny cone-shaped body, located deep between the cerebral hemispheres
of the brain. It produces the hormone melatonin.
• It is involved in a daily cycle called circadian rhythm (regulated by the eyes of
mammals).

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 27 of 32

 • In many mammals, it regulates the seasonal reproductive cycle, sleep, and wake
cycle in humans. It responds to external conditions of light and darkness as
sensed through the eyes.

Role of artificially synthesized steroids in sports

• Steroids are artificial substances that are developed in order to do the job of
testosterone.
• It can be classified as either anabolic or androgenic.

Promote formation
of muscles
BTB
Anabolic functions
Vertical growth Different hormones
act as a means of
Regulation of weight check and balance
gain or loss for each other in
Classification order to keep
homeostasis.

Masculine attributes Suckling action by

the baby is also an
Androgenic function example of positive
feedback.
Agility

:
Strength

endurance

• By the help of these drugs, sportsmen can become bigger, stronger

• More agile, and hence more competitive.
• Artificial steroids use carry many severe health risks.
• Major medical problems associated with steroids include a weakened immune
system, liver disease, kidney disease, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol,
increased risk for heart disease, blood clots, strokes, tissue damage, and cancer.

OTHER ENDOCRINE TISSUES/CELLS

• Many other hormones are also produced by organs or tissues whose function
is not primarily an endocrine one, even neurons also secrete hormones.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 28 of 32

 Hormones of Gut (Gastro-intestinal Tract) These receptors evoke
a release of oxytocin
from the pituitary
Gastrin gland.

When the oxytocin

reaches responsive
• The hormone Gastrin, produced by the stomach wall, travels in the bloodstream
receptors in the
but exerts its effect locally, stimulating the production of gastric juice muscles of the uterus,
(pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid). it further increases
• The secretion of gastrin depends on proteinaceous food in the stomach when it muscular tension, thus
is partially digested. increasing stimuli to
the pressure
receptors.
Secretin and Cholecystokinin (CCK)
This goes on as "labor"
until the birth occurs.
• These two hormones control pancreatic and liver secretion. Both are formed in
the cells of the duodenal wall, in response to acidic chyme, fatty and
proteinaceous food.

Placental hormones

Placental hormones

Estrogen Chorionic hormones Relaxin Chorionic

Progesterone
gonadotrophin

All of these facilitate in pregnancy and birth.

Hormones secreted from Kidneys High level of Calcition

in Mr. Nadeem Body
• Kidneys produce some hormones such as erythropoietin, which increases red cause the
blood cell production.
A) Kidney Stone
• The stimuli such as bleeding or moving to high altitudes (where oxygen is
scarcer) trigger the release of this hormone. B) Muscle Tetany
C) Both
• The kidney also secretes the hormone renin, which constricts arteries and
monitors blood pressure, taking corrective action if it drops.
• It is also called urotensin and angiotensin.

Calcitriol
• It is also secreted from the kidneys and acts on the cells of the intestine to
promote the absorption of calcium from the diet.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 29 of 32

 Hormones of Liver
Pressure is relieved:
Liver the baby is born;
oxytocin is no longer
evoked, and labor
contractions cease.
Prostaglandins Somatomedins
This has a destabilizing
effect, so it does not
Protective Cell growth Developmental result in homeostasis.
Response
function during
infection Positive feedback is
less common than
negative feedback, but
it has its applications.
Hormones of Brain

• Enkephalins and endorphins are two related hormones produced in the brain.
Both bind to pain receptors and block sensation.
• The enkephalins are found in the thalamus and some parts of the spinal cord,
while endorphins are found in the pituitary gland, in other parts of the brain, or
distributed throughout the nervous system.

Hormone of Heart

• The heart secretes atrial natriuretic hormone, which increases sodium excretion
and lowers blood pressure.
Production of
Adipose Tissues testosterone in male
starts....

• Secretes a hormone leptin, which reduces appetite. A) Before birth

B) At Puberty
C) After birth
PTB D) All

Gastrin
• Gastrin is the hormone produced by the mucosa of the pyloric region of the
stomach.

Secretin

• It is produced from the duodenum when acid food touches its lining.
• It affects the pancreas to produce and release pancreatic juice and affects the
rate of bile production in the liver.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 30 of 32

 FEEDBACK MECHANISM

• It is a type of interaction in which a controlling mechanism is itself controlled by

the product of reactions it is controlling.
• After receiving the signal, a change occurs to correct the deviation by depressing
it with negative feedback or enhancing it with positive feedback.

POSITIVE FEEDBACK

• In positive feedback, an end product speeds up its production. These responses

are not homeostatic and are rare in healthy individuals.
• An example of positive feedback is childbirth.
• The early contractions of labor begin to force the baby’s head against the cervix
W.O.F is produced by
to dilate (open). Ruptured follicle
• Stretch-receptive neurons in the cervix respond to this extension by signaling
the hypothalamus, which responds by triggering the release of the hormone W.O.F is produced by
oxytocin that stimulates more and stronger uterine contractions. mature follicle.
• Stronger contractions create further pressure on the cervix, which in turn
A) Estrogen
prompts the release of more hormones. B) Progesterone
• The feedback cycle is finally terminated by the expulsion of the baby and its C) Both
placenta.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

• In negative feedback, end products result in the reversal of the direction of

change and tend to maintain homeostasis.
• In this system, an endocrine gland is sensitive either to the concentration of a
substance it regulates or to the concentration of a product from a process it
controls.
• For example, if blood glucose becomes too high, beta (β) cells in the islets of
Langerhans respond by releasing insulin. Insulin lowers blood glucose by making
cell surface membranes more permeable to glucose.
• It activates transport proteins in the membranes, allowing glucose to pass into
the cells.
• Insulin also activates enzymes inside the cells. Some of these enzymes convert
glucose to glycogen.
• If the levels of blood glucose get too low, alpha (α) cells in the islets of
Langerhans secrete glucagon

• This hormone fits into the receptor sites on the cell surface membranes and
activates the enzymes inside the cells that convert glycogen to glucose.
• The glucose then passes out of the cells and into the blood, raising blood glucose
levels.
• In this way, the negative feedback mechanism controls blood glucose.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 31 of 32

 Feedback Mechanism

Negative Positive
feedback feedback

Most common Self-limiting Rare Explosive Self-reinforcing

PTB

• For proper body functions, two opposing systems are needed; if there are
accelerators, there must be inhibitors.
• If one hormone in the body promotes or stimulates a reaction, another hormone
Most of the feedback
would be checking the same.
mechanism in our
• In the body, interaction is mainly maintained due to the feedback mechanism. body
• In this way, the concentration of secretions is itself controlled because certain A) Positive
information is passed to the source or, in other words, is fed back so that the B) Negative
output of the secretion is adjusted accordingly, depending on the activity of the C) Both
body.
• The interaction between the pituitary and other endocrine glands, over which it
exerts control, is an example of a feedback mechanism, and this mechanism is
very common in living systems.

Feedback in thyroid gland function is described.

1. Low body temperature or stress stimulates neurosecretory cells of the

hypothalamus, whose releasing hormones trigger the release of thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH) in the anterior pituitary.
2. The TSH then stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroxine.
3. The TSH then stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroxine.
4. Thyroxine causes an increase in the metabolic activity of most body cells,
generating ATP energy and heat.
5. Both raised body temperature and higher thyroxine levels in the blood inhibit
the releasing-hormone cells and the TSH-producing cells.

Prof. Nadeem Khan Page 32 of 32