SET 9

A
SENTENCE TYPES AND DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS
Simple sentences may be divided into four major syntactic types, whose use correlates different discourse
functions.

SYNTACTIC TYPES DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS

DECLARATIVES: are sentences in which it is STATEMENTS: are primarily used to convey
normal for the subject to be present and to information.
precede the verb (S+V)
“Pauline gave tom a digital watch”
INTERROGATIVES: are sentences which are QUESTIONS: are primarily used to seek
formally marked in one of two ways: information on a specific point.
a) Yes-no interrogatives: an operator is
placed in front of the subject.
”Did Pauline give Tom a digital
watch for his birthday?”
b) Wh-interrogatives: an interrogative
wh-element is placed initially and
there is subject-operator inversion.
“What did Pauline give Tom for his
birthday”?
IMPERATIVES: are sentences which DIRECTIVES: primarily used to instruct
generally have no overt grammatical somebody to do something.
subject and whose verb has the base form.
“Give Tom a digital watch for his birthday”
EXCLAMATIVES: are sentences which have EXCLAMATIONS: are primarily used for
an initial phrase introduced by what or expressing the extent to which the speaker
how, usually with subject-verb order. is impressed by something.
“What a fine watch he received for his
birthday”

DECLARATIVES: they are sentences that give information. They can also be used to ask somebody to do
something: I was wondering whether you could help me. They take the indicative mood. The subject precedes
the verb

INTERROGATIVES: They are sentences that ask for information and are used to ask somebody to do something.
They take the indicative mood

IMPERATIVES: They are sentences used to instruct, tell, ask somebody to do something. Their function is
commands or directives. They take the imperative mood and they normally don’t have overt grammatical subject
and their verbs take the base form

EXCLAMATIONS: They are sentences that express the extent sbdy is impressive of affected by something. Direct
association between syntactic type and discourse class is the norm, but the two do not always match. For
65
example a declarative question is syntactically a declarative but semantically a question, and a rhetorical
question is syntactically an interrogative but semantically a statement.

QUESTIONS
 MAJOR CLASSES: questions can be divided into three major classes according to the type of reply they expect
1. YES-NO QUESTIONS: those that expect affirmation or negation.
2. WH-QUESTIONS: those that expect a reply from an open range of replies.
3. ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS: those that expect as reply one of two or more options presented in the
question.
1) YES-NO QUESTIONS: are usually formed placing the operator before the subject and giving the sentence a
rising intonation ”Has the boat left?”.

By placing a nuclear stress on a particular part of a yes-no question, we are able to focus the interrogation on a
particular item of information which is assumed to be unknown.

 Positive yes-no questions: may contain non-assertive items, in which case it is a neutral form, with no
bias expectation towards a negative or positive answer.

STATEMENT: Someone called last night QUESTION: Did anyone call last night?

They may also be CONDUCIVE, i.e. oriented towards the answer expectation. They may have positive expectation
if it uses assertive forms (already, someone, some, etc.).

”Is it true that someone called last night?

 Negative yes-no questions: they are always CONDUCIVE. Negative orientation is found in questions
which contain a negative form (don’t, hasn’t, never, nobody).

“Don’t you believe me ? Have they never invited your home “

The implication is that the speaker had originally hoped for a positive answer (old expectation), but new
evidence suggests that the response will be negative (new expectation). Negatively oriented questions often
express disappointment or annoyance.

“Arent you ashamed of yourself?” (you ought to be, but it appears toy are not

If negative questions have assertive items, it is biased towards positive orientation (didn’t someone call last
night? (I expect someone call last night).

 Tag questions: expresses maximum conduciveness, attached to a statement in the form of a declarative.

“Joan recognized you, didn’t she?(Surely Joan recognized you)

The tag question is negative if the statement is positive, and vice versa. It has the form of a yes-no question
consisting of an operator and a subject pronoun, whose choice depends on the statement.

TYPES ACCORDING TO THE TONE

POSITIVE STATEMENT + NEGATIVE TAG

66
 i. Rising tone on tag (positive expectation).
ii. Falling tone on tag (negative expectation).

NEGATIVE STATEMENT + POSITIVE TAG

i. Rising tone on tag (positive expectation).

ii. Falling tone on tag (negative expectation).

The statement expresses an assumption and the question an expectation. On this principle we may distinguish
four types:

i. Positive assumption + negative expectation: + statement, - tag, rising int.

ii. Negative assumption + positive expectation: - statement, + tag, rising int.
iii. Positive assumption + positive expectation: + statement. – tag, falling int.
iv. Negative assumption + negative expectation: - statement, + tag, falling int.

Rising tone invites to decide the truth about the statement, while falling tone invites confirmation of the
statement and has sometimes the force of an exclamation.

The statement and the tag can also be both positive, indicating the speaker’s arrival to a conclusion by inference.

Tag questions can also be appended to imperatives and exclamatives. Invariable tags: isn’t that so? ,don’t you
think? , right? , wouldn’t you say?

 Declarative questions: they have the form of a declarative, except for the final rising intonation.

“YOU HAVE GOT THE TICKETS? , YOU REALIZE WHAT THE RISKS ARE? BORIS WILL BE THERE, I SUPPOSE?

They are conducive and invite the hearer’s verification. Positive questions have positive orientation and accept
only assertive items.

“HE WANTS SOMETHING TO EAT? SOMEBODY IS WITH YOU?

Negative questions have negative orientation and use non-assertive items following the negative.

“YOU DIDN’T GET ANYTHING TO EAT? NOBODY EVER STAYS AT YOUR PLACE?

 Yes- no questions with modals: are subject to certain limitation and shifts of meaning. They generally
involve the hearer’s authority in questions. May and can, might (politeness) are modals of permission;
must, have to are modals of obligation; and would and could of volition (politeness).

2) WH-QUESTIONS: are formed with the aid of one of the simple interrogative words (wh-words): who,
whom, whose, what, which, when, where, why, how. They generally have falling intonation.
RULES
-The wh-element (clause containing the wh-word) comes first in the sentence
- the wh-word takes first position in the wh-element (exception: when the wh-word is within a
prepositional complement, the preposition precedes the complement in formal style, and in non-formal
style the complement comes first and the preposition is deferred to the end of the sentence).
“ON WHAT DID YOU BASE YOUR PREDICTION?

67
 -The wh- element operates in various functions: S, Od, Cs, Co, A.
-In non-formal style, who is used as object and complement of preposition. To ask about the indirect
object a prepositional phrase is used (who…to? or to whom…?).
3) ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS:
i. First type: resembles a yes-no question, but differs in intonation. It contains a separate nucleus for
each alternative: a rise on each item, and a fall in the last indicating that the list is complete. Any
yes-no question can be converted into an alternative question, ellipted forms are generally
preferred. “WOULD YOU LIKE CHOCOLATE, VAINILLA OR STRAWBERRY ICE CREAM?!
ii. Second type: is a compound of a wh-question followed by an elliptical alternative question.
“WICH ICECREAM WOULD YOU LIKE? CHOCOLATE VAINILLA OR STRAWBERRY?
 MINOR TYPES OF QUESTIONS:
A- Exclamatory questions: are interrogative in structure but have the force of exclamatory assertions. They
are typically negative yes-no questions with a final falling tone (hasn’t she grown!). These invite the
hearer’s opinion to something on which the speaker has strong feelings. Operator an subject receive
emphatic stress.
“WASN’T IT A MARVELLOUS CONCERT?
B- Rhetorical questions: are interrogative in structure, but have the form of a strong assertion. The speaker
does not expect an answer. A positive yes-no question is like a strong negative assertion, while a negative
question is like a strong positive one.
“IS THAT A REASON FOR DESPAIR? (Surely is not a reason)
“ISNT THE ANDWER OBVIOUS? (Surely the answer is obvious )
There are rhetorical wh-questions. The positive question is equivalent to a statement in which the wh-
element is replaced by a negative element (who cares? What difference does it make? How should I
know?). The negative question is equivalent to a statement in which the wh-element is replaced by a
positive element (who doesn’t now? How couldn’t you remember?).
C- Echo questions: repeat a part of what has been said.
Replicatory echo questions repeat as a way of having their content confirmed (I’ll pay for it. You’ll what?).
Explicatory echo question are always wh-questions and ask for clarification. They have a falling tone on
the wh-word (take a look at that! Take a look at what?).

“THE BROWNS ARE EMIGRATING… EMIGRATING? I WONT PAIY IT … YOU WONT PAY WHAT?

DIRECTIVES / COMMANDS
 DIRECTIVES WITHOUT A SUBJECT: take the form of an imperative sentence: it generally has no subject and a
verb in the base form. It lacks tense distinction and does not allow modals.
“Jump, be reasonable, consider yourself lucky”

The progressive aspect is rare (be listening to this station tomorrow), Passives with be occur in negative
directives, with the meaning “don’t let yourself to be…” (Don’t be deceived by his looks). They are less common
in positive directives (be guided by what I say), passives occur with get (get washed, don’t get dressed yet).
Imperatives are restricted to verbs used dynamically.

 DIRECTIVES WITH A SUBJECT: type of directive in which the stressed subject you is added. It can be
noncontrastative and admonitory (you be quiet! You mind your own business and leave this to me! You take

68
 the book!). It usually expresses strong irritation or insistence. Noncontrastative you may be persuasive (you
show me what you can do). It may also be contrastative in the sense of singling out one person or set of
people (don’t tell me to be quiet, you be quiet). Third person subjects are also possible (somebody open this
door, nobody move).
 DIRECTIVES WITH LET: first person imperatives can be forms by preposing the verb let followed by a notional
subject in the objective case (let us work hard, let me see, let no one tell you what to do, let each man decide
for himself). These are generally archaic and elevated in tone, except for let me. A colloquial alternative to let
us is the abbreviation form let’s.
 NEGATIVE IMPERATIVES: to negate imperatives initial don’t or do not is added, replacing assertive by non-
assertive items where necessary. Imperatives with let are informally negated by not. Not can also be added
after the pronoun (let’s not).
 DO WITH POSITIVE IMPERATIVES: positive imperatives can be made more persuasive or insistent by adding
do before the verb only when the subject is absent or with let’s (do be quiet, do make some tea, de let’s go
for a walk). It acts as an introductory imperative marker.

EXCLAMATIVES: as a formal category of sentence are restricted to the type of exclamatory utterance introduced
by what or how. The wh-word indicates an extreme position at some scale of value. What is a predeterminer in a
noun phrase. How is an intensifier of an adjective or adverb, or a degree adverbial. The wh-element is fronted
and there is no subject-operator inversion. When the wh-element is part of a preposition, the preposition is left
in final position.

Echo exclamations repeat part or all of a preceding utterance with a rise-fall or high-fall tone.

VOCATIVE
A vocative is an optional nominal element, usually a NP, denoting the one or more persons to whom the
sentence is addressed. It is either a CALL, drawing the attention of a person or persons, singling them out from
others, or an ADRESS, expressing the speaker’s relationship or attitude to the people addressed.

It may take initial, medial, or final position in a sentence. In its optionality and freedom of position it is more like
an adverbial than any other element of clause structure.

Intonationally, the vocative is set off from the rest of the clause by constituting a separate tone unit or by
forming the tail of a tone unit. Most characteristic intonations: fall-rise for initial call vocative, and otherwise rise;
and rise for an address vocative.

FORMS OF VOCATIVE:

a. Names: first name, last name, full name, nickname, or pet name.
b. Standard appellatives, usually without modification:
i. Terms for family relationship: mother, father, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother. More
familiar forms: mummy, daddy, auntie, granny, grandma, grandpa.(may be combined with names)
ii. Titles of respect: madam, sir, my Lord, your Honour, your Majesty, your Excellency. (may be
combined with names)
iii. Markers of status: Mr President, Prime Minister, Father (priest), Sister (nun), Bishop, Professor,
Doctor, General, Major.

69
 c. Terms for occupation: waiter, driver, bartender, attendant, nurse, officer. (when the person is
functioning in that role).
d. Epithets (NP or AP) expressing an evaluation:
i. Favourable: (my) darling, dear, dearest, love, friend; honey, handsome, beautiful.
ii. Unfavourable: (may be preceded by you in a noun phrase) coward, liar, pig.
e. General nouns used in more specialized senses: brother, girl, guys, ladies and gentlemen, man, mate,
son. (familiar)
f. The personal pronoun you is marked impolite. An indefinite pronoun like somebody is abrupt.
g. Nominal clauses: whoever said that, whoever you are, what’s your name.
POSSESSIVE
PRONOUNS
PRONOUNS DET. F. NOM. F.
My Mine
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: combine genitive functions with pronominal functions.
In the latter respect, the co-referential item they replace may be in the same clause or
Our Ours
a neighbouring one. They belong to two series: the attributives (determiner function:
det + N) and the nominal (nominal function: SVC), used like the genitives with ellipsis. Your Yours
His
Her Hers
Its
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: Their Theirs
the demonstratives have the same formal range and semantic contrast both as pronouns and as determines,
this/these suggesting relative proximity to the speaker, that/those relative remoteness:
They have number contrast and can function as determiners and pronouns. The general meanings of the sets
can be stated as ‘near’ and ‘distant’ reference.

Singular Plural
Near reference This These
Distant reference That Those
In this respect they match the pair here/there, now/then, and the relative immediacy and remoteness operates
literally and metaphorically (also this/these to connote interest or familiarity, and that/those for emotive
rejection).
As subjects, pronouns may have personal and non-personal reference.

“this/that girl…is mary” this/that pen- this /that …is mine

In other than subject function the reference is non-personal.

“He is going to marry this girl… this *

As determiners the reference must be to nouns of non-personal gender.

B
WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES

70