‫المملكة العربية السعودية‬

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Ministry of Education ‫وزارة التـــعليـــم‬
Jazan University ‫جامـــعة جـــــازان‬
College of Science ‫كليــة العـــلوم‬
Mathematics Department ‫قسم الرياضيات‬

Numerical Methods
(For Engineering College Students)

MATH-410

---------------------------------------------------------------------
Chapter–2: Numerical Solution of Nonlinear Equations
---------------------------------------------------------------------

Prepared by:

Dr Hashim Khan

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

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Contents:

Chapter-2: Numerical Solution of Nonlinear Equations

Section Topic Page No.

1.1 Nonlinear/Transcendental Equations 3

1.2 Roots of an Equations ( ) 3

1.3 Fixed Point Iteration Method 3

1.4 Convergence of Iteration Method 4

1.5 Bisection Method 7

1.6 Newton-Raphson Method 11

1.7 Secant Method 17

1.8 Numerical Solution of a System of Nonlinear Equations 20

1.9 Exercise 2.1 27

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1.1 Nonlinear Equations:

The general form of a nonlinear equation is ( ) where a nonlinear function of the
variable is .
e.g.:

( )

1.2 Roots of an Equations ( ) :

In order to find the solution of an equation ( ) , we find those values of for which
( ) is satisfied, such values of are called the roots of ( )

Thus, is a root of an equation: ( ) ( )

A root of the equation ( ) is also called the zero of the function ( )

In this chapter, we shall describe some numerical methods to approximate the solutions of
equations of the type ( ) to an arbitrarily high accuracy.

1.3 Fixed Point Iteration Method or Successive Iteration Method or Iteration Method:
Suppose we wish to find the root of the equation ( ) by successive approximations.
We write the given equation in the form- ( )
Then the root of ( ) is the same as the point of intersection of the straight line and
the curve ( ).
Thus, we have ( ) , where p is the point of intersection that is called fixed point.

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Techniques of Iteration Method: To approximate the fixed point of a function ( ), we

choose an initial approximation and generate the sequence * + by letting-

( ) for all

If the sequence converges to and is continuous then

( ) . / ( )

Thus, a solution to ( ) is obtained. This technique is called Fixed Point or Successive Iteration.

1.4 Convergence of Iteration Method:

Suppose we wish to find the root of the equation ( ) in , -
by Fixed Point Iteration Method. We can write the given equation in the form-

( ) … (1)

Then, For any number in , -, the sequence defined by-

( ) for all

Converges to the unique fixed point in , - if

| ( )| for all , - where

Provided that ( ) exists on , -

Working Rule:
Suppose we wish to find the root of the equation: ( )

Step-1: Find the interval , - in which, the function ( ) has a real root

Let ( ) and ( ) OR ( ) and ( )

Step-2: Write the given equation in the form: ( )

Step-3: Test for convergence (Validity of Fixed-Point Iteration Method):

| ( )| for all , - where

Step-4: Choose an initial approximation i.e. or otherwise from the interval.

Step-5: Generate the sequence * + by letting:

( ) for all
Or ( ) for all

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Example 2.3.1: Use Fixed point Iteration method to find a real root of the equation on
the interval , - with an accuracy of .
Solution: Let ( )

Since, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
and ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Therefore, by intermediate value theorem, the function ( ) has at least one real root in ( )
Now, writing the given equation ( ) in the form: ( )

We have,
( )
( )

√( )
( ) [Note: The choice of ( ) may be more than one]
√( )
( ) ( ) ⁄
| ( )| | | For all ( )
( ) ⁄

Iterative method can be applied.

Taking, and ( ) for all

( ) ( )
√( )

( ) ( )
√( )

Continuing in this process….(Press Equal sign ( ) on your Calculator for further Iterations)

Iteration Method
Number of Iteration Approximation Relative Error Percentage Error
( ) | |
( )
√( ) | |
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
We observe that and are same up to four decimal places. Thus, is the
required root of the function ( ) up to four decimal places.

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Example 2.3.2: Use Fixed point Iteration method to determine a solution of the equation
on the interval , - with an accuracy of .

Solution: Let ( )

Since, ( ) ( ) ( )

and ( ) ( ) ( )

Therefore, by intermediate value theorem, the function ( ) has at least one root in ( )
Now, writing the given equation in the form: ( )

We have,

, -
( ) , -
( ) , -
| ( )| | | [| | | | | |]
| ( )| | | | | [ | | | | | |]
| ( )| , for all ( ) , | | | | -
Iterative method can be applied.

Taking, and ( ) for all

( ) ( ) , -

( ) ( )
, ( ) ( )-

Continuing in this manner, we can obtain the following table:

Number of Iteration Approximation Percentage Error

( ) | |
( ) , ( ) ( )-
| |
1
2
3
4
5
6

We observe that and are same up to six decimal places. Thus, is the required
root of the function ( ) up to six decimal places.

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1.5 The Bisection Method:

This method is due to Bolzano and based on the repeated application of
intermediate value property.
Suppose ( ) is a continuous function defined on the interval , - and we wish to locate the root
of an equation:
( ) in the interval , -.

Let- ( ) ( ) ( ) and ( ) are of opposite sign.

Then, the intermediate value theorem implies that there exist at least one root in ( ) such that

( )

Let- ( ) and ( ) then approximate value of root ( ) is given by:

 If ( ) then is correct root and we are done.
 If ( ) then the root either lies in . / or . / depending on whether
( ) is negative or positive.
 We again bisect the interval and repeat the process until the root is obtained of desired
accuracy.

Working Rule: Suppose ( ) is a continuous function defined on the interval , -

1. To begin, set and then 1st approximation,

2. If ( ) and
(a) If ( ) and ( ) have the same sign then ( ). Set and
(b) If ( ) and ( ) have the opposite sign then ( ). Set and
3. Repeat the process to the interval , - and so on.

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Example 2.5.1: Show that ( ) has a root in ( ) and use Bisection Method to
determine an approximation to the root correct to 3 decimal places.
Solution: We have ( ) and

Since, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

and ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Therefore, by intermediate theorem, the function ( ) has a root in , -

Bisection Method
No of
Approximation ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

We observe that and are same up to three decimal places. Thus, is correct
root of the function ( ) to three decimal places.

Example 2.5.2: Apply the Bisection method to find a solution up to 4 iterations for the given nonlinear
equation: , for

Solution: We have ( ) and

Since, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

and ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Therefore, by intermediate theorem, the function ( ) has at least one real root in , -

Bisection Method
( ) Approximation ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

1
2
3
4

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Example 2.5.3: Use the Bisection Method to approximate a solution of the equation:
on the interval , - with an accuracy of

Solution: Let ( ) ( ) ( )

Since, ( ) ( ( )) ( ( )) ( )

and ( ) ( ( )) ( ( )) ( )

Therefore, by intermediate theorem, the function ( ) has a root in ( )

Bisection Method

( ) Approximation ( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) ( ) | |

1
2 | |
| |
3 | |
| |
4 | |
| |
5 | |
| |
6 | |
| |

Since and are identical up to 3 decimal places, therefore is correct with an

accuracy of .

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Example 2.5.4: Apply Bisection Method to approximate √ in the interval , -,

accurate to within .

Solution: We wish to find:

√ From Calculator:
√

Let ( ) Choose Interval: , -

Since, ( ) ( ) ( )

and ( ) ( ) ( )

Therefore, by intermediate value theorem, the function ( ) must have one root
between: .

Bisection Method

Approximation ( ) | |
( )
( ) ( ) | |
( )
1
| |
2 | |
| |
3 | |
| |
4 | |
| |
5 | |

Since and are identical up to 3 decimal places, therefore is correct

with an accuracy of .

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1.6 Newton- Raphson Method:

Newton–Raphson Method is one of the most powerful and well
known numerical methods for solving a root of the nonlinear equation ( ) .

Suppose denote the exact root of the equation ( ) provided ( ) , i.e.

( ) … (1)

Let , - be the initial approximation and be the correction required in i.e.

… (2)
( ) ( )
Expending: ( ) by Taylor’s theorem-

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) … (3)

Since, is very small, neglecting second and higher order terms-

( ) ( )

( )
, ( ) -
( )
Substitute the value of in equation …(2), we get a better approximation to the root-
( )
( )
Similarly, the improved root over the previous one can be obtained by iteration-
( )
, ( ) -
( )
( )
, ( ) -
( )

( )
for all , ( ) -
( )

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Example 2.6.1: Find the root of ( ) using Newton-Raphson Method that

lies near .

Solution: We have ( )

( )

( )

( ) ( )

Applying Newton – Raphson Method: For

( )
( )

( )
( )

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Example 2.6.2: Use Newton-Raphson Method to find the solution of ( ) , with an

accuracy of , starting with
Solution: We have
( ) ( ) … (1)

( ) ( ) … (2)

Applying Newton – Raphson Method-

( )
( )
for all

From Equations (1) and (2), we can write as follows-

for all
=============================================================================
For

For

Similarly, we can find the following

and

=============================================================================
Writing all in a Table: Starting with,

Newton- Raphson Method

Number of Iteration Approximation: Percentage Error:

( ) | |
| |
| |
1
| |
| |
2
| |
| |
3
| |
| |
4
| |

We observe that and are same up to Ten decimal places. Thus, is correct
root of the function ( ) up to Ten places of decimals.

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Example 2.6.3: Use Newton-Raphson Method to find solutions accurate to within to the given
problem:
, for

Solution: We have ( )

Since, ( ) ( )

and ( ) ( )

Therefore, by intermediate theorem, the function ( ) has at least one real root between 6 and 7
Now,
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) … (1)

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) … (2)

Applying Newton–Raphson Method-

( )
( )
for all
From Equations (1) and (2), we can write -
( ) ( )
[ ( )
] for all
( )
Starting with, , (Because ( ) is near to Zero in comparison of ( ) ).
=============================================================================
( ) ( )
For [ ( )
]
( )
( ) ( )
0 ( ) ( ) 1
For
( ) ( )
[ ( )
]
( )
( ) ( )
0 ( ) ( ) 1
=============================================================================
Continuing in this process, we can find a table-
Newton- Raphson Method
Number of Iteration Approximation | |
( ) | |
| |
1
| |
| |
2
| |
| |
3
| |
| |
4
| |

We observe that and are same up to Six decimal places. Thus, is correct root of
the equation ( ) up to Six places of decimals.

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Example 2.6.4: Apply Newton-Raphson Method to find the solution accurate to within
to the given problem: , for

Answer: We have ( )

Since, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

and ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Therefore, by intermediate theorem, the function ( ) has at least one real root between 0 and 1

( ) ( )
Now, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) … (1)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) … (2)

Applying Newton – Raphson Method-

( )
( )
for all

From Equations …(1) and …(2), we can write -

( ) ( ) ( )
[ ( )
] for all
( ) ( ) ( )

Choose, , (Because ( ) is near to Zero in comparison of ( ) ).

=============================================================================
( ) ( ) ( )
For [ ( )
]
( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
For 0 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1
=============================================================================
Continuing in this process, we can find a table-
Newton- Raphson Method
Number of Approximation | |
( )
Iteration ( ) ( ) | |
( ) [ ( ) ( )
]
( ) ( )

| |
1
| |
| |
2
| |
| |
3
| |
| |
4
| |
| |
5
| |
| |
6
| |
We observe that and are same up to Seven decimal places. Thus, is correct root
of the equation ( ) up to Seven places of decimals.

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Example 2.6.5: Apply Newton- Raphson Method to approximate a root of the following
nonlinear equation: (Do Three Iterations): with .

Solution: We have ( )

Since, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

and ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Therefore, by intermediate theorem, the function ( ) has at least one real root between 0
and 1

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) … (1)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) … (2)

Applying Newton–Raphson Method-

( )
( )
for all

From Equations (1) and (2), we can write as follows-

( ) ( ) ( )
0 ( ) ( )
1 for all
==================================================================
( ) ( ) ( )
For, 0 ( ) ( )
1

( ) ( ) ( )
0 ( ) ( )
1

==================================================================
Newton- Raphson Method
No of Approximation: Percentage Error:
Iteration ( ) ( ) ( ) | |
0 ( ) ( )
1
| |
1
2
3

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1.7 Secant Method:

We have seen that Newton- Raphson method is an extremely powerful technique to
solve a nonlinear equation, but it has a major weakness that it requires the evaluation of derivative of the
function at each approximation and this is not always possible, particularly in the case of functions
arising in the practical problems.
To circumvent the problem of the derivative evaluation in Newton- Raphson method,
we introduce a new technique known as Secant Method.
In the Secant Method, the derivative of ( ) at is approximated by:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Substitute ( ) from equation ( ) in the Newton-Raphson Formula, we get-

( )
( )
( )

( )
( ) ( )
[ ]

( )
0 ( ) ( )
1 ( ), , - ( )

( ) ( )
Or , , - ( )
( ) ( )

Starting with the two initial approximations and , the approximation is the x-intercept of the
line joining ( ( )) ( ( )). The approximation is the x-intercept of the line joining
( ( )) ( ( )), and so on. Note that only one function evaluation is needed per step for
the Secant Method after has been determined.

In contrast, each step of Newton-Raphson method requires an evaluation of both the function and its
derivative

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Example 2.7.1: Use the Secant Method to find a solution to with and with
an accuracy of . Find Relative Approximate Error Also.
Solution: Writing: ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

and . / . / ( )

Therefore, the root lies between 0.5 and

Now, Using Secant Method, starting with and

0 ( ) ( )
1 ( ) for all

Taking, ( )

( ) and ( )

Thus, 0, - , -
1, - for all

0, - , -
1, -

( )
[ ], -
, - , -

Next, 0, - , -
1, -

Similarly, we can find etc. We list all in the following Table –

Number of Iteration Secant Method | |

( ) | |
0
1
| |
2
| |
| |
3
| |
| |
4 %
| |
| |
5 %
| |
6 STOP

We observe that and are same up to decimal places. Thus, is correct root of
the function ( ) up to seven decimal places.

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Example 2.7.2: Use the Secant Method to find a solution of ( ) on the

interval , - with an accuracy of .

Solution: We have ( ) ( ) Interval: , -

Since, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

and ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) must have one root between: and

Choose, and

( ) & ( )
Applying Secant Method –
( ) ( )
for all ( )
( ) ( )

Iteration-1: Taking in equation-(1), we get-

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )

( )

Iteration-2: Taking in equation-(1), we get-

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )

( )

Iteration-3: Taking in equation-(1), we get-

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )

We observe that: and are same up to five decimal places. Thus, is

correct root of the given equation ( ) up to five places of decimals.

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1.8 Numerical Solution of a System of Nonlinear Equations:

Consider a system of two nonlinear algebraic equations -

( )
} … (1)
( )

(a) Newton’s Iterative Technique OR Newton-Raphson Extension Method:

Let ( ) be an initial approximation to the root of Equation (1). If ( )

is the exact root of the system , then we must have-

( )
} … (2)
( )

Assume that and are sufficiently differentiable functions, we can expand both the
functions by Taylor’s series to obtain-

} … (3)

Where,
( ) ( )

| |
( ) ( )

| |
( ) ( )

Neglecting the second and higher order derivatives, we obtain the following-

} … (3)

Equation (3) possesses a unique solution if

| | … (4)

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By Crammer’s Rule, the solution of equation (3) is given by-

| | and | | … (5)

Hence the new approximations are therefore,

and … (6)

The process is to be repeated till we obtain the roots to the desired accuracy.

Note: (1) Choose initial approximation if not given in the question: ( ) ( ) or

( ) ( ) or ( ) ( )

(2) The convergence of the Newton’s Iteration method for solving a system of
nonlinear equations is of second order, same as in case of single nonlinear equation.

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Example 2.8.1: Use Newton’s Iterative Techniques to find approximate solutions up to 2nd
iteration to the following nonlinear system of equations: [Choose: ( ) ( )]
}
Solution: We have ( )

&

( )

&

First Approximation: Taking, ( ) ( ), we obtain-

( ) , ( )

| , |
( ) ( )

| , |
( ) ( )

} } … (3)

Crammer’s Rule:

Hence, | | | |

By Crammer’s Rule, the solution of equation (3) is given by-

| | | |

and | | | |

==================================================================================================================

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Hence the new approximations are therefore,

Second Approximation: Taking, ( ) ( ), we obtain-

( ) ( )

| |
( ) ( )

| |
( ) ( )

} }

Hence, | | | |

By Crammer’s Rule, the solution of equation (3) is given by-

| | | |

and | | | |

It follows that,

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Example 2.8.2: Use Newton’s Iterative Techniques to find approximate solutions up to 2nd
iteration to the given nonlinear system of equations: [Starting with ( ) ( )]
}

Solution: We have ( )

&

( )

&

First Approximation: Taking, ( ) ( ), we obtain-

( ) , ( )

| , |
( ) ( )

| , |
( ) ( )

} } … (3)

Crammer’s Rule:

Hence, | | | |

By Crammer’s Rule, the solution of equation (3) is given by-

| | | |

and | | | |

==================================================================================================================

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Hence the new approximations are therefore,

Second Approximation: Taking, ( ) ( ), we obtain-

( ) ( )

| |
( ) ( )

| |
( ) ( )

} }

Hence, | | | |

By Crammer’s Rule, the solution of equation (3) is given by-

| | | |

and | | | |

It follows that,

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Example 2.8.3: Solve the following system of nonlinear algebraic equations with intial
approximation, ( ) ( ) (Do One iteration):
}

Solution: We have
( ) & … (1)
( ) & … (2)

First Approximation: Taking, ( ) ( ), From Equations … (1) & (2):

( ) , ( )

| , |
( ) ( )

| , |
( ) ( )

} } … (3)

Using Calculator:
=================================================================
Using Crammer’s Rule:

Hence, | | | |

By Crammer’s Rule, the solution of equation (3) is given by-

| | | |

and | | | |

===================================================================================================================
Hence the new approximations are therefore,

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Exercise 2.1: Numerical Solution of Nonlinear Equations

1. Choose the correct answer (Questions 1.1 -1.5)

1.1 Which of the following is a system of linear equations:

(a)

(b) }

(c) }

(d) None of these

1.2 Which of the following formula is regarded as the Relative Approximate Error ( ):

(a) | |

| |
(b) | |

| |
(c) | |

(d) None of these

1.3 A real root of the equation: ( ) accurate to within is

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d) None of these

1.4 Distinguish between intervals , - and , - for the given nonlinear equation
to have at least one real root:

(a) , - (b) , -

(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these

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1.5 The Newton-Raphson Method fails to find a root of a given nonlinear equation
( ) , if:

(a) ( )

(b) ( )

(c) ( )

(d) ( )

2. Find the interval , - in which, the given equation ( ) has at least one real root.

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv) ( )

3. Suppose we wish to find a real root of the equation in , - using

Fixed Point Iteration Method, then which of the following choices for ( )
provide with a convergent solution:
(a) ( ) ( )

(b) ( ) ( )

(c) ( ) . /

(d) ( )

4. Use Fixed point Iteration method to determine a solution of the equation

on the interval , - with an accuracy of . Use

5. Use Fixed point Iteration method to determine a solution of the equation

on the interval , - with an accuracy of . Use

6. Use Fixed point Iteration method to find an approximation to √ that is accurate to

within .

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7. Find an approximation to √ correct to within using the Bisection Method. [Hint:

Consider ( ) ]

8. Use the Bisection Method to find an approximation to √ that is accurate to within

.

9. Use the Bisection Method to determine a solution of the equation

on the interval , - with an accuracy of .

10.Use the Bisection Method to find a solution of the equation on the interval
, - with an accuracy of .

11. Use the Newton- Raphson Method to find a solution accurate to within for the
following equation:
, , -

12. Use the Newton- Raphson Method to find a solution accurate to within for the
following equation:
, for

13. Use the Newton- Raphson Method to find a solution accurate to within for the
following equation:
, 0 1

14. Use the Secant Method to find a solution accurate to within for the following
equation:
, , -
15. Use the Secant Method to find a solution accurate to within for the following
equation:
, for

16. Use the Secant Method to find a solution accurate to within for the following
equation:
, 0 1

17. Use Newton’s Iterative Techniques to find approximate solutions to the following
nonlinear system of equations:
(a) } Taking, ( ) ( )

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 Dr Hashim Khan_Chapter-2_MATH-410_Numerical Methods_Academic Year: 2025-1

(b) } Taking, ( ) ( )

(c) } Taking, ( ) ( )

Dr Hashim Khan, Jazan University Page-30