Engineering Physics

Laboratory Manual
(Common to I B.Tech ECE, CSE, EEE,
AI&DS,AI&ML, CDS, CSIT, CE, ME,
& CIC Branches)

ANNAMACHARYA INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES
(AUTONOMOUS)
KARAKAMBADI ROAD, TIRUPATI

Regulation: AK23
(Lab code: 23ABS9908)

Name of the Student:

Roll No. :

Branch:

Academic Year: Semester :

 List of Experiments

Experiment 1: Determination of the radius of curvature of a plano-convex lens by Newton‟s

rings. (Page :1)

Experiment 2: Determination of wavelengths of different spectral lines in mercury spectrum

using diffraction grating in normal incidence configuration. (Page:8)

Experiment 3: Study the variation of B versus H by magnetizing the magnetic materi-

al (B-H curve) (Page : 13)

Experiment 4: Determination of Wavelength of LASER light using diffraction grating.

(Page: 18)

Experiment 5: Magnetic field along the axis of a current carrying circular coil by Stewart
Gee‟s method. (Page: 22)

Experiment 6: Determination of energy gap of a semiconductor using P-n junction diode.

(Page : 26)

Experiment 7: Determination of the resistivity of semiconductor by Four probe method

(Page: 33)

Experiment 8: Determination of crystallite size using X-Ray diffraction spectra.

(Page: 37)

Experiment 9: Determination of the numerical aperture of a given optical fiber and angle of
acceptance. (Page: 41)

Experiment 10: Verification of Brewster‟s law. (Page: 44)

Experiment 11: Determination of acceleration due to gravity and radius of Gyration

by using a Compound Pendulum. (Page: 49)

Experiment 12: Determination of Rigidity modulus of a material given wire using

Torsional pendulum (Page: 55 )

Experiment 13: Determination of temperature coefficients of a thermistor. (Page: 59)

Experiment 14: Determination of dielectric constant by using charging and discharging

method. (Page: 62)

Experiment 15: Determination of Hall voltage and Hall coefficient of a given semiconductor

using Hall effect. (Page: 66)

Experiment 16: Determination of Magnetic Susceptibility by Kundt‟s tube method.

(Page: 70)
Experiment 17: Determination of Frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork by Melde‟s

experiment (Page: 75)

 INDEX
S.No Date Title of the experiment Page No. Marks Incharge
Signature
 Instructions to the students in the Laboratory

 The objective of the laboratory is learning. The experiments are designed to illustrate phenomena in
different areas of Physics and to expose you to measuring instruments. Conduct the experiments
with interest and an attitude of learning.

 You need to come well prepared for the experiment

 Work quietly and carefully (the whole purpose of experimentation is to make reliable measure-
ments) and equally share the work with your partners.

 Be honest in recording and representing your data. Never make up readings or doctor them to get a
better fit for a graph. If a particular reading appears wrong repeat the measurement carefully. In any
event all the data recorded in the tables have to be faithfully displayed on the graph.

 All presentations of data, tables and graphs calculations should be neatly and carefully done.

 Bring necessary graph papers for each of experiment. Learn to optimize on usage of graph papers.

 Graphs should be neatly drawn with pencil. Always label graphs and the axes and display units.

 If you finish early, spend the remaining time to complete the calculations and drawing graphs. Come
equipped with calculator, scales, pencils etc.

 Do not fiddle idly with apparatus. Handle instruments with care. Report any breakage to theInstruc-
tor. Return all the equipment you have signed out for the purpose of your experiment.
 1
EXNO: DATE:

Newton’s Rings

Aim:

To determine the radius of curvature of a Plano-Convex lens by forming Newton‟s rings.

Apparatus:
Travelling Microscope, Sodium vapour lamp, Plano- convex lens, Double Convex Lens and plane glass
plate.

1. Introduction:
The phenomenon of Newton‟s rings is an illustration of the interference of light waves reflected from the
opposite surfaces of a thin film of variable thickness. The two interfering beams, derived from a mono-
chromatic source satisfy the coherence condition for interference. Ring shaped fringes are produced bythe
air film existing between a convex surface of a long focus plano-convex lens and a plane of glass plate.

Basic Theory of Newton’s rings:

When a plano-convex lens (L) of long focal length is placed on a plane glass plate (G), a thin film of air I
Enclosed between the lower surface of the lens and upper surface of the glass plate. (See Fig 1).The thick-
ness of the air film is very small at the point of contact and gradually increases from the center outwards.
The fringes produced are concentric circles, with monochromatic light; bright and dark circular fringes are
produced in the air film. When viewed with the white light, the fringes are coloured.

A horizontal beam of light falls on the glass plate B at an angle of 45o .The plate B reflects a part of incident
light towards the air film enclosed by the lens L and plate G. The reflected beam (see fig 1) from the air film
is viewed with a microscope. Interference takes place and dark and bright circular fringes are produced.This
is due to the interference between the light reflected at the lower surface of the lens and the upper surface of
the plate G.

For the normal incidence the optical path difference between the two waves is nearly 2μt, where μ is the re-
fractive index of the film and t is the thickness of the air film. Here an extra phase difference π occurs for
the ray which got reflected from upper surface of the plate G because the incident beam in this reflection
goes from a rarer medium to a denser medium. Thus the conditions for constructive and destructive
interference are (using μ=1 for air)

2t = n λ for minima; n=0, 1, 2,3…….(1)

And 2t = (n+1/2) λ for maxima: m=0, 1, 2, 3……. (2)

 2

Then the air film enclosed between the spherical surface of R and a plane surface glass plate, gives circular
rings such that (see fig 2)

𝑟2
𝑛 = (2𝑅 − 𝑡)

Where rnis the radius of the nth order dark ring (Note: The dark ring is the nth dark ring excluding the central
dark spot)

Now R is the order of 100 cm and t is at most 1cm.Therfore R>>t. Hence (neglecting the t2 term),

Giving
2
2t ~𝑟 𝑛
𝑅
2
Putting the value of “2t” in equation gives 2λ~𝑟𝑛
𝑅

With the help of a travelling microscope we can measure the diameter of the diameter of the nth ring order
dark ring= Dn
𝐷
Then 𝑟𝑛 = and hence,
2
2
R = 𝐷𝑛
4𝜆
2
The value of 𝐷𝑛 is calculated from the slope of the graph drawn in between n vs 𝐷2
𝑛 𝑛

𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
R=
4𝜆

So if we know the wavelength λ, we can calculated R (radius of curvature of the lens).

Formula:
𝐷𝑛2−𝐷𝑚
2
R=
4 (𝑛−𝑚)

Where R= Radius of curvature of given Plano convex Lens,

λ= wavelength of monochromatic light (Na vapor lamp)=5893Å=5893X10-8 cm

𝐷𝑛2 = Diameter of nth Ring (cm)

𝐷𝑚
2
= Diameter of mth Ring (cm)
 3

Procedure:
1. The experimental arrangement for producing Newton rings is as shown in fig (1).

2. Keep the convex surface of the lens (L) over the glass plate G and arrange glass plate B at angle of 450
over the base set<see fig>.

3. Switch on the monochromatic light source and it is focus on the Double convex lens (L).sends parallel
beam of light falls on the glass plate B at 450.

4. The glass plate „B‟ reflects a part of light towards the air film enclosed by the lens (L) and the glass plate
(G).

5. A part of the light is reflected by the curved surface of the lens and a part is transmitted which
reflectedback from the plane surface of the glass plate.

6. These reflected light rays superimpose with each other producing interference and forming interference
patents in the form of bright dark circular rings.

7. These rings are seen with a microscope (M) focused on the air film.

8. Now move the microscope to focus on a dark ring(say ,the 20th order dark ring) on left side from the cen-
ter . Set the cross wore tangential to one ring as shown in fig. Note down the microscope readings.

9. In the similar way cross wire setting at 18th, 14th…..2nd dark ring, the readings are noted. The microscope
is moved in the same direction to the other side of the ring and the readings are noted corresponding to the
2nd, 4th,8th, 10th,…..20th dark ring on right side.
 4

Graph:
A graph is drawn with the number of rings on the X-axis and

the square of the diameter of the ring (D2) on the Y-axis.

The graph is straight line passing through the origin from

the graph the values of D 2 and D2 corresponding
m n

to nth and mt h rings found. From the graph, the slope is

calculated.

After evaluating the slope, radius of Curvature of plano-convex lens can be calculated.

Observations and Results:

1. Least count of Vernier of travelling microscope = cm

2. Wave length of light = cm

Calculations:
Plot the graph of D2Vs n and draw the straight line of best fit.

Give the calculations of best fit analysis below attach extra sheets if necessary.

From the slope of graph , calculate the radius of curvature R of the plano convex lens as
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
R= = cm.
4𝜆
 5

Table : Measurement of diameter of the ring.

Microscope readings
Diameter
S.
Order Left side Right side D2 -D 2
of the m
No n
ring (n)
Total
Total R(cm)
MSR VSR L(cm) MSR VSR D = (L-R) cm D2 (cm2)
 6

Precautions:
i) The microscope should be parallel to the edge of the glass plate.

ii) If you place the cross wire tangential to the outer side of a perpendicular ring on one side of the central
spot then the cross wire should be placed tangential to the inner side of the same ring on the other side of the
central spot.

iii) The travelling microscope should move only in one direction.

Results: The radius of curvature of the lens is determined by forming Newton‟s rings. The radius of
curvature of plano-Convex lens is

(i) From the Experiment R= cm.

(ii) From the Graph R= cm.

 7
Space for rough work
 8
EXNO: DATE:

Diffraction Grating - Normal Incidence Method

Aim: To determine the wavelength of a given light using a plane diffraction grating in normal incidence
method.

Apparatus: Spectrometer, Mercury Vapour lamp, Grating (15000 LPI), Grating holder

Description:
Grating: The plane transmission grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque rulings
are made with a diamond point. As many as 15000 ruling are drawn per inch width of sheet. The spacing be-
tween the rulings is of equal width and the spaces between the rulings are also of equal width. The com-
bined width of a ruling and a slit is called grating element.

Spectrometer: The spectrometer consists of a collimator, a telescope is towards a white source and the eye
piece is adjusted till the cross wires are seen clearly. Now the telescope is turned towards a distant object
and focused till a clear image is obtained. The slit is made narrow and illuminated by a mercury vapor lamp.
The telescope is brought in the same line with collimator and screw in the later is adjusted till a clear well
defined image of the bright slit is seen through the telescope. Now the collimator sends parallel rays. The
grating table is leveled using a sprit level first in the direction of lines drawn on circular disc and then in the
direction perpendicular to the lines. The telescope is adjusted till its vertical cross wire coincides with fixed
edges of the image.

Procedure:
This experimental set up consists of a standard spectrometer consisting of a slit fixed to collimator a routa-
ble table and a rotatable telescope. A transmission grating is positioned on the table with the slits vertical as
shown in figure 5 parallel light from the collimator is diffracted by the slits and the diffracted beams are
combined to from an image of the slit at the telescope focus. The wavelength of given source of light can be
calculated by setting up diffraction grating in normal incidence position.

1. Adjust telescope for parallel rays. Adjust the collimator to receive the parallel rays of light .Level the
spectrometer and prism table on which grating is mounted using sprit level.
2. Switch on the power supply for mercury vapour lamp and wait till it illuminates brightly.
3. Place the grating on the prism, table such that the surface of the grating is approximately perpendicular
to the collimator of the spectrometer. Fix the prism table in this position.

Method to make light fall normal to the grating surface:

a) First mount grating approximately normal to the collimator. See the slitthrough telescope take
reading from one side of vernier window. Note down the reading.
 9
b) Add or subtract (whichever is convenient) 900 from reading taken in step (a) and put telescope to this
position. In the position telescope is approximately perpendicular to the collimator.

c) Now rotate prism table until the slit is visible on the cross-wire of the telescope. At the position the
incident light from the collimator falls at an angle 450 with the plane of the grating. Note down this
reading
d) Next add or subtract 450 to step (c) reading and rotate the prism table so as to obtain reading on the
same window. In this situation, light incident in the grating surface perpendicular.

Determination of λ by normal incidence:

When the light from the source incidents normally on the grating, observe first order spectrum on left
hand side by rotating telescope so that cross wire coincides with particular spectral line, measure the an-
gle of diffraction of each line and note down each measurements on the observation table, similarly on
right side also. Take average value. Note observation in table and calculate λ.

Formula:

The Wavelength of spectral line is given by

λ= 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 (Å)
𝑛𝑁

Where θ is angle of normal incidence

N is the number of lines per meter length of grating.

 10
N order of spectrum.

Observations and Results:

N is number of lines per meter length of grating=

L.C=

Precautions:
1. The experiment should be performed in a dark room.
2. Micrometer screw should be used for fine adjustment of the telescope. For fine adjustment the tele-
scope should be first liked by means of the head screw.
3. The directions of rotation of the micrometer screw should be maintained otherwise the play in the
micrometer spindle might lead to errors.
4. The spectral lines (mercury source) attain their full illuminating power after being warmed up for
about 5 minutes; observation should be taken after 5 minutes.
5. One of the essential precautions for the success of this experiment is to set the grating normal to the
incident rays (see below).Small variation on the angle of incident causes correspondingly large error
in the angle diffraction. If the exact normally is not observed, one find that the angle of diffraction
measured on the left and on the right are not exactly equal. Read both the vernirer to eliminate any
errors due to non-coincidence of the center of the circular sale with the axis of rotation of the tele-
scope or table.

Result: Using spectrometer and arranging the grating in normal incidence position, the wavelength of
various spectral lines are determined and compared with the standard values.

S.No Color of the spectral lineor- Wavelength(Å)

der(n)
Standard Calculated
 11

Spectral readings Mean

𝜽𝟏 = 𝜽𝟏= 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽
1 1 θ= λ=
Spectral V1~V1 V2~V2 𝒏𝑵
Colour of the Direct (𝜽𝟏 + 𝜽𝟐 )
S.NO Lines
Spectral line Readings 𝟐
Readings

V1 V2 V11 V21
 12
Space for rough work
 13
EXNO: DATE:

B-H Curve
Aim: To determine the energy loss of a given ferrite material.

Apparatus: B-H curve kit, CRO, Trace paper, multimeter.

Formula:
ELoss = (N1/N2)(R2/R1)(C/V)SV ShA J/Cycle/m3

Where N1 = no.of turns in the primary coil (200)

N2 = no.of turns in the secondary coil (100)

R1 = Resistance on primary side (10)

R2 = Resistance on secondary side (680)

C = Capacitance in the circuit (4.7 µF)

V = Volume of the torroid (4.6x10-6m3 )

Sv = Sensitivity of vertical line

Sh = Sensitivity of horizontal line

A = Area of the loop

Theory:
There are two windings on the specimen. The primary is fed to low ac voltage. This produces a magnetic
field H in the specimen. The voltage across R1 connected in series with the primary is proportional to the
magnetic field. This is given to the axis of the CRO. The magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary
coil. This voltage induced is proportional to the dB/dt and is applied to passive in integration circuit. The
output of the integrator is proportional to it fed to the vertical input of the CRO. As a result of application of
voltage proportional to H, the horizontal axis and voltage proportional to B in the vertical axis a loop is
formed. The measurement of area of the loop leads to the evaluation of energy loss in the specimen.

Connections:
1. The AC input is fed to the primary of the torroid along with R1 in series connection.

2. Value of R1 can be selected from either 0.1 or 1 or 10 ohms.

3. The connections across R1 should be given to the CRO horizontal (X axis).

4. Care should be taken to connect the ground (GND).

5. The secondary side of the coil is connected in series with capacitor of 4.7 µF and 680 Ω.
 14
6. The connection across the capacitor should be given to the CRO vertical axis (Y- axis).

7. Care should be taken to connect the ground correctly. Otherwise the loop will not be formed in the correct
shape.

8. The horizontal and vertical gains are adjusted such that the loop occupies maximum area on the screen.

9. The loop is traced on a translucent of small squares. This will give area in Sq.mm , cover the same to
sq. meter

Calibration of CRO:
Don‟t disturb the X and Y axis while doing this. Remove the X and Y axis connections to the
CRO, don‟t disturb the gain controls.

Horizontal calibration:
Connect only the X axis to the CRO. This will result in line being displayed along the X axis. Note
the length of this line in cms and convert the same to meters. Measure the voltage using a multimeter.
Remove the CRO connection.

Vertical calibration:
Connect only the Y axis to the CRO. This will result in a line being displayed along the Y axis. Note the
length of this line in cms and convert the same to meters.Measure the voltage using a multimeter. Remove
the CRO connection.

Area of the Loop:

Count the number of small squares in the graph sheet . This will give area in sq.mm convert the
same to sq.meter.
Procedure:
The circuit diagram for obtaining B-H curve is shown in Figure. Since the induced voltage in the
secondary coil is proportional to the derivative of the magnetic flux, a wave proportional to the flux should
be obtained by an integrating circuit containing a resistance and capacitor. When the integrated voltage is
applied to the Y plates of CRO to give deflection proportional to the flux, then the current in impressed on
the horizontal plates to give deflection proportional to it. The result is B-H curve on the screen as shown in
figure.
It is traced on a graph paper and its area is calculated. For measuring horizontal sensistivity, the output
voltage across the input resistance (R=10Ω) is directly give to the X-plates as shown in figure and the
corresponding length of the line on the CRO is measured. For measuring vertical sensitivity the output
voltage across the capacitor is given to the y- plates and the length of the line on the CRO is measured.
 15
Circuit diagram and B-H curve

Calculations :
Calculation of vertical sensititvity :

Lenth of the line Y axis = ----------------------------- m

Voltage applied to Y axis VRms = ----------------------V

Vpp = 2√2VRms = V

Vertical sensitivity Sv= Vpp / Length of the line = V/m.

Calculation of horizontalsensititvity :

Lenth of the line X axis = ----------------------------- m

Voltage applied to X axis VRms = ----------------------V

Vpp = 2√2VRms = V

Horizontal sensitivity Sh= Vpp / Length of the line = ------------------------ V/m.

Area of the loop A = sq.mm.= sq.m.

Energy loss in the torroidELoss = (N1/N2)(R2/R1) (C/V) SVShA --------------- Joules/cycles/m3.

 16
Precautions :
1.Note the readings without parallax error.

2.CRO connections are handling very carefully.

Result:
Energy loss in given specimen ELoss = --------------------- joules/cycles/m3.
 17
Space for Rough work
 18
EXNO: DATE:

Wavelength of a Laser source – Diffraction Grating

Aim:
To determine wave length of laser beam by using a diffraction grating.

Apparatus: Laser source, Diffraction grating, Optical bench, Screen, and Meter Scale etc.

Formula:
The Wavelength of a laser λ = X 𝑋𝑚 cm.
m
√𝑋2 +𝐹2
𝑚 𝑚
Where,
d= no of lines per Cm on grating
m = Order of the diffraction.
Xm = distance between the 0th order and mthorder.
Fm = distance between the grating and graph paper

Fig : Experimental arrangement of Wavelength of a laser source -Diffraction grating.

 19
Table

distance between distance between the 0th

order and mthorder(Xm) 𝒅 𝑿𝒎
the grating and 𝛌= 𝒙
S. No Order(m) graph paper(Fm) cm 𝒎
cm √𝑿𝟐𝒎 +𝑭𝟐𝒎

Left right Avg

(𝑿𝒎)

Average λ =

Procedure:
1. Arrange laser source, diffraction grating and screen rectilinearly at the same height on the optical bench.
2. Keep the distance (D) between the grating the screen at fixed value (say 20cm).

3. Switch on the laser source

4. Then the laser beam incident normally on the surface of the grating.

5. Then the laser gets diffracted from the ruled surface of the given grating and formed diffraction pattern on
the screen

6. We can observe different diffraction orders of the bright spots on the screen on either side of the central
maximum.

7. Let the distance from the central maximum to diffracted spot on the left side is d1 and that on the right
side is d2.

8. The average of the d1 and d2 is d.

9. The wave length of the given source can be determined by using this formula

10. Repeat the experiment values (D=30, 40, 50cm…) and note the corresponding “d” values for different
diffraction orders and tabulate the readings.
 20
Observations:

Number of lines per cm on the grating N = 2500 lines /inch

= 2500lines/ 2.54cm [1 inch =2.54 cm]

= 984.25 lines/ cm.

Precautions:

(1). Experiment must be done in dark room.

(2). Measure the distance between principle maxima and first order on both side accurately.

(3). Don‟t operate the laser source at eye-level as the beam if deflected into the eye could do serious damge
to the retina.

(4). The laser source must not be moved when switched on.

(5). When not in use either turn it off or block the beam at the laser.

Result:

The wave length of the given LASER source is determined using diffraction grating, (λ)
is……………………
 21
Space for Rough work
 22

EXNO: DATE:

Magnetic field induction – Stewart and Gee’s Method

Aim: To determine the magnetic field induction along the axis of a current carrying coil at several
pointsusing Stewart and Gee‟s galvanometer.

Apparatus: Stewart and Gee‟s galvanometer, Battery eliminator, Ammeter, Commutator, Rheostat, Plug
keys, scale, connecting wires.

Formula: Magnetic field induction along the axis of a current carrying coil is given by,

𝜇0𝑛𝑖𝑟 2
B=
2(𝑥2+𝑟2)3/2
where i is the current passing through the coil

n is the number of turns of the coil

r is the radius of the coil

x is the distance of the point from the centre of the coil.

𝜇𝑜 is the permeability of free space

2) From the tangent law the magnetic field induc-

tion,B = BH Tanθ

Where BH is the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic

field.B H=0.38 oersted

 is the average deflection.

Procedure:
Using a compass box, a long line of about one meter is drawn on the working table to represent
themagnetic meridian. Another line perpendicular to this line is also drawn. The Stewart and Gee‟s gal-
vanometer is set with its coil in the magnetic meridian and the circuit connections are made as shown in
figure. The magnetometer is set at the center of the coil and rotated so that the aluminum pointerreads 00-
00 deflection. The plug key is closed and the rheostat is adjusted so as the deflection in the magnetometer
is about 600. The current through the coil is reversed and the deflection is observed. This deflection
should not differ much (than 600).

The magnetometer is moved towards east along the axis of the coil in steps of 2 cm at a time. At
each position, the key is closed and the deflections before and after reversal of current are noted. The
mean deflection is denoted as E . The magnetometer is further moved towards each in steps of 2 m each
 23

time andthe deflections before and after reversal of current are noted, until the deflection falls to 300. The
equipmentis repeated towards the west from the centre and the corresponding mean deflection ( W ) is de-
termined. All the readings are noted in table.

Circuit diagram:

Observations:
1. Horizantal component of earth‟s magnetic field, BH = 0.38 oerstead or (0.38x10-4 tesla)

2. Permeability of free space, 𝜇𝑜= 4x10-7 Henry/m

3. Current through the coil, i = A

4. Number of turns used, n =

5. Radius of the coil , r = cm

Precautions:
1. Battery eliminator, Ammeter and Rheostat should be for away from the Stewart and
Gee‟sgalvanometer.

2. The deflection in the magnetometer before and after reversal of current should not differ much.

3. The coil of Stewart and Gee‟s galvanometer should be set in the magnetic meridian.

4. The current through the coil should be maintained

5. constantly throughout the experiment.

Result: The magnetic induction along axis of given current carrying coil at several points is noted
andstudied by drawing Gaussian distribution curve from the graph.
 24

Space for rough work

 25

Table: Stewart-Gee‟s experiment-Magnetic field along the circular coil carrying current.

Deflection in east side Deflection in west side

Mean
E
Average B= B=
Distance Current in Current inoth- Current in Current in Mean Tan
one direc- w
deflec-  ni r 2
S.No er direction Tan one direc- other direc-
w tion BH Tan o

 
3/ 2
x (cm) tion tion tion 2 x2  r 2
E
θ=
𝜃𝐸+𝜃w
2
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1

5
 26

EXNO: DATE:

Energy Gap of a Semiconductor Diode

Aim: To determine the energy gap of a p-n junction diode.

Apparatus: p-n junction diode, 1.5 V battery, Rheostat, Plug Key, micro ammeter, glass test tube, oil (or
glass wool) and thermometer.

Formula: Energy gap of a p-n junction diode Eg= (2 x 2.303 x KB x β) eV

Where is the Boltzmann‟s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K

Slope = β = ∆ log10(𝐼𝑜)
( 1 )
∆( )
𝑇

Theory: In an atom, electrons occupy distinct energy levels. When atoms join to make a solid, the allowed
energy levels are grouped into bands. The bands are separated by regions of energy levels that electrons are
forbidden to be in. These regions are called forbidden energy gaps or band gaps. Energy bands and
forbidden energy gap is illustrated in figure 1. The electrons of them outermost shell of an atom are the val-
ance electrons. These occupy the valance band. Any electrons in the conduction band are not attached to any
single atom, but are free to move through the material when driven by an external electric field.

Figure 1: Energy band structure

 27
In a metal, such as copper, the valance and conduction bands overlap as illustrated in Figure 2. There are no
forbidden energy gaps and electrons in the topmost levels are free to absorb energy and move to higher energy
levels within the conduction band. Thus, the electrons are free to move under the influence of electric field
and conduction is possible. The materials are referred to as conductor.

In an insulator such as SiO2, the conduction band is separated from the valance band by a large ener-
gy gap of 9.0 eV. All energy levels in the valance band are occupied and all the levels in the conduction
band are empty. It would take 9.0 eV to move electron from the valance band does not conduct electrons
and is called an insulator.

Semiconductors are similar to the insulators in so far as they do have an energy gap only the energy gap for
the semiconductor is much smaller (example: Silicon‟s energy gap is 1.1 eV and Germanium‟s energy gap
is 0.7 eV at 300K). These are pure intrinsic semiconductors.

For finite temperatures, a probability exists that electrons from the top of the valance band in an intrinsic
semiconductor will be thermally excited across the energy gap into the conduction band. The vacant spaces
left by the electrons which have left the valance band are called holes which also contribute to theconduc-
tion because, electrons can easily move into the vacancies. If an electric field is applied, the electronsflow in
one direction and the holes move in opposite direction. The act as a positive charge (deficiency of negative
charge) so the direction of current (effective positive charge) is in the same direction. For pure Silicon, at
 28
300K, the number of electrons residing in the conduction band as a result of thermal excitement from the
valance band is 1.4x1010/cm3.

Semiconductors have the conduction band and valance band separated by a forbidden region called
the energy gap. If the lowest energy in the conduction band is designated, Ec, and the highest energy level of
the valance band is called Ev, then the energy gap between them would be: Eg = Ec-Ev.

The conductivity of a material is directly proportional to the concentration of electrons in the con-
duction band. The concentration of electrons increases with temperature. The resistivity decreases with tem-
perature according to the following equation:
𝐸𝑔
3/2 ( )
Resistivity = CoT 𝑒𝑥𝑝 2𝐾𝐵𝑇

Where Co is a constant and T is temperature in Kelvin.Eg is the energy gap and K is Boltzmann‟s constant.
Since Eg is small for a semiconductor, in the order 1eV=1.6x10-19J, K=1.38x10-23 J/mole-K and T is about
350K, the resistivity „r‟ varies almost linearly with (1/k T) So, the resistivity can be described for small
temperature range as :

𝐸𝑔
(
r = C1(T) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 2𝐾𝐵𝑇 )where C1 is a slowly varying function of the temperature.

The resistance of sample of material would thus be:

𝐸𝑔
(
R(T) = C2(T) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 2𝐾𝐵𝑇 ) at temperature T.

At an initial temperature, T0, it would be:

( 𝐸𝑔𝑇
R(T ) = C2(T ) 2𝐾𝐵 0) where C2(T) = C2(T ).
0 0 𝑒𝑥𝑝 0

Dividing the two equations and taking the natural logarithm of both sides, yields:
𝑅
ln( 𝑇) = (Eg/2)(1/k T) - (Eg/2)(1/k T0) where (Eg/2) is the slope of the linear equation and (Eg/2)(1/k T0) is
𝑅0

the y-intercept.
𝑅𝑇
By plotting ln( ) vs (1/k T), the value of E can be found from the slope.
𝑅𝑜 g
 29

Procedure:

The given p-n junction diode is connected in the reverse bias and is placed in an oil bath. At room tempera-
ture, the saturation current is measured using a microammeter and the corresponding bias voltage is also
noted using volt meter. Then, the oil bath is kept immersed in water bath as shown in Figure. The tempera-
ture of water bath is raised slowly and the saturation current (I0) are noted as a function oftemperature in
steps of 5oC by maintaining the bias voltage of constant value. The water bath heated up to 90oC and then
switched off. The saturation current is also noted while cooling till the water bath attainsroom tempera-
ture and the readings are tabulated.

Graph:

A graph is drawn taking (1/T) values on X-axis and log10(I0) values on Y-axis. The nature of the graph is

straight line as shown in the figure. From the graph, the slope of the (1/T) - log10(I0) curve is given by,

∆𝑙𝑜𝑔10𝐼0
Slope = β = .
1
∆
𝑇
 30

Table:

Saturation Current I0 (μA)

Temperature T= 𝟏
S.No On On log10(I0)
t (oC) Mean (273+t)K 𝑻
heating cooling
 31

Observations:

1. Boltzmann‟s constant, KB= 1.38x10-23 J/K

2. Bias voltage, V =

3. Slope of (1/T) - log10(I0) curve =

Precautions:

1. The diode has to be completely immersed in the oil.

2. The diodes should not touch the walls of the beaker.

3. Do not operate above 90oC.

Result:

The energy gap of the given p-n junction diode is determined and found to be eV.
 32

Space for rough work

 33

EXNO: DATE:

Four Probe Method -Electrical Conductivity

Aim: To determine the electrical conductivity of a given semiconductor sample by usingFour-Probe method.

Apparatus:
Four probe arrangement, oven, thermometer, sample semiconductor crystal, voltmeter, ammeter, connecting
leads.
Formula:
The resistivity of the semiconductor crystal is given by

 2𝑑 x 𝑉
=
𝑓( ) 𝐼
𝑑

Electric Conductivity  =1/

Where
t -is the thickness of the crystal
d- is the distance between two probes
V- is the voltage across the crystal
I -is the current through the crystal

Procedure:
1. Connect the outer pair of probes leads to the constant current power supply and innerpair to the voltage
terminals.
2. Place the four probe arrangement in the oven and fix the thermometer in the oven through the hole
provided.
3. Switch on the power supply and keep the digital panel meter in the current measuring mode through the
selector switch. In this position the LED facing mA would glow. Adjust the current to adesired value.
4. Now change the digital panel meter in the voltage measuring mode. In this position the LED facing mV
would glow and the meter would read the voltage between inner probes.
5. Connect the oven supply, the rate of heating may be selected with the help of a switch. Increase tempera-
ture of the oven upto 130oC and then switch off the oven.
 34
6. The temperature of the oven will decrease automatically. Now, measure the voltage in the digital panel
meter four various values of temperatures with a difference of 500C.
7. Record the observations till the temperature of the oven reaches to the room temperature.

Figure:

Observations:
1. Distance between the probes (d)= ---------- mm
2. Thickness of the crystal (t) = ----------------- mm
3. Current through the crystal (I) = ------------ mA
Table :

𝟏
Temperature Voltage  =
𝟏 
Sl. No. toc T=(t+273)K 𝑉 2𝜋𝑑 𝑉
K-1 (V) mv 𝜌=
𝑻 𝑡 𝑥 -1-m-1
𝐼 𝑓( ) 𝐼
𝑑
 35
Precautions
1. All four probes should be in contact with crystal surface.
2. Current through the crystal should remain constant through out the experiment.
3. Temperature of oven should not be increased beyond 130o C.
Result:

The electrical conductivity of a given semiconductor (Ge) is determined at several temperatures.

At 40oC , the conductivity is  = --------------------- -1-m-1

At 100oC, the conductivity is  = ------------------- -1-m-1

 36
Space for Rough work
 37
EXNO: DATE:

Determination of crystallite size using x-ray pattern by Debye-Scherrer method

Aim: To determine the crystallite size and lattice parameter of the given sample.

Apparatus: X-ray diffraction pattern graph sheet, Scale.

0.9 X λ X 180
Formula: D =
𝜋𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Where

„D‟ is crystallite size,

β is the full width at half maximum (FWHM),

λ is the wavelength of X-rays (1.541 Ǻ)

𝜃is the diffraction angle

Theory:
The geometrical properties of unit cell can be deduced from the location of reflection on various kinds of X-
ray diffraction methods. X-ray diffraction through specimen placed in the X-ray diffraction gives infor-
mation of crystal phase, orientation, lattice parameters and crystal size. X-ray diffraction technique based on
monochromatic radiation is more important because the planar spacing can be deduced from the observed
diffraction angles. The phenomenon of X-ray diffraction be considered are reflection of X-rays from the
crystallographic planes of the material and is governed by the Bragg‟s equation,

2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛λ
Where „d‟ is the lattice spacing, λ is the wavelength of monochromatic X-ray, „n‟ is the order of diffrac-
tion, 𝜃 is the diffraction angle (figure). The (hkl) which satisfy the above condition diffracted beam was de-
tected by detector. X-ray diffraction data was compared with joint committee for powder diffraction stand-
ards (JCPDS), powder diffraction data for identification of crystallite phase. The crystallite size of the spec-
imen was estimated from the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the intense of the diffraction peakby
Scherrer‟s equation as,
0.9 X λ X 180
D=
𝜋𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

„D‟ is crystallite size, β is the full width at half maximum (FWHM), λ is the wavelength of X-rays 𝜃 is the
diffraction angle.
 38

The crystal structure of CdO nanoparticles was studied by X-ray diffraction Cu-Kα (1.541Ǻ), (Model : SEI-
FERT Rayflex 3003 TT).

The XRD profiles obtained for CdO crystal is shown in Figure 2. From the XRD profiles, the interplanar
spacing values with the help of corresponding standard JCPDS data, the crystallite size and the lattice con-
stant of the experimental sample were determined.

Procedure:
Determination of full width at half maximum (FWHM):
Measure the top of the peak value (Imax) for all peaks on Y-axis and its positions on X-axis as the 2θ in de-
grees. Calculate half value of Imax and locate its positions on either side of peak and find their positions onX-
axis as θ1 and θ2 in degrees.

Draw the line on the peak at FWHM.

The difference of θ1 and θ2 gives full width at half maximum (FWHM) as β in degree for the corresponding
peak.

Similarly, do same procedure for all peaks.

Experimental samples were determined for following relations for cubic structure.

2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛λ, where n=1 and λ= 1.541 Ǻ.

a = d/ (𝑕2 + 𝑘2 + 𝑙2) (1/2)
 39
The crystallite size of the samples was calculated from Debye-Scherrer‟s equation,
0.9 X λ X 180
D=
𝜋𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

a= d (𝒉𝟐 + 𝒌𝟐 + 𝒍𝟐)(1/2)
S.No (hkl) 2θ θ sinθ 𝑑=
λ 0.9𝑥λx180
2𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 𝐷=
πβcosθ

Average: Average: Average:

Result:

The crystallite size and lattice parameter of the given sample were calculated.

(i) Crystallite size, D =

(ii) Interplanar Spacing, d =

(iii) Lattice constant, a =

 40
Space for rough work
 41
EXNO: DATE:

Optical Fiber – Numerical Aperture

Aim: To determine the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of an optical fiber.

Apparatus: PMMA fiber cable, Fiber optic LED, NA jig.

Formula: 1. Numerical Aperture, NA = W/(4L2 + W2)1/2

where W is the diameter of the spot.

L is the distance between the screen and fiber end.

2. Acceptance angle, θ = Sin-1(NA)

Procedure:

Connect one end of the fiber optic cable to fiber optic LED and the other end to the NA jig as shown
in figure. When A.C. main is switched on, light should appear at the other end of the fiber on the NA jig.
Hold the white screen with the 6 concentric circles (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 mm diameter) vertically at a
suitable distance to make the red spot coming from the fiber end to cover with 10 mm diameter circle. Note
the distance of the screen from the fiber end (L) and diameter (W) of the spot. Calculate the NA using the
formula, NA = W/(4L2 + W2)1/2.

Tabulate the readings and repeat the experiment for the circles of diameter 15, 20, 25 and 30 mm.
 42

Table: Determination of NA and Acceptance angle.

SI. Diameter of the Distance of the NA = Acceptanceangle,

No spot W (mm) screen from thefiber W/(4L2 + W2)1/2 θ = Sin-1(NA)
end, L (mm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Average NA = Average θ =

Precautions:

1. At all the time the intensity at the out put of the fiber optic cable should be maximum.

2. The fiber optic cable is made free from twists and strains.

3. The circumference of the spot must coincide with the circle.

Result: 1. The Numerical Aperture of the given fiber cable, NA =

2. The acceptance angle, θ =

 43
Space for rough work
 44
EXNO: DATE:
Brewster's law
Aim:

To verify the Brewster's law and to find the Brewster's angle.

Introduction:

An ordinary light source consists of a very large number of randomly oriented atomic emitters. They radiate
polarized wave trains for roughly 10-8 s. These wave trains combine to form a single resultant polarized wave
which persists for a short time, not more than 10-8 s. Since natural light composes of a large number of rapidly
varying succession of the different polarization states it is said to be an unpolarised or randomly polarized light.

The natural light can be expressed in terms of two arbitrary, incoher-

ent, orthogonal, linearly polarized waves of equal amplitude. Figure
(a) shows randomly polarized natural light and figure (b) shows the
splitting at 50% horizontal and 50% vertical states.

A light is said to be a plane polarized light, if all the vibrations are

confined to a single plane. Consider an unpolarised light incidents on
a transparent surface. If the angle of incidence is equal to a particular angle of incidence, the reflected light pro-
duced will be completely plane polarized. This particular angle is called the Brewster‟s angle or the polarizing
angle B.

Sir David Brewster, in 1892, found that the maximum polarization of the reflected ray occurs when the reflect-
ed ray is perpendicular to the refracted ray. This is called the Brewster‟s law.
 45

Brewster‟s equation:

Where, μ2 is the refractive index of the reflecting surface and μ1 is the refractive index of the surrounding medi-
um. The refracted ray so produced will be partially polarized. As the refractive index changes the polarizing an-
gle differs but it is independent of the wavelength of light used.

Performing the Simulation:

Drag the components from the right panel and place them correctly in the optic bench.

Start : This button enables the user to start the experiment.

Side view/Top view : Using this, different views of the experimental arrangement can be seen.

Choose light : Using this combo box, one can select different lasers.

Choose medium : The medium of different refractive index can be selected using this combo box.

Choose material : Different materials can be selected using this combo box.

Switch on light : The user can make the laser source ON/OFF using this button.

Angle of the polariser : Using this slider, one can change the angle of the polariser from zero to 360 degrees.

Angle of incidence : This slider helps one to change the angle of incidence, which can be varied from zero to
360 degrees.

Reset : The experimental arrangement can be reset using this button.

Bibliography:

Fowles, Grant. Introduction to Modern Optics. New York: Dover Publications, 1989.

Young, Matt. Optics and Lasers. Berlin: Springer, 2000

Silfvast, William. Laser Fundamentals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Webliography:

http://www.microscopy.fsu.edu/primer/java/polarizedlight/brewster/index.html
 46
Space for rough work
 49

EXNO: DATE:
Compound pendulum

Aim:

To determine the acceleration g of gravity using a compound pendulum.

The radius of gyration kG of the compound pendulum about an axis perpendicular to the plane of oscillation and
passing through its centre of mass.

The moment of inertia IG of the compound pendulum about an axis perpendicular to the plane of oscillation and
passing through its centre of mass.

Theory:

In Fig. 1, O is the point of suspension of the compound pendulum and G is its

centre of mass; we consider the force of gravity to be acting at G. If h is the
distance from O to G, the equation of motion of the compound pendulum is

Where I0is the moment of inertia of the compound pendulum about the point
O.
Comparing to the equation of motion for a simple pendulum

We see that the two equations of motion are the same if we take

It is convenient to define the radius of gyration k0 of the compound pendulum

such that if all the mass M were at a distance k0 from O,
the moment of inertia about O would be I0, which we do by writing I0 = Mk02
Substituting this into (1) gives us

The point O′, a distance l from O along a line through G, is called the center of oscillation. Let h′ be the distance
from G to O′, so that l=h+h'. Substituting this into (2), we have

If IG is the moment of inertia of the compound pendulum about its centre of mass, we can also define the radius
of gyration kG about the centre of mass by writing IG = MkG2.

The parallel axis theorem gives us

Comparing to (3), we have,

If we switch h with h′, equation (4) doesn’t change, so we could have derived it by suspending the pendulum
from O′. In that case, the center of oscillation would be at O and the equivalent simple pendulum would have
 50

the same length l. Therefore the period would be the same as when suspended from O. Thus if we know the lo-
cation of G, by measuring the period T with suspension at O and at various points along the extended line from
O to G, we can find O′ and thus h′.
Then using equation (4), we can calculate kG and IG = MkG2.

Knowing h′ gives us l = h + h′, and since for small angle oscillations the period

We can calculate g using

The minimum period Tmin , corresponds to the minimum value of l. Recall that l = h + h′ and that kG2 = hh' is a
constant, depending only on the physical characteristics of the pendulum.
Thus, l=h+kG2/h, and the minimum I occurs when,

i. e, when h2=kG2, h=h' and l=2h=2kG.

Thus, at Tmin, l=2kG.

Performing the real lab:

 The compound bar pendulum AB is suspended by passing a knife edge through the first hole at the end A. The
pendulum is pulled aside through a small angle and released, whereupon it oscillates in a vertical plane with a
small amplitude. The time for 10 oscillations is measured. From this the period T of oscillation of the pendulum
is determined.
















 In a similar manner, periods of oscillation are determined by suspending the pendulum through the remaining
holes on the same side of the centre of mass G of the bar. The bar is then inverted and periods of oscillation are
determined by suspending the pendulum through all the holes on the opposite side of G. The distances d of the
top edges of different holes from the end A of the bar are measured for each hole.The position of the centre of
mass of the bar is found by balancing the bar horizontally on a knife edge. The mass M of the pendulum is
determined by weighing the bar with an accurate scale or balance.
 51

 A graph is drawn with the distance d of the various holes from the end A along the X-axis and the period T of
the pendulum at these holes along the Y-axis. The graph has two branches, which are symmetrical about G. To
determine the length of the equivalent simple pendulum corresponding to any period, a straight line is drawn
parallel to the X- axis from a given period T on the Y- axis, cutting the graph at four points A, B, C, D. The dis-
tances AC and BD, determined from the graph, are equal to the corresponding length l. The average length l =
(AC+BD)/2 and l/T2 are calculated. In a similar way , l/T2 is calculated for different periods by drawing lines
parallel to the X-axis from the corresponding values of T along the Y- axis. l/T2 should be constant over all peri-
ods T, so the average over all suspension points is taken. Finally, the acceleration due to gravity is calculated
from the equation g= 4π2(l/T2).

 Tmin is where the tangent EF to the two branches of the graph crosses the Y-axis. At Tmin, the distance EF = l =
2kG can be determined, which gives us kG, the radius of gyration of the pendulum about its centre of mass, and
one more value of g, from g= 4π2(2kG/Tmin2) .

 kG can also be determined as follows. A line is drawn parallel to the Y -axis from the point G corresponding to
the centre of mass on the X-axis, crossing the line ABCD at P. The distances AP = PD = AD/2 = h and BP = PC
= BC/2 = h′ are obtained from the graph. The radius of gyration kG about the centre of mass of the bar is then
determined by equation (4). The average value of kG over the different measured periods T is taken, and the
moment of inertia of the bar about a perpendicular axis through its centre of mass is calculated using the equa-
tion IG=MkG2.

Performing the simulation:

 Suspend the pendulum in the first hole by choosing the length 5 cm on the length slider.

 Click on the lower end of the pendulum, drag it to one side through a small angle and release it. The pendulum
will begin to oscillate from side to side.

 Repeat the process by suspending the pendulum from the remaining holes by choosing the corresponding
lengths on the length slider.

 Draw a graph by plotting distance d along the X-axis and time period T along the Y-axis. (A spreadsheet like
Excel can be very helpful here.)

 Calculate the average value of l/T2 for the various choices of T, and then calculate g as in step 2 above.

 Determine kG and IG as outlined in steps 3 and 4 above.

 Repeat the experiment in different gravitational environments by selecting an environment from the drop-
down environment menu. If the pendulum has been oscillating, press the Stop button to activate the envi-
ronment menu.
 52

Observations:
To draw graph :

To find the value of 'g' :

To find the radius of gyration and the acceleration of gravity (step 3 above):

Radius of gyration about the centre of mass kG = EF/2 = ..................

Acceleration of gravity, g= 4π2(2kG/Tmin2) = ......................

To find the radius of gyration (step 4 above):

 53

Results:

Average acceleration of gravity, g= 4π2(l/T2) = .....................m/s2

Average radius of gyration of the pendulum about its centre of mass, kG = ...................... m
Mass of the pendulum M = ..................... Kg
Moment of inertia of the pendulum about its centre of mass, IG=MkG2 = ...................... Kgm2

Reference:

https://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=1&brch=280&sim=210&cnt=2
 54

Space for rough work

 55

EXNO: DATE:

Torsional Pendulum - Rigidity Modulus

Aim: To determine the modulus of rigidity (η) of the material of the given wire using a Torsional pendu-
lum.
Apparatus: A circular brass disc provided with a chuck and nut at its centre, steel wire, a rigid clamp,
stop watch, meter scale and screw gauge.
Formula:

r
Where, M - Mass of the disc.
R - Radius of the disc.
a - Radius of the wire.

𝑙 - Length of the pendulum.

T - Time period.
Description:
The Torsional pendulum consist of a uniform circular metal disc of about 8 to 10 cm diameter with 1 or 2
cm thickness, suspended by a wire at the centre of the disc as shown in figure. The lower end is gripped
into another chuck, which is fixed to a wall bracket.

Procedure:
The circular metal disc is suspended as shown in figure. The length of the wire between the chucks
is adjusted to 100cm. when the disc is in equilibrium position; a small mark is made on the curved edge of
the disc. This marking will help to note the number of oscillations made by slowly turning the disc
through a small angle. Care is to be taken to see that there is no lateral movement of the disc. When the
disc is oscillating the time taken for 20 oscillations is noted with the help of a stopwatch and recorded in
the observations table in trail 1. The procedure is repeated for the same length of the wire and again the
time taken for 20 oscillations is noted and noted as trail 2 in the observation table. From trail 1 & 2 the
mean time for 20 oscillations is obtained. The time period (T), i.e., the time taken for one oscillation is
calculated. The experiment is repeated by decreasing the length of the wire in steps of10cm and the re-
sults are tabulated in the table.
 56

By using the Vernier calipers the radius of the disc (R) is calculated, the radius of the wire (a) is
calculated by means of screw gauge and the mass of the disc (M) is found by means of rough balance and
𝑙
these values are substituted in the formula. The mean value of ( ) is calculated from the observations and
𝑇2
hence η is determined. A graph is drawn with „l‟ on X-axis and T2 on Y-axis. It is a straight line graph and
𝑙
the value of ( 2) is calculated and the rigidity modulus of the material of the wire η is calculated.
𝑇

Graph & Diagram

Observa-
tions:
(i) To deter- mine
the radius of the disc:
Least count of the Vernier calipers =
0𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎i𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑i𝑣i𝑠i𝑜𝑛
=
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜ƒ 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛i𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑i𝑣i𝑠i𝑜𝑛𝑠

S. No Main scale Vernier coin- Vernier Read- Total Reading

reading (a) cidence (VC) ing (a+b) cm
(b=L.C*V.C)

Average =
(ii) To determine the radius of the wire:
𝑃i𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑜ƒ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒w
Least count of the Screw Gauge = =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜ƒ ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑i𝑣i𝑠i𝑜𝑛𝑠

Screw Gauge Error : Correction:

 57

S. No P.S.R H.S.R H.S.C H.S.R Total

(a) (b=L.C*H.S.C) (a+b) (mm)

Average =
(1) Mass of the disc (M) =
(2) Radius of the disc (R) =
(3) Radius if the wire (a) =
Time Period of the Pendulum:
S.No Length Time taken for 20 oscillations Time for one
of the Oscillation
wire 𝒍 Trial 1 Trial 2 Average (t) 𝒍
(Time period) 𝑻𝟐 ( )
(cm)
T = 𝑡 seconds 𝑻𝟐
𝟐0

Precautions:
1. The wire should not have any bending.
2. The chuck nuts should be tight because the wire becomes loose and the oscillations may not be perfect.
3. The time period between the oscillations must be uniform.
4. Galvanometer is an example of making use of the Torsional oscillations.

Result: The rigidity modulus of the material of the given wire is η = ----------------------- dynes/cm2.
 58

Space for rough work

 59

EXNO: DATE:

Thermistor

Aim : To Calibrate the given thermistor with standard thermistor , hence to find the
temperature of the unknown liquid.

Apparatus: Thermistor , thermometer (0-110 °C range) ,multi-meter (200

Ohm's range)' Calorimeter , Water , unknown liquid.

Principle: The resistance of a thermistor increases with decreases in temperature has

negative temperature co-efficient (α). The resistance varies exponentially with tem-
perature.

Formula: Ω∆R = α∆t

Where - ∆R is change in resistance (Ω),

∆t is change in temperature (°C), and

α is temperature co-efficient of resistance of thermistor (°C−1).

Diagram:

Expected Graph
 60
Procedure:
The experimental arrangement is made on shown in figure. Initial temperature of water in calo-
rimeter is measured using 0-110 °C range thermometer and corresponding resistance in the multi-
meter is recorded. The water is heated up to the thermometer of 85°C. The corresponding resister is
noted using multi-meter. The values of temperature and respective resistance are tabulated for
every fall in temperature reads 45°C.A graph of temperature, t (y-axis) versus R (x-axis) is plotted
(Calibration graph). The thermistor is removed from the water and immersed in a liquid whose tem-
perature is to be determined. The resistance (𝑅′) for unknown liquid is noted,, and hence the tem-
perature of unknown liquid is determined using calibration graph.

Observation: Initial Temperature of water: °C, corresponding resistance in the multi-

meter: °C

Tabular Column:

Temperature of water ‘t’ in °C Resistance of ThermistorR in Ω

85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45

Calculations:

The resistance (𝑅′) for unknown liquid Ω

The temperature of unknown liquid obtained from calibration graph is

°C

Result: The given thermistor is calibrated with the standard mercury thermometer and cal-
ibration graph is plotted, Using which the temperature fof unknown liquid is found to
be °C
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Space for rough work
 62
EXNO: DATE:

Dielectric Constant
Aim: Determination of dielectric constant of dielectric material using charging and discharging of capacitor.
Apparatus: Circuit board, ammeter, stop watch and connecting wires.
Formula:
Charging: When a condenser C is charged through a resistance R then charge increases exponentially in
accordance with formula

𝑞 = 𝑞0 (1- 𝑒−𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶)
Discharging: When a condenser is charged through a resistance R then charge falls in accordance withformu-
la
𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒−𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶
Where q – charge at time t

𝑞0 -maximum charge
t - time

R – Resistance

C – Capacitance

Time constant in charging: It is the time taken to establish 1- 𝑒−𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶part of the maximum charge in the
condenser and also it is equal to the time taken to establish 0.632 part of the total charge.

Time constant in discharging: The time constant in this case is equal to the time taken to decrease the
charge of „e‟ part of the maximum charge and it is also equal to the time taken to discharge to a value of
0.368 part of the maximum charge.

Time constant (Theoretical): Product of resistance and capacitancet = RC

Where t - time

R – Resistance

C – Capacitance

Theory:

When the key is pressed, a constant e.m.f works in the circuit, the condenser plates receive the charge till
the potential difference across them becomes equal to E. Let at any instant, during charging, q be the charge
on the condenser plates, the potential difference across the condenser will be q/c and will be opposite will be
opposite to the supply emfas the positively charged plate is connected to the terminal of the cell. After the
 63
condenser is charged and the key is released, the discharging to the condenser takes place. Let q be the
charge on the condenser at time t after the cell has been removed. Then the instantaneous value of the poten-
tial difference across the condenser is given by q/c and E = 0.
Procedure:
1. Rig up the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Flip the switch towards push to charge, the capacitor start charging towards the power supply. The switch
is in this position, for short interval of time until the voltmeter shows maximum deflection, but within the
limit. Note down the maximum voltage as V0 .

3. Now flip the switch to other side and start the stop clock. The voltage starts falling.

4. Note the voltmeter reading at a regular time interval.

5. Plot the graph of voltage (V) on Y- axis and time t on X- axis.

Graph:
 64

Table:
R= ohm (Ω)
C= Farad (F)

S.No Time (seconds) Voltage for charging (volts) Voltage for discharging (volts)

Precautions:
1. Before starting the experiment, check the connections in the circuit.

2. Readings should be taken without parallax errors.

Result:
R (kΩ) C (μF) Time constant for charging (seconds) Time constant for discharging (seconds)
Theoretical Experimental Theoretical Experimental
 65
Space for rough work
 66
EXNO: DATE:

Hall Effect
Aim: To determine the Hall constant and number of charge carriers per unit volume of a semiconductor
specimen.

Apparatus: Semiconductor specimen in the shape of rectangular parallopiped, FET electronic voltmeter.
b
Formula: 1) Hall constant, RH = 107  slope
HZ

where HZ is the magnetic field along Z-direction (in gauss)

b is the width of the specimen along voltage direction

VH
slope = , is the slope of ix-VH curve
ix
2) Number of charge carriers for unit volume, N = 1
RH e

where e represents the charge of an electron.

Procedure:

The given semiconductor specimen bar ABCDABCD is placed between the poles N and S of an
electromagnet as shown in figure. The current is passed through the bar and it is measured with
milliammeter and it can be adjusted with rheostat. The fall of potential across the length of the bar is
measured. Hall voltage (VH) is measured and the readings are tabulated.

At first the voltage is measured in the absence of magnetic field. By switching on the current of
electromagnet the magnetic field (HZ) is applied along X-direction (ix) is changed. For each value of ix, hall
voltage is measured and the readings are tabulated.

Figure: Hall effect setup

 67

Graph:

A graph is plotted taking ix values on X- axis and VH values on Y- axis. It is a straight line
passing through the origin as shown in figure. From the graph, the slope of the ix - V curve is given by,
H

VH
slope = ix .
 68

Table:

SI.No. Current Hall voltage Resistivity Conductivity

ix (mA) VH (mV)
ρ = 𝑖𝑥 σ = 1/ρ
𝑉𝐻

Precautions:

1) The current through the specimen should not exceed the safety limit.

2) Magnetic field can be measured with a flux meter or ballistic galvanometer.

Observations:

1) Width of the specimen along voltage direction, b = cm

2) Magnetic field along Z- direction, HZ = gauss

3) Electron charge, e = 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs

Result: The Hall constant and the number of charge carriers per unit volume of the given semiconductor
specimen are determined.

1) Hall constant, RH =

2) Number of charge carriers per unit volume, N =

 69

Space for rough work

 70

EXNO: DATE:

Kundt’s tube Method

Aim:

To find the velocity of sound waves in a given rod with Kundt‟s tube apparatus.

Apparatus:

A long glass tube, piston, metal rod, powdered cork, ruler, clamps and leather piece.

Theory:

Kundt‟s tube is an acoustical apparatus, invented by German Physicist, August Kundt (1866). Knowing the
speed of sound in air, the speed of sound V in a solid rod can be calculated based on the measurement of sound
wavelength, λ. If the frequency of the sound wave, f is known, we can calculate the speed of sound as,

Kundt’s tube apparatus:

The apparatus consists of a long transparent horizontal pipe G, which contains a fine powder such as cork dust
or talc. At the ends of the tube, there are metal fittings. At one end of the tube, a metallic rod AB, of uniform
radius having one or two meter length is introduced. This rod is clamped at the middle and carries a circular disc
D, rigidly fixed at one end. The radius of the disc is slightly less than the radius of the glass tube. The rod is in-
serted a few centimeters inside the tube, without touching it. The other end of the glass tube is closed by a me-
tallic piston, P. The position of the piston can be adjusted by moving it in or out. The whole apparatus is tightly
clamped on a table, so that there will be no jerks on the tube during the experiment.

The schematic diagram of a Kundt‟s tube is shown below.

The tube is dried and fixed in position after spreading a thin layer of cork dust in it. When the rod is set into lon-
gitudinal vibrations at its fundamental frequency by rubbing it with a piece of rosined leather at B, the ends of
the rod act as anti-nodes and the middle point acts as node. The length of the metal rod is equal to half the wave-
length of the sound wave in the material of the rod. The disc begins to vibrate backward and forward.
 71
The air inside the glass tube is set into forced vibrations with the frequency of the wave emitted and stationary
waves are produced by reflection at the piston. On altering the position of the piston, a point is reached where an
overtone of the air column coincides with the fundamental of the rod, and thus produces resonance within the
tube. At this stage, the cork dust in the tube is violently agitated and collected as heaps at the nodes. The average
distance between the successive heaps will be equal to half the wavelength of sound in air.

If la be the mean distance between the consecutive nodes of cork dust in air and l r, the length of the metal rod,
then,
Wavelength of sound wave in air,

Wavelength of sound wave in the rod,

If f is the frequency of vibration produced, the velocity of the sound wave through the rod and air is given by,

Hence,

Knowing the speed of sound in air, we can calculate the speed of sound in the rod.

The velocity of sound in a solid material is given by,

Where Y is the Young‟s modulus of the material of the rod and ρ is the density.

Then,

Flash EOL
Flash content link
Animation: https://vlab.amrita.edu/repo/PHY/HMW/KundtsTube/index.swf
Simulator: https://vlab.amrita.edu/repo/PHY/HMW/KundtsTube/KundtsTube.swf

Procedure for performing real lab:

Take the glass tube and put some powdered cork dust in it.
 72
By fast rotatory movement, distribute the powder uniformly inside the tube.

Fix the tube tightly with the holder.

Tightly clamp the metal rod at the centre.

The piston is introduced to the other end of the glass tube.

The rod is rubbed at B, lengthwise with a piece of rosined leather and set into longitudinal vibrations at its fun-
damental frequency.

Move the piston in and out of the tube till the resonance is obtained.

Now the cork dust inside the tube becomes deposited as heaps.

Select the position of the extreme nodes very carefully and measure the distance between them. Find the number
of heaps and calculate the average distance between two consecutive peaks.

Note the length of the rod and repeat the experiment.

We have the velocity of sound through air equals, 343m/s.

Using equation (3), the velocity of sound through the rod can be calculated.

The Youngs modulus of the rod can be calculated from equation (5).

Note:

The glass tube must be perfectly dry as moisture afects sound velocity.

The metallic rod should be clamped exactly at the middle.

The powder must be evenly spread.

The disc should not touch the glass tube, since it causes the tube to break.

Procedure for simulator:

From the combo box Select Material select the material of the rod.
By clicking the button Start Rubbing set longitudinal vibrations in the rod.

Using the slider Rod length, select desired length of the experimental rod.

The slider Piston Position helps the user to move the piston in and out of the glass tube to obtain the resonance
condition. At resonance, the dust will appear as heaps.

Using this slider Scale Position, move the ruler and measure the length between the desired number of heaps.
From that, one can calculate the length of one heap.
The option Show Result displays the velocity of the sound waves and the Young's modulus of the material of the
rod.

The Reset button resets the conditions.

 73

The experiment can be repeated for different materials of rod and different rod lengths.

Observations:

Length of the rod, lr= ..................... m.

Frequency of sound used, f =.............. Hz.
Velocity of sound in air, Va = 343 m s-1.

Mean la =.......................m.
Then,

Result:

The velocity of sound wave through the rod = ………………… m s-1.

Young‟s modulus of the material of the rod = ………………. N m-2.

 74
Space for rough work
 75
EXNO: DATE:
Melde’s Experiment

Aim

To determine the frequency of an electrically maintained tuning fork by,

1. Transverse mode of vibration

2. Longitudinal mode of vibration

Apparatus

Electrically maintained tuning fork, fine thread, scale pan, weights and meter scale.

Theory

Speed of waves in a stretched string: A string means a wire or a fiber which has a uniform diameter and is per-
fectly flexible. The speed of a wave in a flexible stretched string depends upon the tension in the string and mass per
unit length of the string.

(1)
Where the tension T in the string equal to Mg.
M - Mass suspended and g is acceleration due to gravity.

μ - linear density or mass per unit length of the string.

(2)
Where m is the mass of the string and L is the total length of the string.

Vibrations of a stretched string: When the wire is clamped to a rigid support, the transverse progressive waves
travel towards each end of the wire. By the superposition of incident and reflected waves, transverse stationary waves
are set up in the wire. Since ends of the wire are clamped, there is node N at each end and anti node A in the mid-
dle as shown in Fig: 1.

Fig:1
The points of the medium which have no displacements called nodes and there are some points which vibrate with
maximum amplitude called antinodes.
The distance between two consecutive nodes is λ/2, ( λ - wavelength). Because l is half a wavelength in the equations,

(3)
 76
If ‘f’ be the frequency of vibration the wire,

(4) (4)
Substituting the value of ' v ' in equation (4)

(5) (5)
Transverse drive mode : In this arrangement the vibrations of the prongs of the tuning fork are in the direction per-
pendicular to the length of the string.

The time, during which the tuning fork completes one vibration, the string also completes one vibration. In this mode,
frequency of the string is equal to the frequency of the tuning fork.

Therefore from equation (5),

Frequency (6)
Where
The total mass M is equal to the mass M' of the weight in the scale pan plus the mass M0 of the scale pane, M = M' +
M0.

Longitudinal drive mode: In this arrangement the tuning fork is set in such a manner that the vibrations of the
prongs are parallel to the length of the string.
 77

The time, during which the tuning fork completes one vibration, the string completes half of its vibration. In this mode,
frequency of the fork is twice the frequency of the string.

Frequency (7)

Using equation (6) and (7) we can calculate the frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork in two different modes
of vibration.
In transverse drive mode the string follows the motion of the tuning fork, up and down, once up and once down per
cycle of tuning fork vibration.
However, one cycle of up and down vibration for transverse waves on the string is two cycles of string tension increase
and decrease. The tension is maximum both at the loops’ maximum up position and again at maximum down position.
Therefore, in longitudinal drive mode, since the string tension increases and decreases once per tuning fork vibration,
it takes one tuning fork vibration to move the string loop to maximum up position and one to move it to maximum
down position. This is two tuning fork vibrations for one up and down string vibration, so the tuning fork frequency is
half the string frequency.

Applications

1. Tuning of instruments like guitar.

2. Standing waves in air coloumn, soprano saxophone etc.

3. Human speech analysis.

 78
Performing Simulator
Combo Box:

Longitudinal mode- In this arrangement the tuning fork is set in such a manner that the vibrations of the prongs are
parallel to the length of the string.
Transverse mode - In this arrangement the vibration of the prongs of the tuning fork are in the direction perpendicu-
lar to the length of the string.
Selecting Tuning fork - There are five tuning forks with different frequencies. One can choose any one of the tuning
forks to carry out the experiment.
Select Environment- This is used to select the environment to carry out the experiment.

Sliders:

Mass in the pan M'- This slider is used for adding mass in the scale pan.
Transformer Voltage- This is used to change the voltage of the step down transformer .
Note: At 8V, we get well defined loops.
Scale Position- This is used to change the position of the meter scale and one can calculate the length of one loop.
Power On - This is used to start the experiment.
Pointer movement- The pointer can be moved by using the arrow keys on either side of the zoomed part of the loop
image in the simulator.
Reset- One can repeat the whole experiment by using this button.
Show Result - This helps you to check the result of the experiment with manual calculation.

Procedure for simulation

1. Select the mode of Vibration.

2. Select a particular tuning fork to carry out the experiment.
3. Choose the environment for doing the experiment.
4. The transformer voltage is adjusted to 8V.
5. Mass is suspended in the scale pan.
6. Power on the button and loops will be formed.
7. Length l for one loop is measured by adjusting the scale position.
8. Using equations for mode of vibration, calculate the frequency of particular tuning fork.
9. Repeat the experiment by changing the parameters.

Procedure for real lab

Transverse mode of vibration of the string

The apparatus is arranged with the length of the string is parallel to the prong of the tuning fork on which one end of
the string is attached. The other end of the string carrying a scale pan is passed over a pulley fixed at one end of the
table. When the tuning fork is excited, it vibrates perpendicular to the length of the string.
The scale pan is detached from the string and its mass and length is determined using common balance and meter-
scale. Hence linear density is calculated.
The scale pan is again suspended at the end of the string and mass is added in the scale pan. The circuit is closed and
tuning fork is set into vibration. The string vibrates transversely producing stationary waves. The length of the string is
so adjusted to get well defined loops. Keeping two long knitting needle at two nodes, length of N loops is measured
and average length is calculated. Using equation, frequency of the tuning fork is calculated.
 79
Longitudinal mode of vibration of the string

The apparatus is arranged with length of the string is perpendicular to the prong of the fork. In this case, when the
tuning is vibrated parallel to the length of the string. The experiment is performed exactly as in the previous case.

Observations and Calculations

Here, M is the total mass- mass of the scale pan + mass suspended.
Mass of the scale pan - 0 .5g.

Transverse mode

.........................Hz
f - frequncy of tuning fork in Hz
μ - linear density in kg/m - mass of the string / length of the string.
Here, mass - 350mg and length - 3m and μ - 1.17 x 10-4 kgm-1.
l - length of one loop in m

Longitudinal mode

..........................Hz

Results

1. The frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork at longitudinal mode of vibration = ......................... Hz

2. The frequency of electrically maintained tuning fork at transverse mode of vibration = ...................... Hz
 80
Engineering Physics Lab viva Questions with Answers

1. NEWTON RINGS EXPERIMENT

(1) What is the basic principle of Newton’s rings experiment?

Ans: Interference among the normally reflected light from air medium formed between lens and glass plate.
(2) Define Interference phenomena?
Ans: Superposition of two are more wave in same direction with same frequency or wavelength.
(3) Why are the fringes circular?
Ans: Because the thickness of air film uniformly form center or the contact point of lens and plane glass
plate.
(4) What are Newton’s Rings?
Ans: Formation of interference pattern in the form of alternative bright and dark circular ring in presence of
normally incident monochromatic light.
(5) Why is it necessary for the light to fall normally on plano-convex lens?
Ans: For getting maximum path difference and for uniform thickness.
(6) What is constructive interference and destructive interference?
Ans: Maximum intensity and minimum intensity pattern of interference.
(7) What is the purpose of glass plate incline at 450 in this experiment?
Ans: For making the light to fall normally on the upper surface of the lens.
(8) Why is the centre of the rings dark?
Ans: In the reflected light,the path difference at center is equal to destructive interference.
(9) What is the light used in this experiment?
Ans: Monochromatic light namely Sodium vapour light.
(10) What will happen if we use white light in this experiment?
Ans: Interference not seen clearly due to overlapping of all wavelengths of white light.
(11) If you replace yellow light with green light,is there any difference in the formation of rings?
Ans: No,but colour of bright ring will be in green.
(12) What are applications of this experiment?
Ans: Determining the refractive index of liquid,radius of curvature of lens,plots of glass surface.

2. DIFFRACTION GRATING – NORMAL INCIDENCE METHOD.

(1) What is diffraction?
Ans: A plane glass plate having equally spaced transparent and opaque lines with width of incident light.
(2) What do you meant by Normal Incidence?
Ans: The light coming from source through collimator is incident on the diffraction grating 900 is called
normal incident.
(3) What is Spectra?
Anss: Different wavelengths (Colors) of light (lines) arranged in a systematic manner is called spectra.
(4) What is Wavelength?
Ans: The minimum distance taken by light ray to finish one complete cycle is called wavelength.
(5) What id Spectrometer?
Ans: The instrument used to record/catch the colors of spectra is called spectrometer.
 81
(6) What is the function of Collimator?
Ans: To control the light coming from source like a narrow line.
(7) What do you meant by Angle of diffraction?
Ans: The angle difference between direct light and deviated light.
(8) What is the main optical action of the grating?
Ans: When incident light is having a wavelength in the order of grating constant/slit width then the light
under goes for diffraction.
(9) What type of light source is used in this experiment?
Ans: Mercury vapor lamp/white light.
(10) What are the units of wavelength?
Ans: Angstroms (Å).
(11) What type nature of light do you use in this experiment?
Ans: Chromatic (Many Wavelengths).
(12) Which colour in the spectrum has more wavelength?
Ans: Red colour.
(13) What is the relation between intensity and order of the spectrum?
Ans: Intensity (I) is inversely proportional to order (n) of the spectra (I α n).

3. OPTICAL FIBER – NUMERICAL APERTURE, ACCEPTANCE ANGLE

(1) Define Optical fiber?
Ans: Medium which guide the signals in the form of light by the principle of TIR.
(2) On which phenomenon light propagation take place in optical fiber?
Ans: Total Internal Reflection (TIR).
(3) What is total internal reflection?
Ans: When incident angle is greater than the acceptance angle the light undergoes multiple reflections until
reach the end point is called TIR.
(4) Define angle of acceptance?
Ans: The minimum angle required to launch the light inside optical fiber‟s core medium only.
(5) What is physical significance of numerical aperture?
Ans: This explains the amount of the light launched into the core of optical fiber.
(6) What are the types of optical fibers based on refractive index profile?
Ans: Graded index and step index optical fibers.
(7) What is fractional refractive index?
Ans: Δ = (n1-n2)/n1.
(8) Give any three examples of Fiber losses?
Ans: Attenuations.Bending and Distortions.
(9) Mention any two applications of optical fiber?
Ans: Medical,Sensor,Communications fields.
(10) What is the basic formula of numerical aperture of an optical fiber?
Ans: NA = Sinθa.

4. ENERGY GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

(1) What is energy gap and diode?
Ans: The energy difference between valance band and conduction band is called energy gap and thecombina-
tion of n-type and p-type is called diode.
 82

(2) What is valancy band?

Ans: The group of valance orbits of the atoms in material is called valance band.
(3) What is conduction band?
Ans: The group of empty orbits above valance orbits of the atoms in material is called conduction band.
(4) How many types of solid materials are there and what are those materials?
Ans: Three types of solids are there based on energy gap and they are Conductors, Insulators and
Semiconductors.
(5) What is conductor?
Ans: Having energy gap zero with high conductivity at room temperature.
(6) What is insulator?
Ans: High energy gap such that that no conduction takes place at room temperature.
(7) What are Semiconductors?
Ans: The energy lies in between conductors and insulators such that it will act as insulator at O0k andconduc-
tor at room temperature.
(8) How many types of semiconductors are there?
Ans: Basically semiconductors are two types, intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
(9) What is intrinsic semiconductor?
Ans: The pure semiconductor without any impurity is called intrinsic semiconductor.
(10) What do you meant by Fermi energy level?
Ans: Highest energy level occupied by electron at OK temperature is called Fermi energy level.
(11) What is Doping and Dopant?
Ans: Adding impurity to a pure semiconductor is called doping and impurity element is called dopant.
(12) What is P-type semiconductor?
Ans: Adding trivalent element to pure semiconductor is called P-type semiconductor.
(13) What is the principle of this in experiment?
Ans: With increasing temperature, the current through diode increases.
(14) What is N-type semiconductor?
Ans: Adding pentavalant element to pure semiconductor is called N-type semiconductor.
(15) What is the importance of this experiment?
Ans: Knowing the energy gap, behaviour of the diode can be understood.
(16) What is P-N junction diode?
Ans: Combination of n-type and p-type material at juction is called P-N junction diode.
(17) What do you meant by Forward Biasing?
Ans: Connecting P-type to +Ve terminal and n-type to –Ve terminal is called Forward Bias.
(18) What do you meant by Reverse Biasing?
Ans: Connecting P-type to –Ve terminal and n-type to +Ve terminal is called Reverse Bias.

5. HALL EFFECT – MOBILITY OF CHARGE CARRIERS

(1) Define Hall Effect?
Ans: When a magnetic field is applied in perpendicular direction to a current carrying conductor then a
potential difference will developed in perpendicular to both field and current directions.
(2) What causes Hall Effect?
Ans: Because of two mutual perpendicular magnetic and electric field, the charge carries will separate in
respective directions.
 83
(3) What is Lorentz force?
Ans: The electrical force acting on drift charge carriers is called Lorentz force.
(4) What is Hall Coefficient?
Ans: The ratio of Hall electric field (EH) to the product of current density (J) and magnetic induction (B) is
called Hall Co-efficient (RH)=EH/JB.
(5) What are the uses of Hall Effect?
Ans: To know the type of semiconductor and conductivity of semiconcuctor.
(6) Define Charge carrier concentration?
Ans: The number of charge carriers for unit volume of semiconductor (n).
(7) Why does Hall voltage differ from different type of charge carrier?
Ans: Because the Hall voltage is function of nature of charge carriers.
(8) What is unit Hall coefficient?
Ans: The units are C_1m_3.
(9) What is the unit of charge carrier concentration?
Ans: C/m_3.
(10) Which type of magnet is used in the experiment, temporary or permanent?
Ans: Temporary magnets (Electromagnets).

6. B-H CURVE – ENERGY LOSS

(1) What is B-H curve?

Ans:The graphical picture of ferromagnetic material is called B-H curve.
(2) What is the purpose of B-H loop?
Ans:To estimate the energy loss occurred in ferrite material.
(3) What is magnetic material?
Ans:A magnetic material influenced by magnetic field is called magnetic materials.
(4) How are ferromagnetic materials different from other materials?
Ans:The materials possess high susceptibility and permittivity called ferromagnetic material.
(5) What is Coercivity and Retentivity?
Ans: Residual magnetic moment present is called Retentivity and amount of magnetic field required to
make Retentivity to zero is called Coercivity.
(6) What is energy loss of ferrite materials?
Ans:In the absence of external magnetic field the amount of magnetic energy present in the material is
called energy loss.
(7) How are magnetic induction B and magnetic field intensity H co-related?
Ans: B=µH.
(8) What is the main principle of this experiment?
Ans:Electromagnetic induction.
(9) What is the purpose of this experiment?
Ans:To study the nature of ferromagnetic material.
(10) How does B-H loop classifies the FM materials?
Ans:Based on the area of the loop, B-H loop classifies FM material into two types.
 84
7. DETERMINATION OF CRYSTALLITE SIZE USING X-RAY PATTERN USING DEBYE –
SCHERRER METHOD.

(1) What is X – Ray diffraction?

Ans:When incident X – Ray wavelength is in the order of inter planar spacing of crystal then it under goes
for diffraction is called X – Ray diffraction.
(2) What is Bragg’s condition?
Ans: 2dsinθ=nλ.
(3) What is inter – planar spacing?
Ans:The distance between two plane of unit crystal is called inter – planar spacing.
(4) What is Powder X-ray diffraction?
Ans:The technique used to determine the structure of poly crystal is Powder X-ray diffraction.
(5) What is the purpose of this experiment?
Ans:To determine the structure and size of the grain of given crystal system.
(6) What is the main principle involving in this experiment?
Ans: Bragg‟s X-diffraction.
(7) What are the types of cubic crystal?
Ans: SCC, BCC and FCC.
(8) What type of crystal structure does NaCl posses?
Ans: NaCl posses FCC structure.
(9) Mention two applications of X-rays?
Ans: To know flaws in human body, structure of crystals and in other applications.

8. DETERMINATION OF THE WAVELENGTH OF THE LASER USING DIFFRACTIONGRATING

(1) What is the full form of LASER?
Ans: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission Of Radiation.
(2) How is laser light different from the ordinary light?
Ans: It is a monochromatic, convergent, coherent and high intense beam of light. While ordinary light
isincoherent, divergent and low intense beam of light.
(3) What is population inversion?
Ans: When the number of atoms are more in higher energy state than the lower energy state, known
aspopulation inversion. It is essential for stimulated emission.
(4) What is pumping?
Ans: It is a process to achieve population inversion (or) sending the ground level atoms to excited state.
(5) What is laser?
Ans: It is a device which is used to convert ordinary light into laser light.
(6) What is meant by the term coherency?
Ans:When the light waves are in same phase and with allmost same wavelength in light beam known as
coherent.
(7) What is the principle involving in this experiment?
Ans: Diffraction: When the light bends or deviate from path due to obstacle known as diffraction.
(8) What is active medium?
Ans: It may be solid, liquid or gas which achieves population inversion.
(9) What is the action of the optical resonator?
Ans: It is the combination of two reflecting mirror which is used to increase the intensity of laser light.
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9. WAVELENGHT OF A LASER SOURCE DIFFRACTION GRATING

(1) What is the full form of LASER?

Ans::Light Amplification By Stimulated Emission Of Radiation.
(2) How is `laser light different from the ordinary light?
Ans:It is a monochromatic, convergent, coherent and high intense beam of light. While ordinary light is
incoherent, divergent and low intense beam of light.
(3) What is population inversion?
Ans:When the number of atoms are more in higher energy state than the lower energy state, known as
population inversion. It is essential for stimulated emission.
(4) What is pumping?
Ans: It is a process to achieve population inversion (or) sending the ground level atoms to excited state.
(5) What is laser?
Ans: It is a device which is used to convert ordinary light into laser light.
(6) What is meant by the term coherency?
Ans: When the light waves are in same phase and with all most same wavelength in light beam known as
coherent.
(7) What is diffraction?
Ans: When the light bends or deviates from path due to obstacle known as diffraction.
(8) Define Grating?
Ans: It is an arrangement in which there is a fine quality of glass on which parallel lines are ruled
equidistant with diamond point by an automatic shifting machine. The ruled lines work as opaque and
spacing works as transparent.
(9) What is active medium?
Ans: It may be solid, liquid or gas which achieves population inversion.
(10) What is the action of the optical resonator?
Ans:It is the combination of two reflecting mirror which is used to increase the intensity of laser light.

10. MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF A COIL

(1) What is current?
Ans:Flow of charge carriers.
(2) What is magnetic field induction?
Ans: Magnetic flux per unit area B = φ/A.
(3) What is electromagnetic induction?
Ans: Whenever magnetic lines of force are cut by a closed circuit, an induced current flows in the circuit,
which induces an emf called induced emf and phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction.
(4) What is TanA position?
Ans: Placing arms of setup parallel to Aluminum pointer of deflection magnetometer.
(5) What is Biot – Savart’s law?
Ans: The induce magnetic induction is proportional to applied current, number of turns, length of coil and
inversely proportional to square of the distance.
(6) What is the application of this experiment?
Ans: Transformers, inductors and electromagnets.
(7) What is the basic principle of this experiment?
Ans: Electromagnetic induction.
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11. BREWESTER’S LAW
(1) What is Brewster’s Law?
Ans: When an unpolarized light of known wavelength is incident on a transparent substance surface, it expe-
riences maximum plan polarization at the angle of incidence whose tangent is the refractive index of the sub-
stance for the wavelength.
(2) Mention applications of Brewster’s Law?
Ans: The polarized glasses reduce glare that is reflected directly from the sun and also from horizontal surfac-
es like roads and water.
(3) What is the significance of Brewster's angle?
Ans; Brewster's angle is often referred to as the "polarizing angle", because light that reflects from a surface at
this angle is entirely polarized perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
(4) What is the formula of Brewsters angle?
Ans: The special angle of incidence that produces a 90 degrees angle between the reflected and refracted ray
is called the Brewster angle, θp. A little geometry shows that tan(θp) = n2/n1.
(5) Is the Brewster angle the angle of reflection?
Ans: Brewester's angle depends on the wavelength of light because Brewester's angle depends on the refrac-
tive index of medium and refractive index depends on the wavelength of light.
(6) When a light is incident at Brewster's angle?
Ans: If a ray of light is incident at an interface between two media in such a manner that the reflected and
transmitted rays are at right angles to each other, the angle of incidence, B, is called the Brewster angle.
(8) Can Brewsters angle occur from air to glass?
Ans: Brewster angle is related to refractive index as: Therefore, the Brewster angle for air to glass transition is
56.31°.

12. TORSIONAL PENDULUM

(1) What is torsional pendulum?
Ans: A body suspended from a rigid support by means of a long and thin elastic wire is called torsional pen-
dulum.
(2) What is the type of oscillation?
Ans: This is of simple harmonic oscillation type.
(3) On what factors does the time period depend?
Ans: 1. Moment of inertia of the body
2. Rigidity of wire i.e., length, radius and material of the wire.
(4) How will you determine the rigidity of fluids?
Ans: As fluids do not have a shape of their own, hence they do not posses rigidity. Hence there is no question
of determining.
(5) Define Moment of Inertia?
Ans: It is the measure of the inertia of a body in rotator motion. It depends upon the axis of rotation, mass of
the body and also on the distribution of the mass about the axis.
(6) What is Young's modulus?
Ans: It is the ratio of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain.

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