For your report, you can base your presentation on reliable references such as psychology

textbooks, journal articles, and credible online sources. Below is a structured example of how to
present the information effectively, including references:

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory

Key Stage: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12–18 years)

 Overview: Adolescents face the challenge of developing a stable and coherent identity.
This stage involves exploring personal values, beliefs, and goals to form a sense of self.
 Main Point: Success leads to a clear identity and direction in life, while failure results in
role confusion and insecurity about the future.
 Examples:
o Positive Outcome: A teenager experimenting with different career paths and
eventually deciding on one they feel passionate about.
o Negative Outcome: A young person feeling unsure about their role in society,
leading to feelings of isolation or lack of purpose.
 Real-World Relevance: Adolescents may exhibit behaviors like questioning authority,
forming strong peer connections, or developing personal philosophies.
 Reference: Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and Society. New York: Norton.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory

Focus: Genital Stage (Puberty to Adulthood)

 Overview: During the genital stage, sexual energy (libido) is directed toward others. This
is the final stage of development, where individuals seek intimate relationships.
 Importance: Resolving conflicts from earlier stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency) allows
healthy sexual and emotional relationships to form. Unresolved issues may cause
dysfunction or instability.
 Examples:
o Resolved Conflicts: An individual in a healthy romantic relationship, able to
balance intimacy and independence.
o Unresolved Conflicts: A person with unresolved childhood trauma might
struggle with trust or intimacy.
 Real-World Application: Therapists often explore childhood stages to understand an
individual’s relational challenges.
 Reference: Freud, S. (1949). An Outline of Psychoanalysis. London: Hogarth Press.

For a detailed summary, you can check Psychology Notes HQ.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Key Concept: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

 Overview: The ZPD defines the gap between what a learner can do independently and
what they can achieve with guidance from peers, mentors, or teachers.
 Main Point: Learning is enhanced through social interactions, emphasizing the role of
cultural context and collaborative learning.
 Examples:
o A child struggles with solving a math problem independently but succeeds when
guided by a teacher or peer.
o Adolescents often benefit from group projects, where they learn from classmates
with more advanced skills.
 Real-World Relevance: Teachers use scaffolding techniques to support students until
they can perform tasks independently.
 References:
o We Are Teachers
o ResearchGate article explaining Vygotsky’s framework: ResearchGate.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Key Concepts

1. Observational Learning: Adolescents mimic behaviors they see rewarded in others.

o Example: Teens copying fashion trends from influencers on social media.
2. Modeling: Role models, such as parents or celebrities, shape behavior and decision-
making.
o Example: A child imitating a parent’s healthy eating habits.
3. Self-Efficacy: Confidence in personal abilities directly influences effort and resilience.
o Example: A student with high self-efficacy persisting in challenging tasks.
4. Social Context: Peer pressure and societal expectations affect behavioral choices.
o Example: Teens smoking due to peer influence.

 Main Point: Adolescents learn within a dynamic social environment, and their choices
are shaped by observed rewards, role models, and cultural norms.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

Key Concepts

 Individual development is influenced by multiple environmental systems:

1. Microsystem: Immediate settings like family and school.
2. Mesosystem: Interconnections between microsystems (e.g., parent-teacher
communication).
 3. Exosystem: Indirect influences (e.g., parental workplace policies).
4. Macrosystem: Societal norms and cultural values.
5. Chronosystem: Life transitions and historical events.
 Examples: A child's behavior at school may be influenced by family dynamics and
broader societal pressures.
 References:

o Modern Alternative Mama.

Arnett’s Emerging Adulthood Theory

 Overview: Jeffrey Arnett identified "emerging adulthood" as a distinct developmental

stage from late teens to mid-20s. This period is marked by exploration, instability, self-
focus, and identity formation.
 Examples:
o Young adults experimenting with careers, relationships, and personal values
before settling into long-term roles.
 Real-World Relevance: Understanding this stage helps educators and parents provide
support during a critical period of self-discovery.
 References:
o Explore details about Arnett's theory at Emerging Adulthood.

Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development: Formal Operational Stage

Jean Piaget's theory focuses on how adolescents develop complex thinking abilities. During the
Formal Operational Stage (ages 11 and up), adolescents can:

1. Abstract and Hypothetical Thinking: They are capable of reasoning about abstract
ideas and imagining “what-if” scenarios. Unlike younger children, they can think beyond
the concrete and consider possibilities (Piaget, 1972).
2. Problem-Solving: Adolescents use logical, methodical approaches to problem-solving,
such as systematically testing hypotheses to reach conclusions (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958).
3. Metacognition: This involves thinking about one's own thought processes. Adolescents
begin to reflect on how they think, which is essential for self-regulation, planning, and
self-assessment (Flavell, 1979).

Five Areas of Cognitive Improvement in Adolescence:

1. Attention: Adolescents show improvements in both selective and divided attention,

allowing them to focus on relevant information while multitasking (Siegler, 2016).
2. Memory: There is enhanced working and long-term memory (Baddeley, 1992).
3. Processing Speed: Adolescents become faster in processing information (Kail, 2004).
4. Organization: Cognitive strategies become more efficient, improving the ability to plan
and organize tasks (Swanson, 2003).
5. Metacognition: Adolescents can monitor and regulate their thinking more effectively,
making them better at learning and decision-making (Veenman, 2013).
References for Piaget’s stages and cognitive improvements can be found in Piaget’s original
work (Piaget, 1972) and more recent studies such as Siegler (2016) and Kail (2004).

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on Piaget’s cognitive theory to address moral reasoning,

particularly in adolescence. His stages reflect how adolescents think about right and wrong.

Key Stages of Moral Development in Adolescence:

1. Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships: Adolescents in this stage strive for

approval and seek to maintain good relationships with others, especially family and peers.
Their moral actions are influenced by a desire to be seen as “good” by those around them
(Kohlberg, 1981).
2. Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order: This stage emphasizes the importance of laws and
rules. Adolescents understand the role of rules in promoting social order and stability and
recognize the necessity of respecting authority (Kohlberg, 1981).

Kohlberg’s theory has been influential in understanding the moral development of adolescents,
as it helps explain why adolescents often act in accordance with societal norms and the
expectations of those in authority.

For further exploration of Kohlberg’s stages, you can visit Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development.