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Lec-4 Pressure & Its Measurement Part A

The document discusses the concept of pressure in fluids, defining it as the force exerted per unit area and explaining Pascal's law, which states that pressure at a point in a fluid is the same in all directions. It covers pressure variation in fluids at rest, the distinction between absolute and gauge pressure, and methods for measuring pressure, including manometers and mechanical gauges. Additionally, it highlights the hydrostatic paradox, demonstrating that pressure depends only on the vertical head of fluid and its density, regardless of the fluid's weight.

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Ali Usman
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8 views

Lec-4 Pressure & Its Measurement Part A

The document discusses the concept of pressure in fluids, defining it as the force exerted per unit area and explaining Pascal's law, which states that pressure at a point in a fluid is the same in all directions. It covers pressure variation in fluids at rest, the distinction between absolute and gauge pressure, and methods for measuring pressure, including manometers and mechanical gauges. Additionally, it highlights the hydrostatic paradox, demonstrating that pressure depends only on the vertical head of fluid and its density, regardless of the fluid's weight.

Uploaded by

Ali Usman
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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PRESSURE & ITS

MEASUREMENT
Teacher Incharge:
Engr. Zaib un Nisa
Teaching Fellow CED
PRESSURE
Fluid will exert a force normal to a solid boundary or any plane drawn through the fluid.
Since problems may involve bodies of fluids of indefinite extent and, in many cases, the
magnitude of the force exerted on a small area of the boundary or plane may vary from place
to place, it is convenient to work in terms of the pressure p of the fluid, defined as the force
exerted per unit area. If the force exerted on each unit area of a boundary is the same, the
pressure is said to be uniform.

If, as is more commonly the case, the pressure changes from point to point, we consider the
element of force δF normal to a small area δA surrounding the point under consideration:
PRESSURE
Mean pressure, In the limit, as δA→0 (but remains large enough to preserve the concept of
the fluid as a continuum), Pressure at a point,

Units: newtons per square metre (N m−2 )


(Note that an alternative metric unit is the bar; 1 bar = 105 N m−2)
Dimensions: ML−1T−2
PASCAL’S LAW

Consider the equilibrium of a small fluid


element in the form of a triangular prism as
shown in figure, surrounding a point in the
fluid.
A relationship can be established between
the pressures px in the x-direction, py in the
y-direction and ps normal to any plane
inclined at any angle to the horizontal at
this point.
PASCAL’S LAW
PASCAL’S LAW
PASCAL’S LAW

Therefore, indicates that the pressure at a point is the same in all directions. This is known as
Pascal’s law and applies to a fluid at rest.
If the fluid is flowing, shear stresses will be set up as a result of relative motion between the particles of
the fluid. The pressure at a point is then considered to be the mean of the normal forces per unit area
(stresses) on three mutually perpendicular planes. Since these normal stresses are usually large compared
with shear stresses it is generally assumed that Pascal’s law still applies.
PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST
Consider a fluid element of dimension and surrounded by the same fluid of mass
density ρ. Suppose that the pressure is p at the center of element. The forces acting on element
are body forces (self weight) and surfaces forces transmitted from surrounding fluid. Since the
fluid is at rest the element must be in equilibrium and the sum of all the vertical forces must be
zero. And the pressure on opposite vertical faces must be equal.
Taking 𝑧

Thus, in any fluid under gravitational attraction, pressure


decreases with increase of height z.
PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST
In a fluid of constant density, dp/dz = −ρg , can be integrated
immediately to give
p = −ρgz + constant.
In a liquid, the pressure p at any depth z, measured downwards
from the free surface so that z = −h , will be
p = ρgh + constant
and, since the pressure at the free surface will normally be
atmospheric pressure patm.

Hydrostatic Law : It states


that rate of increase of
It is often convenient to take atmospheric pressure as a datum.
pressure in a vertical direction
Pressures measured above atmospheric pressure are known as
gauge pressures. is equal to weight density of
the fluid at that point.
PRESSURE HEAD
• Pressure head:
h = p/ρg

A pressure of 100 kN m−2 can be expressed in terms of water (ρH2O = 103 kg m−3) as a
head of (100 × 103)/(103 × 9.81) = 10.19 m of water.
Alternatively, in terms of mercury (relative density 13.6) a pressure of 100 kN m−2 will
correspond to a head of (100 × 103)/(13.6 × 103 × 9.81) = 0.75 m of mercury
EQUALITY OF PRESSURE AT THE SAME
LEVEL IN A STATIC FLUID
THE HYDROSTATIC PARADOX
The pressure exerted by a fluid is dependent only on the vertical head of fluid and its mass
density ρ; it is not affected by the weight of the fluid present. Thus, the four vessels all have
the same base area A and are filled to the same height h with the same liquid of density ρ.

Thus, although the weight of fluid is obviously different in the four cases, the force on
the bases of the vessels is the same, depending on the depth h and the base area A.
ABSOLUTE & GAUGE PRESSURE
If pressure is measured relative to absolute zero, it is called absolute pressure; when measured
relative to atmospheric pressure as a base, it is called gauge pressure. If the pressure is below
that of atmosphere, it is designated as a vacuum pressure and its gauge value is the amount by
which it is below that of atmosphere. A perfect vacuum correspond to absolute zero pressure.

𝑎𝑏𝑠= 𝑎𝑡𝑚+ 𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒


𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚= 𝑎𝑡𝑚 − abs

The atmospheric pressure is also called


barometric pressure and varies with the
altitudes. Also at a given place it varies
slightly from time to time because of
changes in meteorological conditions.
Patm at sea level at 15 s 101.3KN/m2 &
atm pressure head is 760 mm of Hg or
10.33 m of water.
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
The pressure of a fluid can be measured in two ways:
1. Manometers 2. Mechanical gauges
Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a
fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They
are classified as
a) Simple manometers
• Piezometer, U-tube manometer, single column manometer
b) Differential manometers
• U-tube differential manometer & Inverted U-tube differential
manometer
Mechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure by
balancing the fluid column by spring or dead weight. The commonly used mechanical
gauges are
a) Diaphragm pressure gauge c) Dead weight pressure gauge
b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge d) Bellows pressure gauge
PIEZOMETER
The relationship between pressure and head is utilized for pressure measurement in the
manometer or liquid gauge. The simplest form is the pressure tube or piezometer, consisting
of a single vertical tube, open at the top, inserted into a pipe or vessel containing liquid
under pressure which rises in the tube to a height depending on the pressure. If the top of
the tube is open to the atmosphere, the pressure measured is gauge pressure.

Problems with the Piezometer:


1. Can only be used for liquids
2. Pressure must be above atmospheric
3. Liquid height must be convenient i.e. not be too small or too large.
U-TUBE MANOMETER
The U-tube gauge can be used to measure the pressure of either liquids or gases. The bottom
of the U-tube is filled with a manometric liquid Q which is of greater density man and is
immiscible with the fluid P, liquid or gas, of density ρ, whose pressure is to be measured.

What if the fluid is a gas?


man >>
gh1 can be neglected
PA = man gh2
U-TUBE MANOMETER Air relief valve to measure
absolute pressure

S=
U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
The “U”-tube manometer can be connected at both ends to measure pressure
difference between these two points i.e. two different pipes

For the left-hand limb,


PXX = PA + ρ1 ga
For the right-hand limb,
PXX = PB + ρ1 g(b - h) + ρ2 gh

Thus PB − PA = ρ1 ga - ρ1 g(b - h) - ρ2 gh

or, if A and B are at the same level, then a = b X X

Thus
PB − PA = ρ1 ga - ρ1 g(a - h) - ρ2 gh
PB − PA = (ρ1 - ρ2) gh
U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
At 2 different levels within a pipe
INVERTED U-TUBE DIFFERENTIAL
MANOMETER

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