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4321601_BE_Lab Manual

The Basic Electronics laboratory manual for Diploma Engineering outlines the objectives and practical outcomes for students in the Information Technology program. It emphasizes hands-on experience and the development of industry-relevant skills, focusing on competencies in electronics components and circuits. The manual includes guidelines for both students and faculty to enhance learning and assessment through practical experiments.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

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4321601_BE_Lab Manual

Uploaded by

kanganadesani147

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

Diploma Engineering
Laboratory Manual
Basic Electronics
(4321601)

[Information Technology | Semester 2]

Enrolment No
Name
Academic Term
Institute Name

Directorate Of Technical Education

Gandhinagar - Gujarat

1 | Page
Basic Electronics (4321601)

DTE’s Vision:
● To provide globally competitive technical education;
● Remove geographical imbalances and inconsistencies;
● Develop student friendly resources with a special focus on girls’ education
and support to weaker sections;
● Develop programs relevant to industry and create a vibrant pool of technical
professionals.

DTE’s Mission:

Institute’s Vision:

Institute’s Mission:

Department’s Vision:

Department’s Mission:

2 | Page
Basic Electronics (4321601)

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr./Miss......................................................
......................................................................................................
Enrollment No................................... of...................... Semester
of Diploma in .........................................................................of
......................................................................................................
(GTU Code) has satisfactorily completed the term work in
course Basic Electronics (4321601) for the academic
year:............................... Term: Odd/Even prescribed in the
GTU curriculum.

Place:..............................

Date:...............................

Signature of Course Faculty Head of the Department

3 | Page
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Preface
The primary aim of any laboratory/Practical/field work is enhancement of required skills as
well as creative ability amongst students to solve real time problems by developing relevant
competencies in psychomotor domain. Keeping in view, GTU has designed competency focused
outcome-based curriculum -2021 (COGC-2021) for Diploma engineering programmes. In this more
time is allotted to practical work than theory. It shows importance of enhancement of skills amongst
students and it pays attention to utilize every second of time allotted for practical amongst Students,
Instructors and Lecturers to achieve relevant outcomes by performing rather than writing practice in
study type. It is essential for effective implementation of competency focused outcome- based Green
curriculum-2021. Every practical has been keenly designed to serve as a tool to develop & enhance
relevant industry needed competency in each and every student. These psychomotor skills are very
difficult to develop through traditional chalk and board content delivery method in the classroom.
Accordingly, this lab manual has been designed to focus on the industry defined relevant outcomes,
rather than old practice of conducting practical to prove concept and theory.

By using this lab manual, students can read procedure one day in advance to actual
performance day of practical experiment which generates interest and also, they can have idea of
judgement of magnitude prior to performance. This in turn enhances predetermined outcomes amongst
students. Each and every Experiment /Practical in this manual begins by competency, industry relevant
skills, course outcomes as well as practical outcomes which serve as a key role for doing the practical.
The students will also have a clear idea of safety and necessary precautions to be taken while
performing experiment.

This manual also provides guidelines to lecturers to facilitate student-centered lab activities for
each practical/experiment by arranging and managing necessary resources in order that the students
follow the procedures with required safety and necessary precautions to achieve outcomes. It also
gives an idea that how students will be assessed by providing Rubrics.
Basic Electronics subject gives you the core ideas about small component in electronic
items and some core ideas about electronics system. This Lab manual helps you to perform
practical given from curriculum of GTU.

Although we try our level best to design this lab manual, but always there are chances of
improvement. We welcome any suggestions for improvement.

4 | Page
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Programme Outcomes (POs) :

1. Basic and Discipline specific knowledge: Apply knowledge of basic mathematics,
science and engineering fundamentals and engineering specialization to solve the
engineering problems.

2. Problem analysis: Identify and analyse well-defined engineering problems using

codified standard methods.

3. Design/ development of solutions: Design solutions for engineering well-defined

technical problems and assist with the design of systems components or processes to
meet specified needs.

4. Engineering Tools, Experimentation and Testing: Apply modern engineering tools

and appropriate technique to conduct standard tests and measurements.

5. Engineering practices for society, sustainability and environment: Apply

appropriate technology in context of society, sustainability, environment and ethical
practices.

6. Project Management: Use engineering management principles individually, as a

team member or a leader to manage projects and effectively communicate about
well-defined engineering activities.

7. Life-long learning: Ability to analyze individual needs and engage in updating in the
context of technological changes in field of engineering.

5 | Page
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Practical Outcome - Course Outcome matrix

Course Outcomes (COs):

a. CO1 : Classify Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor based on their application.

b. CO2 : Use Diode and Transistors for different applications in circuits.

c. CO3 : Classify cables and connectors based on their application.

d. CO4 : Use switches, transformers and rectifiers in circuits.

e. CO5 : Measure signal parameters of basic electronics circuits.

CO1 CO2 CO3 CO4 CO5

S. No. Practical Outcome/Title of experiment

1 Study and Identify Resistors using Color Code

2 Study and Identify with an Inductor

3 Study and Identify Capacitors.

4 Study V-I characteristics of PN Junction Diode.

5 Study and Identify Transistors

6 Study and Identify types of Cable.

Study and Identify various connectors for various
7
types of Cables.
8 Study and Identify Types of Switches.

9 Study and Identify Types of Transformers.

Test working of Half wave Rectifier and Full wave
10
Rectifier.
11 Test working of Bridge Rectifier.
Measurement of various electrical quantities in a
12
circuit using Digital Multimeter.
Study Front panel controls of Cathode Ray
13
Oscilloscope (CRO)
Measurement of Amplitude and Frequency
14 electrical signal using Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope(CRO)

6 | Page
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Industry Relevant Skills

The following industry relevant skills are expected to be developed in the students by
performance of experiments of this course.

1. Use Diode and Transistors for different applications in circuits

2. Measure signal parameters of basic electronics circuits.

Guidelines to Course Faculty

1. Couse faculty should demonstrate experiment with all necessary implementation
strategies described in curriculum.
2. Couse faculty should explain industrial relevance before starting of each experiment.
3. Course faculty should Involve & give opportunity to all students for hands on experience.
4. Course faculty should ensure mentioned skills are developed in the students by asking.
5. Utilise 2 hrs of lab hours effectively and ensure completion of write up with quiz also.
6. Encourage peer to peer learning by doing same experiment through fast learners.

Instructions for Students

1. Organize the work in the group and make record of all observations.
2. Students shall develop maintenance skill as expected by industries.
3. Student shall attempt to develop related hand-on skills and build confidence.
4. Student shall develop the habits of evolving more ideas, innovations, skills etc.
5. Student shall refer technical magazines and data books.
6. Student should develop habit to submit the practical on date and time.
7. Student should well prepare while submitting write-up of exercise.

7 | Page
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Continuous Assessment Sheet

Enrolment No: _________________________________ Name_______________________
Course Name:__________________________________ Term:_______________________

Sr no Practical Outcome/Title of experiment Page Date Marks Sign

(25)

1
Study and Identify Resistors using Color Code

2
Study and Identify with an Inductor

Study and Identify Capacitors.

4
Study V-I characteristics of PN Junction Diode.

5
Study and Identify Transistors

6 Study and Identify types of Cable.

7 Study and Identify various connectors for various types

of Cables.
8
Study and Identify Types of Switches.

9 Study and Identify Types of Transformers.

10 Test working of Half wave Rectifier and Full wave

Rectifier.
11
Test working of Bridge Rectifier.

12 Measurement of various electrical quantities in a

circuit using Digital Multimeter.
13 Study Front panel controls of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
(CRO)
14 Measurement of Amplitude and Frequency electrical
signal using Cathode Ray Oscilloscope(CRO)

Page | 8
Basic Electronics (4321601)

PRACTICAL-1
AIM: Study and Identify Resistors using Colour Code

A. Objective:

Student would able to Identify carbon resistor value with colour code
B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)
 PO1
 PO2
 PO6

C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency:

Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected

D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come.

E. Practical Outcome(PRo)

Write from curriculum

F. Prerequisite Theory:

Resistance:
Resistance is the property of a material which opposes the flow of electric charges/
current through it.
Page | 9
Basic Electronics (4321601)

The unit for measuring resistance is Ohms (Ω). It is measured using the Ohmmeter.
Resistor is the electronic component which is having resistance property.
Resistance (R) of an object is the ration of voltage V across it to current I thought it.
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
Where R =Resistance
V= Voltage
I = Current
Resistor:
Resistors are components used in electrical and electronic circuits for making
different voltages required for different electronic components.

There are two types of resistors:-

1. Fixed resistors

Figure 1.1 Symbol of Fixed Resistor Figure 1.2 Carbon Resistors

Figure 1.3 Ceramic resistors Figure 1.4 Wire Wound resistors

The Ohm values (resistance) of these resistors are constant and cannot be altered. The

examples are carbon resistors, Ceramic resistors and Wire wound resistors.

1. Variable resistors

Page | 10
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Figure 1.5 Symbols of variable resistors

Figure 1.6 Different types of Variable resistors

These resistors, the ohm value can be varies. The examples are potentiometer, Preset, Fan
regulator etc.

Resistor Color Coding

Resistor Color Coding uses colored bands to easily identify a resistors resistive value
and its percentage tolerance
There are many different types of Resistor available which can be used in both
electrical and electronic circuits to control the flow of current or to produce a voltage drop
in many different ways. But in order to do this the actual resistor needs to have some form
of “resistive” or “resistance” value. Resistors are available in a range of different resistance
values from fractions of an Ohm (Ω) to millions of Ohms.
Obviously, it would be impractical to have available resistors of every possible value
for example, 1Ω, 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω etc, because literally tens of hundreds of thousands, if not tens
of millions of different resistors would need to exist to cover all the possible values. Instead,
resistors are manufactured in what are called “preferred values” with their resistance value
printed onto their body in colored ink.
Page | 11
Basic Electronics (4321601)

The Standard Resistor Color Code Chart

Figure 1.7 The Standard Resistor Color Code Chart

The resistance value, tolerance, and wattage rating are generally printed onto the
body of the resistor as numbers or letters when the resistors body is big enough to read the
print, such as large power resistors. But when the resistor is small such as a 1/4 watt carbon

Page | 12
Basic Electronics (4321601)

or film type, these specifications must be shown in some other manner as the print would
be too small to read.
So to overcome this, small resistors use colored painted bands to indicate both their
resistive value and their tolerance with the physical size of the resistor indicating its wattage
rating. These colored painted bands produce a system of identification generally known as
a Resistors Color Code.
An international and universally accepted resistor color code scheme was developed
many years ago as a simple and quick way of identifying a resistors ohm value no matter
what its size or condition. It consists of a set of individual colored rings or bands in spectral
order representing each digit of the resistors value.

The Resistor Color Code Table

Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 1

Brown 1 10 ± 1%

Red 2 100 ± 2%

Orange 3 1,000

Yellow 4 10,000

Green 5 100,000 ± 0.5%

Blue 6 1,000,000 ± 0.25%

Violet 7 10,000,000 ± 0.1%

Grey 8 ± 0.05%

White 9

Gold 0.1 ± 5%

Silver 0.01 ± 10%

None ± 20%

Table 1.1 The Resistor Color Code

The resistor color code markings are always read one band at a time starting from the left to
the right, with the larger width tolerance band oriented to the right side indicating its
tolerance. By matching the color of the first band with its associated number in the digit
column of the color chart below the first digit is identified and this represents the first digit
of the resistance value.

Page | 13
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Again, by matching the color of the second band with its associated number in the
digit column of the color chart we get the second digit of the resistance value and so on.
Then the resistor color code is read from left to right as illustrated below:

Then we can summerise the different weighted positions of each colored band which
makes up the resistors color code above in the following table:
Number of 4 Colored
3 Colored Bands Bands 5 Colored Bands 6 Colored Bands
Colored
Bands (E6 Series) (E12 Series) (E48 Series) (E96 Series)

1st Band 1st Digit 1st Digit 1st Digit 1st Digit

2nd Band 2nd Digit 2nd Digit 2nd Digit 2nd Digit

3rd Band Multiplier Multiplier 3rd Digit 3rd Digit

4th Band – Tolerance Multiplier Multiplier

5th Band – – Tolerance Tolerance

Temperature
6th Band – – – Coefficient
Table 1.2 Color Code for various Number of bands

Calculating Resistor Values

The Resistor Color Code system is all well and good but we need to understand how to
apply it in order to get the correct value of the resistor. The “left-hand” or the most
significant colored band is the band which is nearest to a connecting lead with the color
coded bands being read from left-to-right as follows:
Digit, Digit, Multiplier = Color, Color x 10 color in Ohm’s (Ω)
For example, a resistor has the following colored markings;
Yellow Violet Red = 4 7 2 = 4 7 x 102 = 4700Ω (Ohm).
The fourth and fifth bands are used to determine the percentage tolerance of the resistor.
Resistor tolerance is a measure of the resistors variation from the specified resistive value
and is a consequence of the manufacturing process and is expressed as a percentage of its
“nominal” or preferred value.
Typical resistor tolerances for film resistors range from 1% to 10% while carbon resistors
have tolerances up to 20%. Resistors with tolerances lower than 2% are called precision
resistors with the or lower tolerance resistors being more expensive.

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

Most five band resistors are precision resistors with tolerances of either 1% or 2% while
most of the four band resistors have tolerances of 5%, 10% and 20%. The color code used to
denote the tolerance rating of a resistor is given as:
Brown = 1%, Red = 2%, Gold = 5%, Silver = 10 %
If resistor has no fourth tolerance band then the default tolerance would be at 20%.

G. Observations and Calculations/Input-Output

1. Identify values of following Resistors

Resistor colour code (Left to right) Value

RED BROWN YELLOW SILVER

BROWN ORANGE BLUE GREY

YELLOW RED BLUE GREY

BLUE ORANGE GOLD BROWN

2. Identify colour code of following Resistors Ohm value

Value Resistor colour code (Left to right)

6.3 Ω, ± 1%

250 K Ω, ± 0.25%

920 K Ω ± 0.25%

110 Ω ± 1%

H. Practical related Quiz.

1. What is the Symbol of Resistance?

2. What is the SI Unit of Resistance?

3. Write formula for Resistance(R)

4. What is Register?

I. References

1. Youtube Video Link

 https://youtu.be/q7QqtrOova8
 https://youtu.be/bBX2KAHisyo
 https://youtu.be/O-b_aWT-7fU
2. Web Reference (Resistor colour code calculator)
 https://www.digikey.in/en/resources/conversion-calculators/conversion-calculator-
resistor-color-code

Page | 16
Basic Electronics (4321601)

PRACTICAL-2
AIM: Study and Identify with an Inductor

A. Objective:
Student would able to Identify various types of Inductor
B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)
 PO1
 PO2
 PO6
C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency:
Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

F. Prerequisite Theory:
Inductor:

An Inductor is a passive electrical component consisting of a coil of wire which is designed to

take advantage of the relationship between magnetism and electricity as a result of an electric
current passing through the coil

Page | 17
Basic Electronics (4321601)

An inductor is described by its distinctive nature of inductance, which is defined as the ratio
of the voltage to the rate of change of current. Inductance is a result of the induced
magnetic field on the coil. It is also determined by several factors such as;

 The shape of the coil.

 The number of turns and layers of the wire.
 The space that is given between the turns.
 Permeability of the core material.
 The size of the core.
The S.I. unit of inductance is henry (H) and when we measure magnetic circuits it is
equivalent to weber/ampere. It is denoted by the symbol L.
𝑁Φ
𝐿= H
𝐼
L is in henries
N is the number of turns in coil
Φ Is magnetic flux
I is current in Amperes
𝑑𝑖
The e.m.f induced in the coil denoted by 𝑒 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
is the rate of change in current with respected to time.
𝑑𝑡
1
The energy stored in inductor is 𝑊 = 2 𝐿𝐼 2 joule

Meanwhile, an inductor is totally different from a capacitor. In the case of a capacitor, it

stores energy as electrical energy but as mentioned above, inductor stores energy in the
form of magnetic energy. One key feature of the inductor is that it also changes its polarity
while discharging. In this way polarity during discharging can be made opposite to the
polarity during charging. The polarity of the induced voltage is well explained by Lenz law.
Symbols for an inductor are given below:

Figure 2.1 Symbol of Inductor

Construction of an Inductor
If we look at the construction of an inductor it usually consists of a coil of conducting
material (widely used ones include insulated copper wire) that is wrapped around a core
that is made up of plastic material or ferromagnetic material. One advantage of using a
ferromagnetic core is that it has high permeability which helps in increasing the magnetic
field and at the same time confining it closely to the inductor. Ultimately this results in
higher inductance.

Page | 18
Basic Electronics (4321601)

On the other hand, inductors with low frequency are usually constructed like transformers.
They have cores made up of electrical steel that is laminated to help prevent eddy currents.
‘Soft’ ferrites are also widely used for cores above audio frequencies.
Inductors do come in many shapes and types. In some inductors, you will find an adjustable
core that allows changing the inductance. Inductors that are used in blocking very high
frequencies are mostly made by stringing a ferrite bead on a wire.
Planar inductors are made using a planar core while small value inductors are built on
integrated circuits using the processes of making interconnects. Typically, an aluminium
interconnect is used and fixed in a spiral coil pattern. However, small dimensions have some
limitations. They restrict the inductance.
There are also shielded inductors which are commonly used in power regulation systems,
lighting, and other systems requiring low-noise operating conditions. These inductors are
often partially or fully shielded.

Figure 2.2 Inductor working circuit

Different Types of Inductors

Depending on the type of material used inductors can be classified as follows:

1. Iron Core Inductor

2. Air Core Inductor
3. Iron Powder Inductor
4. Ferrite Core Inductor which is divided into,

 Soft Ferrite
 Hard Ferrite

Page | 19
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Figure 2.3 Different types of Inductor

Iron Core Inductor

As the name suggests the core of this type of inductor is made of iron. These inductors are
low space inductors that have high power and high inductance value. However, they are
limited in high-frequency capacity. These inductors are used in audio equipment.

Air Core Inductor

These inductors are used when the amount of inductance required is low. Since there is no
core, it does not have a core loss. But the number of turns the inductor must have is more
for this type when compared to the inductors with the core. This results in a high-Quality
factor. Usually, ceramic inductors are often referred to as air-core inductors.

Iron Powder Inductor

In this type of inductor, the core is Iron Oxide. They are formed by very fine and insulating
particles of pure iron powder. High magnetic flux can be stored in it due to the air gap. The
permeability of the core of this type of inductor is very less. They are usually below 100.
They are mainly used in switching power supplies.

Ferrite Core Inductor

In this type of Inductor, ferrite materials are used as core. The general composition of
ferrites is XFe2O4. Where X represents transition material. Ferrites can be classified into two
types. Soft ferrites and hard ferrites.

 Soft Ferrite: Materials that have the ability to reverse their polarity without any
external energy.
 Hard Ferrite: These are permanent magnets. That is their polarity will not change
even when the magnetic field is removed.
Page | 20
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Functions of an Inductor
Inductors can be used for two primary functions.

1. To control signals.
2. To store energy.

Controlling Signals
Coils in an inductor can be used to store energy. The function of the inductor depends upon
the frequency of the current passing through it. That is for higher frequency signals will be
passed less easily and vice versa. This function tells that it blocks AC Current and passes DC
Current. Hence, it can be used to block AC signals.
Inductors can be used along with capacitors to form LC filters.

Storing Energy
Inductor stores energy in the form of magnetic energy. Coils can store electrical energy in a
form of magnetic energy using the property that an electric current flowing through a coil
produces a magnetic field, which in turn produces an electric current. In other words, coils
offer a means of storing energy on the basis of inductivity

H. Practical related Quiz.

1. List different types of Inductors.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. Write SI unit of Inductance.

Page | 21
Basic Electronics (4321601)

3. List function of Inductor.

I. References / Suggestions
1. Youtube Video Link
 https://youtu.be/d73e3QiMdSU
 https://youtu.be/ukBFPrXiKWA

2. Web Reference
 https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2019/07/types-of-inductors.html

Page | 22
Basic Electronics (4321601)

PRACTICAL-3
AIM: Study and Identify Capacitors

A. Objective:
Student would able to Identify various types of Capacitors
B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)
 PO1
 PO2
 PO6

C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency:

Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

F. Prerequisite Theory:
Capacitor

The capacitor is a device in which electrical energy can be stored. It is an

arrangement of two-conductor generally carrying charges of equal magnitudes and opposite
sign and separated by an insulating medium. The non-conductive region can either be an
electric insulator or vacuum such as glass, paper, air or semi-conductor called as a dielectric.

Page | 23
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Capacitor vary in shape and size, they have many important applications in electronics.
Symbols of capacitors are as bellow.

Figure 3.1 Symbol of Capacitors

Figure 3.2 Images of different capacitors

Capacitance:
The capacitance of a capacitor tells you how much charge it can store, more
capacitance means more capacity to store charge.
Symbol of capacitance is C and Unit of capacitance is farad and it is denoted by F.
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
When a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across the capacitor and 1 coulomb
of charge is stored in it, the capacitance is called 1 farad.
The energy stored in capacitor is given by
1
𝑊 = 2 𝐶𝑉 2 Joule

How Capacitor is made:

A capacitor is made by when insulating material is placed between two conducting
plates.

Page | 24
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Figure 3.3 Capacitor

Application of Capacitor

 Storing electric potential energy such as batteries.

 Filtering out unwanted frequency signals
 Delaying voltage changes when coupled with resistors.
 Used as a sensing device.
 Used in the audio system of the vehicle.
 Used to separate AC and DC.

H. Practical related Quiz.

1. What is capacitors?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2 List different types of capacitors.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Page | 25
Basic Electronics (4321601)

3. Write SI unit of Capacitance.

4. List applications of capacitor.

5. Write SI unit of Capacitance.

I. References / Suggestions ( lab manual designer should give)

1. Youtube Video Link
 https://youtu.be/2dJC4qAcNkE
 https://youtu.be/HcfA-G-dvvc

2. Web Reference

 https://studyelectrical.com/2016/12/different-types-classification-of-
capacitors.html

Page | 26
Basic Electronics (4321601)

PRACTICAL-4
AIM: Study V-I characteristics of PN Junction Diode.

A. Objective:
Student would able to identify PN junction characteristics by creating VI graph.

B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)

 PO1
 PO2
 PO6

C. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

D. Practical Outcome(Pro)
Write from curriculum
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

E. Prerequisite Theory:

Structure of P-N junction diode

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material.
The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to the
n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line
on the diode.

Figure 4.1 Structure of PN Junction Figure 4.2 Symbol of PN Junction diode

Function of a P-N junction diode in Forward Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the negative terminal
of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of a diode, the holes in the p-type region and
the electrons in the n-type region are pushed toward the junction and start to neutralize the
depletion zone, reducing its width. The positive potential applied to the p-type material
repels the holes, while the negative potential applied to the n-type material repels the
electrons. The change in potential between the p side and the n side decreases or switches
Page | 27
Basic Electronics (4321601)

sign. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin
enough that the zone's electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion across the p–n
junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance. The electrons that cross the
p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes that cross into the n-type material) will
diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral
zones determines the amount of current that may flow through the diode.

Figure 4.3 PN Junction in forward biased

Function of a P-N junction diode in Reverse Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode. Therefore, very little
current will flow until the diode breaks down.

Figure 4.4 PN Junction in Reverse biased

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode, the 'holes' in the p-type
material are pulled away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the
width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is connected
to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction, with
similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of
charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The
increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator.
The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage
increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n junction
depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the
avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive
and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause
the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage.
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Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in
forward biasing because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion region width and
overcome the barrier potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be
greater than the barrier potential. During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed switch
with a potential drop of nearly 0.6 V across it for a silicon diode. The forward and reverse
bias characteristics of a silicon diode. From the graph, you may notice that the diode starts
conducting when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This
voltage is called cut-in voltage.

Figure 4.5 VI Characteristics of PN Junction

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the
diode does not conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the
depletion region width; hence current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome the
barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch and there is no current flow.

F. Procedure to be followed
Open Virtual lab and select Basic Electronic Lab and choose VI characteristics Practical
OR
Open via this link
http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp5/index.html

FORWARD BIASED:
1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
2. Select the diode.
3. Set the resistor.
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4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.
5. The positive side of battery to the P side(anode) and the negative of battery to
the N side(cathode) of the diode.
6. Now vary the voltage upto 5V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading
for particular DC voltage .
7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and
Ammeter reading.
8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
9. Calculate the dynamic resistance of the diode. rd=ΔV/ΔI
10. Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the
forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is
called cut-in voltage.

Figure 4.6 Forward Biased implemented in Virtual Lab

REVERSE BIASED:
1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
2. Select the diode.
3. Set the resistor.
4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.
5. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.
6. Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading
for DC voltage .
7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and
Ammeter reading.
8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.

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Figure 4.7 Reverse Biased implemented in Virtual Lab

G. Observations and Calculations/Input-Output (CE & IT software subjects):

FORWARD BIAS:

Sr.No. Forward Forward

Voltage Current
Vf (volts) If (mA)

Table 4.1 Forward voltage and forward Current

REVERSE BIAS:

Sr.No. Reverse Reverse

Voltage Current
Vr(volts) Ir (μA)

Table 4.2 Reverse Voltage and Reverse Current

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I. References
1. Youtube Video Link
 https://youtu.be/lvVCMz0GQa8?list=PLD85An3RPybzURp7v0qoKGB53QVHmUTsQ
 https://youtu.be/XyLa3qZ1mrg?list=PLD85An3RPybzURp7v0qoKGB53QVHmUTsQ

2. Web Reference

 https://byjus.com/physics/p-n-junction/

J. Graph
 Draw graph of Voltage vs Current as per value from observation table of forward
biased and reverse biased.

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

PRACTICAL-5
AIM: Study and Identify Transistors

A. Objective:
Identify various types of transistor based on usage
B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)
 PO1
 PO2
 PO6

C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency:

D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

F. Prerequisite Theory:
Transistor:
A transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that is used to amplify or
switch electrical signals and power. Transistors are widely used in oscillators, amplifiers and
integrated circuits.

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Figure 5.1 Transistor

Why Do We Need Transistors?

Suppose that you have a FM receiver which grabs the signal you want. The received signal
will obviously be weak due to the disturbances it would face during its journey. Now if this
signal is read as it is, you cannot get a fair output. Hence we need to amplify the
signal. Amplification means increasing the signal strength.
This is just an instance. Amplification is needed wherever the signal strength has to be
increased. This is done by a transistor. A transistor also acts as a switch to choose between
available options. It also regulates the incoming current and voltage of the signals.
Constructional Details of a Transistor
The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two
diodes back to back. Hence it has got two PN junctions. Three terminals are drawn out of
the three semiconductor materials present in it. This type of connection offers two types of
transistors. They are PNP and NPN which means an N-type material between two Ptypes
and the other is a P-type material between two N-types respectively.
The construction of transistors is as shown in the following figure which explains the idea
discussed above.

Figure 5.2 Construction of NPN and PNP Transistors

The three terminals drawn from the transistor indicate Emitter, Base and Collector
terminals. They have their functionality as discussed below.
Emitter
 The left hand side of the above shown structure can be understood as Emitter.

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 This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a
number of majority carriers, i.e. either electrons or holes.
 As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
 This is simply indicated with the letter E.
Base
 The middle material in the above figure is the Base.
 This is thin and lightly doped.
 Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
 This is indicated by the letter B.
Collector
 The right side material in the above figure can be understood as a Collector.
 Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
 This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
 This is indicated by the letter C.
The symbols of PNP and NPN transistors are as shown below.

Figure 5.3 Symbol of NPN transistor Figure 5.4 Symbol of PNP Transistor

The arrow-head in the above figures indicated the emitter of a transistor. As the collector
of a transistor has to dissipate much greater power, it is made large. Due to the specific
functions of emitter and collector, they are not interchangeable. Hence the terminals are
always to be kept in mind while using a transistor.
In a Practical transistor, there is a notch present near the emitter lead for identification.
The PNP and NPN transistors can be differentiated using a Multimeter. The following figure
shows how different practical transistors look like.

We have so far discussed the constructional details of a transistor, but to understand the
operation of a transistor, first we need to know about the biasing.
Transistor Biasing
As we know that a transistor is a combination of two diodes, we have two junctions here.
As one junction is between the emitter and base, that is called as Emitter-Base
junction and likewise, the other is Collector-Base junction.
Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The function
of both the PN junctions is controlled by providing bias to the circuit through some dc
supply. The figure below shows how a transistor is biased.

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By having a look at the above figure, it is understood that

 The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given positive
supply to make the circuit Forward bias.
 The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given negative
supply to make the circuit Reverse bias.
By applying the power, the emitter base junction is always forward biased as the emitter
resistance is very small. The collector base junction is reverse biased and its resistance is a
bit higher. A small forward bias is sufficient at the emitter junction whereas a high reverse
bias has to be applied at the collector junction.
The direction of current indicated in the circuits above, also called as the Conventional
Current, is the movement of hole current which is opposite to the electron current.
Operation PNP Transistor
The operation of a PNP transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure,
in which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse
biased.

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Figure 5.5 Operation of PNP Transistor

The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the P-
type material and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region.
There a very low percent of holes recombine with free electrons of N-region. This provides
very low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the
collector-base junction, to constitute collector current IC, which is the hole current.
As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative terminal fills
the space in the collector. This flow slowly increases and the electron minority current
flows through the emitter, where each electron entering the positive terminal of VEE, is
replaced by a hole by moving towards the emitter junction. This constitutes emitter
current IE.
Hence we can understand that −

 The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.

 The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
 The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.
Operation NPN Transistor
The operation of an NPN transistor can be explained by having a look at the following
figure, in which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is
reverse biased.

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

Figure 5.6 Operation of NPN Transistor

The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in
the N-type material and these electrons cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base
region. There a very low percent of electrons recombine with free holes of P-region. This
provides very low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross
the collector-base junction, to constitute the collector current IC.
As an electron reaches out of the collector terminal, and enters the positive terminal of the
battery, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery VEE enters the emitter
region. This flow slowly increases and the electron current flows through the transistor.
Hence we can understand that −

 The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.

 The collector current is higher than the emitter current.
 The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.
Advantages
There are many advantages of a transistor such as −

 High voltage gain.

 Lower supply voltage is sufficient.
 Most suitable for low power applications.
 Smaller and lighter in weight.
 Mechanically stronger than vacuum tubes.
 No external heating required like vacuum tubes.
 Very suitable to integrate with resistors and diodes to produce ICs.
There are few disadvantages such as they cannot be used for high power applications due
to lower power dissipation. They have lower input impedance and they are temperature
dependent.

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2. List out Applications of Transistors.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

I. References / Suggestions
1. Youtube Video Link
 https://youtu.be/7ukDKVHnac4
 https://youtu.be/dTx9VKV0hjo

2. Web Reference

 https://byjus.com/jee/transistor/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

PRACTICAL-6
AIM: Study and Identify types of Cable

A. Objective:
Student would able to identify cable based on its use
B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)
 PO1
 PO2
 PO6

C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency:

D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

F. Prerequisite Theory:

To connect two or more computers or networking devices in a network, network cables

are used. There are three types of network cables; coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic.

1. Coaxial cable

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This cable contains a conductor, insulator, braiding, and sheath. The sheath covers the
braiding, braiding covers the insulation, and the insulation covers the conductor.

The following image shows these components.

Figure 6.1 Co axial Cable

Sheath

This is the outer layer of the coaxial cable. It protects the cable from physical damage.

Braided shield

This shield protects signals from external interference and noise. This shield is built from the
same metal that is used to build the core.

Insulation

Insulation protects the core. It also keeps the core separate from the braided-shield. Since
both the core and the braided-shield use the same metal, without this layer, they will touch
each other and create a short-circuit in the wire.

Conductor

The conductor carries electromagnetic signals. Based on conductor a coaxial cable can be
categorized into two types; single-core coaxial cable and multi-core coaxial cable.

A single-core coaxial cable uses a single central metal (usually copper) conductor, while a
multi-core coaxial cable uses multiple thin strands of metal wires. The following image
shows both types of cable.

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Figure 6.2 Single & multi core coaxial cable

Impedance is the resistance that controls the signals. It is expressed in the ohms.

AWG stands for American Wire Gauge. It is used to measure the size of the core. The larger
the AWG size, the smaller the diameter of the core wire.

2. Twisted-pair cables

The twisted-pair cable was primarily developed for computer networks. This cable is also
known as Ethernet cable. Almost all modern LAN computer networks use this cable.

This cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires. Every two wires are
twisted around each other to form pair. Usually, there are four pairs. Each pair has one solid
color and one stripped color wire. Solid colors are blue, brown, green and orange. In
stripped color, the solid color is mixed with the white color.

Based on how pairs are stripped in the plastic sheath, there are two types of twisted-pair
cable; UTP and STP.

In the UTP (Unshielded twisted-pair) cable, all pairs are wrapped in a single plastic sheath.

In the STP (Shielded twisted-pair) cable, each pair is wrapped with an additional metal
shield, then all pairs are wrapped in a single outer plastic sheath.

Similarities and differences between STP and UTP cables

 Both STP and UTP can transmit data at 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, and 10Gbps.
 Since the STP cable contains more materials, it is more expensive than the UTP cable.
 Both cables use the same RJ-45 (registered jack) modular connectors.
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 The STP provides more noise and EMI resistant than the UTP cable.
 The maximum segment length for both cables is 100 meters or 328 feet.
 Both cables can accommodate a maximum of 1024 nodes in each segment.
 The following image shows both types of twisted-pair cable.

Figure 6.3 UTP and STP Cables

3. Fiber optic cable

This cable consists of core, cladding, buffer, and jacket. The core is made from the thin
strands of glass or plastic that can carry data over the long distance. The core is wrapped in
the cladding; the cladding is wrapped in the buffer, and the buffer is wrapped in the jacket.

 Core carries the data signals in the form of the light.

 Cladding reflects light back to the core.
 Buffer protects the light from leaking.
 The jacket protects the cable from physical damage.

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 Fiber optic cable is completely immune to EMI and RFI. This cable can transmit data
over a long distance at the highest speed. It can transmit data up to 40 kilometers at
the speed of 100Gbps.

Fiber optic uses light to send data. It reflects light from one endpoint to another. Based on
how many beams of light are transmitted at a given time, there are two types of fiber
optical cable; SMF and MMF.

Figure 6.4 Optical Fiber Cable

SMF (Single-mode fiber) optical cable

This cable carries only a single beam of light. This is more reliable and supports much higher
bandwidth and longer distances than the MMF cable. This cable uses a laser as the light
source and transmits 1300 or 1550 nano-meter wavelengths of light.

MMF (multi-mode fiber) optical cable

This cable carries multiple beams of light. Because of multiple beams, this cable carries
much more data than the SMF cable. This cable is used in shorter distances. This cable uses
an LED as the light source and transmits 850 or 1300 nano-meter wavelengths of light.

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H. Practical related Quiz.

1. List Applications of Coaxial cable
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. List Applications of twisted pair cable

3. List Applications of Fiber optics cable

I. References /Suggestions
1. YouTube Video Link
 https://youtu.be/doAVuehH-L4
 https://youtu.be/xHyJNkiGRd8
 https://youtu.be/ewfBiq2WXu8
 https://youtu.be/pIZREjck9jg

2. Web Reference

 https://byjus.com/physics/types-of-cables/
 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/types-transmission-media/

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PRACTICAL-7
AIM: Study and Identify various connectors for various types of Cables.

A. Objective:
Student can identify connectors based on cable and its applications
B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)
 PO1
 PO2
 PO6

C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency:

D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

F. Prerequisite Theory:

Connectors

With all the different types of cabling come a number of different cable connectors.
This section takes a look at the most common cabling connectors.

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Registered Jack 45 (RJ45)

The cable connector that is found on almost all UTP and STP cables is a Registered
Jack 45 which is mostly commonly referred to as RJ45. This type of connector resembles the
older RJ11 connectors that most people are familiar with from wired telephones. Figure 5
below shows an example of a RJ45 connector:

Figure 7.1 RJ45 Connector

RJ 11

This is similar to RJ-45 connector with 4 or 6 wire type connector. It is used for connecting
the telephone instruments, modem, FACS and satellite TV equipment.

Figure 7.2 RJ 11 & RJ 45

RS 232

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RS232 connector is a port used for data exchange between equipments. It was
designed for data exchange between DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) or PC and DCE (Data
Communication Equipment) or MODEM. The need for RS232 came from limitations raised
by parallel data exchange. RS232 uses serial communication protocol where data exchange
is done bit by bit. Although RS232 is later replaced by faster USB (Universal Serial Bus) it is
still popular in some areas. RS232 used to have 25 pin, now it is shrunk to just 9 pin.

Figure 7.3 RS 232

BNC connector
The BNC coax connector is one of the most widely used RF connectors today. It is very easy
and convenient to use, and offers a very high level of performance. The BNC connector is
used on test equipment for everything from oscilloscopes to audio generators, and power
meters to function generators. In fact BNC connectors are used in applications where coaxial
or screened cable is required, and particularly for RF applications.

Figure 7.4 BNC Connector

The BNC connector has many attributes. One its chief mechanical attributes is that it uses a
bayonet fixing. This is particularly useful because it prevents accidental disconnection if the
cable is pulled slightly or repeatedly moved.
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BNC specifications
The specifications of the BNC connector naturally vary from one manufacturer to another
and it is always best to ensure that the particular component being purchased is suitable for
the intended application. However there are a number of guidelines that can be used. The
connector comes in two basic types:

 50 ohm
 75 ohm

Of the two versions of the BNC connector, the 50 ohm version is more widely used. Often
the BNC connector is specified for operation at frequencies up to 4 GHz and it can be used
up to 10 GHz provided the special top quality versions specified to that frequency are used.
However it is wise to fully check the specification.

They help to safely, efficiently and quickly connect and disconnect BNC connectors in jack
fields. BNC tools facilitate access and minimize the risk of accidentally disconnecting nearby
connector

TNC Connector
The TNC connector (acronym of "Threaded Neill–Concelman") is a threaded version of the
BNC connector.

Figure 7.5 TNC Connector

N connector
The N connector (also, type-N connector) is a threaded, weatherproof, medium-size
RF connector used to join coaxial cables. It was one of the first connectors capable of
carrying microwave-frequency signals, and was invented in the 1940s by Paul Neill of Bell
Labs, after whom the connector is named.

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

Figure 7.6 Type N connector

UHF Connector
The UHF connector is a name for a threaded RF connector. The connector design was
invented in the 1930s for use in the radio industry. It is a widely used standard connector
for HF transmission lines on full-sized radio equipment, with BNC connectors predominating
for smaller, hand-held equipment.

Figure 7.7 UHF Connector

HDMI connector
High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is a proprietary audio/video interface
for transmitting uncompressed video data and compressed or uncompressed digital audio
data from an HDMI-compliant source device, such as a display controller, to a compatible
computer monitor, video projector, digital television, or digital audio device. HDMI is a
digital replacement for analog video standards. It has 19 pin connectors.

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Figure 7.8 HDMI type A receptor Figure 7.9 HDMI plugs

USB connectors
There are different types of USB connector
USB-A
Found on host controllers in computers and hubs, the A-style connector is a flat, rectangular
interface. This interface holds the connection in place by friction which makes it very easy for users
to connect and disconnect. Instead of round pins, the connector uses flat contacts which can
withstand continuous attachment and removal very well. The A-socket connector provides a
"downstream" connection that is intended for use solely on host controllers and hubs. It was not
intended for use as an "upstream" connector on a peripheral device. This is critical because a host
controller or hub is designed to provide 5V DC power on one of the USB pins. Though not that
common, A-A cables are used to connect USB devices with an A-style Female port to a PC or
another USB device, and for data transfer between two computer systems.

Figure 7.10 USB Type A

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USB-B

Figure 7.11 USB Type B

The B-style connector is designed for use on USB peripheral devices. The B-style interface is
squarish in shape, and has slightly beveled corners on the top ends of the connector. Like the A
connector, it uses the friction of the connector body to stay in place. The B-socket is an "upstream"
connector that is only used on peripheral devices. Because of this, the majority of USB applications
require an A-B cable.

USB-C
The USB-C or USB Type-C connector has a reversible/symmetrical design and is 60% smaller than
USB-A. It can be plugged into any USB-C device using either end. It has been tested with up to
10,000 connection styles and is 6 times more durable than USB-A. A USB-C cable is capable of
carrying USB 3.1, USB 3.0, USB 2.0, and USB 1.1 signals. USB-C is the only connector that carries
Thunderbolt™ 3 and can carry up to 100W, which is enough power to support traditional mobile
device charging. Native support of DisplayPort video and four channel audio will allow a USB-C
device to connect to a computer monitor, HDTV, surround sound system and headphones.
Transfer rates up to 10Gbits/s make USB 3.1 the ideal solution for transferring large amounts of
data, such as HD video for editing, Blu-ray™ authoring, or high resolution photos for editing or
storage.

Figure 7.12 USB Type C

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USB Micro-A
Recognized by the USB-IF, this connector can be found on mobile devices such as cellphones, GPS
units, and digital cameras. Micro-USB A offers a connection physically smaller in size to a USB Mini-
b, while still supporting the high speed transfer rate of 480 Mbps and On-The-Go features. The
connection can be easily identified by its white-colored receptacle and compact 5 pin design.

Figure 7.13 USB Micro-A

USB Micro-B
Recognized by the USB-IF, this connector can be found on mobile devices such as cellphones, GPS
units, and digital cameras. Micro-USB B offers a connection physically smaller in size to a USB Mini-
B, while still supporting the high-speed transfer rate of 480 Mbps. The connection can be easily
identified by its black-colored receptacle and compact 5 pin design.

Figure 7.14 USB Micro-B

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USB Mini-B (5-Pin)

One drawback to the B-style connector is its size, which measures almost a half inch on each side.
This made the B-style interface unsuitable for many compact personal electronic devices. As a
result, many device manufacturers began the miniaturization of USB connectors with this Mini-b.
This 5-pin Mini-b is recognized by the USB-IF. By default, a Mini-b cable is presumed to have 5 pins.
This connector is quite small, about two-thirds the width of an A-style connector.

Figure 7.15 USB Mini-B (5-Pin)

USB Mini-B (4-Pin)

Instead of the typical 5-pin Mini-b, this unofficial connector is found on many digital cameras,
especially certain Kodak® models. It resembles the shape of a standard B-style connector, with
beveled corners; however, it is much smaller in size.

Figure 7.16 USB Mini-B (4-Pin)

USB 3.0 A
Known as "SuperSpeed", this A-style connector is commonly found on host controllers in
computers and hubs, the A-style connector is a flat, rectangular interface. This interface holds the
connection in place by friction which makes it very easy for users to connect and disconnect.
Instead of round pins, the connector uses flat contacts which can withstand continuous attachment
and removal very well. The A-socket connector provides a "downstream" connection that is
intended for use solely on host controllers and hubs. This connector is similar in size and shape to
the A-Type connector used in USB 2.0 & USB 1.1 applications. However, the USB 3.0 A-type has
additional pins that are not found in the USB 2.0 & USB 1.1 A-Type. The USB 3.0 connector is
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Basic Electronics (4321601)

designed for USB SuperSpeed applications; however, it will carry data from slower speed
connections, and it is backwards compatible with USB 2.0 ports. USB 3.0 A connectors are often
blue in color to help identify them from previous versions

Figure 7.17 USB 3.0 A

USB 3.0 B
The USB 3.0 B connector is found on USB 3.0 devices. This connector is designed to carry data and
power in USB SuperSpeed applications. Cables with this connector are not backwards compatible
with USB 2.0 or USB 1.1 devices; however USB 3.0 devices with this connection type can accept
previous USB 2.0 and 1.1 cabling.

Figure 7.18 USB 3.0 B

USB 3.0 Micro B

The USB 3.0 Micro-B connector is found on USB 3.0 devices. This connector is designed to carry
data and power in USB Super Speed applications. Cables with this connector are not backwards
compatible with USB 2.0 or USB 1.1 devices.

Figure 7.19 USB 3.0 Micro B

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USB-A to Micro-B
Designed exclusively for USB On-The-Go devices, this versatile connector can accept either a Micro-
USB A or Micro-USB B cable connection. This interface can be easily identified by its gray-colored
receptacle and compact 5 pin design. This connector type only exists as a receptacle for On-The-Go
devices and will not exist on a cable.

Figure 7.20 USB-A to Micro-B

USB Mini-B
This is another unofficial connector also widely used on digital cameras especially certain models
manufactured by Fuji®. It more closely resembles an A-style connector with its flat, rectangular
shape.

Figure 7.21 USB Mini-B

G. Conclusion
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

H. Practical related Quiz.

1. List different types of USB cables
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

2. List two types of cable that are used to connect CPU to monitor.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

I. References /Suggestions
1. YouTube Video Link
 https://youtu.be/ktTtAQIvYkg
 https://youtu.be/pIZREjck9jg
 https://youtu.be/c1GF1mWPzjA
 https://youtu.be/BplRBImLnc4

2. Web Reference

 https://red-dot-geek.com/types-computer-connectors-cables/

Page | 58
Basic Electronics (4321601)

PRACTICAL-8
AIM: Study and Identify Types of Switches.

A. Objective:
Student should able to identify different types of switches
B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)
 PO1
 PO2
 PO6

C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency:

D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

F. Prerequisite Theory:
THEORY:
Switch
An electrical switch is any device used to interrupt the flow of electrons in a circuit.
Switches are essentially binary devices: they are either completely on (“closed”) or
completely off (“open”).

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

Types of Switch
There are different types of switches, here we will explore some of the types of
switches.
1) Toggle switch

1.1) SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw)

The SPDT switch is a three terminal switch, one terminal is used as input and
remaining two terminals are used as outputs. It joins a mutual terminal to one or the other
of two terminals. In the SPDT switch, instead of other terminals, just use COM terminal. For
example, we can use COM & A or COM & B.

Figure 8.1 SPDT Figure 8.2 SPDT Circuit

The application of SPDT switch is mainly involved in a three-way circuit to turn ON/OFF a
light from two locations like from the top & bottom of a stairway. In the circuit below, when
the switch A is closed, then the current flows through the terminals, but only light A will
glow and light B will OFF. When the switch B is closed, then the current flows through the
terminals and only light B will glow and light ‘A’ will OFF. Her two circuits will be controlled
through one source or one way.

1.2) DPDT (Double Pole Double Throw)

This switch is equal to two SPDT switches, it means two separate circuits, connecting
two inputs of each circuit to one of two outputs. The switch position controls the number of
ways and from the two contacts each contact can be routed.

Figure 8.3 DPDT

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

When it is in ON-ON mode or ON-OFF-ON mode they work like two discrete SPDT switches
worked by the similar actuator. At a time only two loads can be ON. A DPDT switch can be
used in any application that needs an open & closed wiring system.

Figure 8.4 DPDT Circuit

The best example of this is, modeling of the railroad, that makes use of small scaled railways
and trains, cars and bridges. The closed permits for the system to be switched at all times,
whereas open permits for extra piece to be switched ON or triggered through the relay.
From the following circuit, A, B and C connections from one pole of the switch and D, E and F
connections from the other pole of the switch. Connections B and E are mutual in each of
the poles.

If the +Vs enters at connection B & the switch is fixed to the top most position, then the
connection A becomes +ve and the motor will rotate in one direction. If the switch is set to
the lowest position, the power supply is inverted and connection D becomes +ve then the
motor will rotate in the opposite direction. In the middle position, the power supply is not
linked to the motor and it does not rotate. This kind of switch is mainly used in several
motor controllers where speed of that motor is to be inverted.

2) Push button latch and non latch

This button is used in many electronics circuits and can handle a small amount of
current. When a user presses the button, its metal plate connects with each other, hence
the circuit is completed. When the user removes its finger from the button, contact of the
pins are detached.

Figure 8.5 Push Button Switch

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

3) DIP Switch

A DIP switch is a dual in-line package switch, meaning that it consists of a series of
switches in a single unit. It is an electromechanical device requiring a user to manually move
the actuator so that a different electronic circuit is activated or deactivated. Commonly
mounted on a PCB or breadboard, DIP switches allow users to quickly preconfigure or toggle
an electronic device between a variety of settings or operating modes.

Figure 8.6 DIP Switch

4) Membrane switch
A membrane switch is an electrical switch for turning a circuit on and off. It differs
from a mechanical switch, which is usually made of copper and plastic parts: a membrane
switch is a circuit printed on Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or Indium tin oxide (ITO). The
ink used for screen printing is usually copper / silver / graphite filled and therefore
conductive.

Figure 8.7 Membrane switch

G. Conclusion
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Page | 62
Basic Electronics (4321601)

H. Practical related Quiz.

1. List different types of switch and where is it used?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

I. References / Suggestions
1. YouTube Video Link
 https://youtu.be/AbqGWNIItTo
 https://youtu.be/GlHMOK1AnsQ

2. Web Reference

 https://www.watelectronics.com/types-of-switches-with-applications/
 https://www.electronicshub.org/switches/

Page | 63
Basic Electronics (4321601)

PRACTICAL-9
AIM: Study and Identify Types of Transformers.

A. Objective:
Student should be able to identify different types of transformer.
B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)
 PO1
 PO2
 PO6

C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency:

D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

E. Practical Outcome(PRo)
Write from curriculum
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
F. Prerequisite Theory:
THEORY:
Transformer:
A transformer has a primary coil to which input is given and a secondary coil from which the
output is collected. Both of these coils are wound on a core material. Usually an insulator
forms the Core of the transformer.

Page | 64
Basic Electronics (4321601)

The following figure shows a practical transformer.

Figure 8.1 Transformer

From the above figure, it is evident that few notations are common. Let us try to have a
note of them. They are −
 Np = Number of turns in the primary winding
 Ns = Number of turns in the secondary winding
 Ip = Current flowing in the primary of the transformer
 Is = Current flowing in the secondary of the transformer
 Vp = Voltage across the primary of the transformer
 Vs = Voltage across the secondary of the transformer
 Φ = Magnetic flux present around the core of the transformer.
Transformer in a Circuit
The following figure shows how a transformer is represented in a circuit. The primary
winding, the secondary winding and the core of the transformer are also represented in the
following figure.

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

Figure 9.2 Transformer Circuit

Hence, when a transformer is connected in a circuit, the input supply is given to the
primary coil so that it produces varying magnetic flux with this power supply and that flux is
induced into the secondary coil of the transformer, which produces the varying EMF of the
varying flux. As the flux should be varying, for the transfer of EMF from primary to
secondary, a transformer always works on alternating current AC.
Step-up and Step-down
Depending upon the number of turns in the secondary winding, the transformer can be
called as a Step up or a Step down transformer.
The main point to be noted here is that, there will not be any difference in the primary and
secondary power of the transformer. Accordingly, if the voltage is high at secondary, then
low current is drawn to make the power stable. As well, if the voltage in the secondary is
low, then high current is drawn so as the power must be same as the primary side.
Step Up
When the secondary winding has more number of turns than the primary winding, then the
transformer is said to be a Step-up transformer. Here the induced EMF is greater than the
input signal.

Figure 9.3 Step Up Transformer

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

Step Down
When the secondary winding has lesser number of turns than the primary winding, then
the transformer is said to be a Step-down transformer. Here the induced EMF is lesser than
the input signal.

Figure 9.4 Step Down Transformer

Turns Ratio
As the number of turns of primary and secondary windings affect the voltage ratings, it is
important to maintain a ratio between the turns so as to have an idea regarding the
voltages induced.
The ratio of number of turns in the primary coil to the number of turns in the secondary
coil is called as the “turns ratio” or “the ratio of transformation”. The turns ratio is usually
denoted by N.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑁𝑝
𝑁 = 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑁𝑠
The ratio of the primary to the secondary, the ratio of the input to the output, and the
turns ratio of any given transformer will be the same as its voltage ratio. Hence this can be
written as
𝑁𝑝 𝑉𝑝
= = 𝑁 = 𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑁𝑠 𝑉𝑠
The turns ratio also states whether the transformer is a step-up or a step-down
transformer. For example, a turns ratio of 1:3 states that the transformer is a step-up and
the ratio 3:1 states that it is a step-down transformer.
Types of Transformer

there are many types depending upon the core used, windings used, place and type of
usage, voltage levels etc.

Page | 67
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Single and three phase transformers

According to the supply used, the transformers are mainly classified as Single
phase and three phase transformers.
 A normal transformer is a single phase transformer. It has a primary and a secondary
winding and it is operated to either decrease or increase the secondary voltage.
 For a three phase transformer, three primary windings are connected together and
three secondary windings are connected together.
A single three phase transformer is preferred to three single phase transformers so as to
get good efficiency, where it occupies less space at low cost. But due to the transportation
problem of heavy equipment, single phase transformers are used in most cases.
Another classification of these transformers is Core and Shell type.
 In Shell type, the windings are positioned on a single leg surrounded by the core.
 In Core type, they are wounded on different legs.
The difference is well known by having a look at the following figure.

Figure 9.5 Core type and Shell type Transformer

The classification of transformers can also be done depending upon the type of core
material used. These are actually RF transformers, which contain many types such as Air-
core transformers, Ferrite core transformers, Transmission line transformers
and Balun transformers. Balun transformers are used in RF receiver systems. The main
types are the air core and iron core transformers.
Page | 68
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Air-core Transformer
This is a core type transformer in which the windings are wound on a non-magnetic strip.
The magnetic flux linkages are made through air as core between the primary and
secondary. The following image shows an air-core transformer.

Figure 9.6 Air-Core Transformer

Advantages
 The hysteresis and eddy current losses are low in these Air core transformers.
 Noise production is low.
Disadvantages
 The reluctance is high in Air core transformers.
 Mutual inductance is low in Air core compared to Iron-core transformers.
Applications
 Audio frequency transformers.
 High frequency radio transmissions.
Iron Core Transformers
This is a core type transformer in which
the windings are wound on an iron
core. The magnetic flux linkages are
made strong and perfect with iron as
core material. This is commonly seen in
laboratories. The figure below shows
an example of iron core transformer.

Figure 9.7 Iron Core Transformer

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Basic Electronics (4321601)

Advantages
 They have very high magnetic permeability.
 Iron core transformers has low reluctance.
 Mutual Inductance is high.
 These transformers are highly efficient.

Disadvantages
 These are a bit noisy compared to Air core transformers.
 The hysteresis and eddy current losses are a bit more than Air core transformers.

Applications
 As isolation transformers.
 High frequency radio transmissions.

The transformers are also classified according to the type of core they use. Some transformers
use the core immersed in oil. This oil is cooled from outside by various methods. Such
transformers are named as Wet core transformers, while the others such as ferrite core
transformers, laminated core transformers, toroidal core transformers and cast resin
transformers are Dry core transformers.
Based on the type of winding technique, we have another transformer which is very popular
named as the Auto transformer.
Auto Transformer

Figure 9.89 Symbol of Auto-Transformer

Basic Electronics (4321601)

This is type of transformer which is mostly seen in our electrical laboratories. This auto
transformer is an improved version of the original transformer. A single winding is taken to
which both the sides are connected to power and the ground. Another variable tapping is made
by whose movement secondary of the transformer is formed.
The following figure shows the circuit of an auto-transformer.

As shown in the figure, a single winding provides both primary and secondary in a transformer.
Various tapping of secondary winding are drawn to select various voltage levels at the secondary
side.
The primary winding as shown above is from A to C and the secondary winding is from B to C
whereas the variable arm B is varied to get the required voltage levels. A practical auto
transformer looks like the figure below.

Figure 9.9 Auto-Transformer

By rotating the shaft above, the secondary voltage is adjusted to different voltage levels. If the
voltage applied across the points A and C is V1, then the voltage per turn in this winding will be
𝑉1
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 =
𝑁1

Now, the voltage across the points B and C will be

𝑉1
𝑉2 = 𝑋 𝑁2
𝑁1
𝑉2 𝑁2
= = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡(𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝐾)
𝑉1 𝑁1

This constant is nothing but the turns ratio or voltage ratio of the auto transformer.
Basic Electronics (4321601)

H. Practical related Quiz.

1. List out types of transformer depending on turns in secondary windings.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

2. List out types of transformer depending on phases.

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. List applications of transformer.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

I. References / Suggestions
1. YouTube Video Link
 https://youtu.be/H4sYfhFCqbg
 https://youtu.be/F9-Q653ZiY8
 https://youtu.be/tklYTmvMYos

2. Web Reference

 https://vietnamtransformer.com/our-news/types-of-transformer
 https://byjus.com/jee/transformer/
 https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2019/07/types-of-transformers.html
 https://www.theengineerspost.com/types-of-transformers/
Basic Electronics (4321601)

PRACTICAL-10
AIM: Test working of Half wave Rectifier and Full wave Rectifier.

A. Objective:
Student should able to identify working of Half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier
B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)
 PO1
 PO2
 PO6

C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency:

Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

E. Practical Outcome(PRo)
Write from curriculum
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
F. Prerequisite Theory:
THEORY:
A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a
process known as rectification. Rectifiers are essentially of two types – a half wave rectifier and a
full wave rectifier.
Basic Electronics (4321601)

1) Half Wave Rectifier

On the positive cycle the diode is forward biased and on the negative cycle the diode is
reverse biased. By using a diode we have converted an AC source into a pulsating DC source. In
summary we have ‘rectified’ the AC signal.
The simplest kind of rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier.The half-wave rectifier is a
circuit that allows only part of an input signal to pass. The circuit is simply the combination of a
single diode in series with a resistor, where the resistor is acting as a load.

Figure 100.1 Diagram of Half Wave Rectifier

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

Figure 10.2 Circiut of Half Wave Rectifier

2) Full Wave Rectifier

A full-wave rectifier is exactly the same as the half-wave, but allows unidirectional
current through the load during the entire sinusoidal cycle (as opposed to only half the cycle in
Basic Electronics (4321601)

the half-wave). A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant
polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Let us see our half wave rectifier example and
deduce the circuit.

Figure 10.3 Diagram of Full Wave Rectifier

If we change the phase of the input waveform by 180 degrees

Figure 10.4 Diagram of Full Wave Rectifier with phase 1800

Basic Electronics (4321601)

Now if we add these two circuits, we would get

Figure 10.5 adding two circuit

Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

Figure 10.6 Circuit of Full wave Rectifier

G. Procedure to be followed:

1) Half Wave Rectifier

Open Virtual lab and select Basic Electronic Lab and choose VI characteristics Practical

Open via this link: http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp6/halfwaverectifier_ver2.html

Basic Electronics (4321601)

1. Set the resistor RL

2. Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment.
3. Double click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform
4. Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the rectified output.
5. Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.
6. Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
7. Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2 shows the output rectified
waveform.

Figure 10.7 Screenshot of implementation of Half wave Rectifier in VLab

1) Full Wave Rectifier

1. Set the resistor RL

2. Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment.
3. Click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform
4. Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the rectified output.
5. Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.
Basic Electronics (4321601)

6. Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.

7. Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2 shows the output rectified
waveform.

Figure 10.8 Screenshot of implementation of Full wave Rectifier in VLab

H. Conclusion
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

I. Practical related Quiz.

1. Draw circuit diagram of Half wave rectifier?
Basic Electronics (4321601)

2. Draw circuit diagram of Full wave rectifier?

J. References
1. YouTube Video Link
 https://youtu.be/yaUMBKjkOjg
 https://youtu.be/joDlqsknn-w
 https://youtu.be/77EvCyD3C34?list=RDCMUCZOe4q1noVw3Jp-tDejdKfg

2. Web Reference

 http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp6/index.html
 http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp7/index.html
K. Graph

 Draw following Signal on the graph

1. Input A.C. Signal
2. Output of Half wave rectifier(D.C signal)
3. Output of Full wave rectifier(D.C signal)
Basic Electronics (4321601)
Basic Electronics (4321601)

PRACTICAL-11
AIM: Test working of Bridge Rectifier

A. Objective:
Student should able to test working of bridge rectifier
B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)
 PO1
 PO2
 PO6

C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency:

Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

E. Practical Outcome(PRo)
Write from curriculum
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
F. Prerequisite Theory:
Bridge Rectifier
Bridge rectifier uses 4 rectifying diodes connected in a "bridged" configuration to produce the
desired output but does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its
Basic Electronics (4321601)

size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network
and the load to the other side as shown below.

Figure 11.1 Circuit of Bridge Rectifier

Bridge Rectifier – Positive Half Cycle

During the positive half cycle of the supply diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3
and D4 are reverse biased (ideally they can be replaced with open circuits) and the current flows
through the load as shown below.

Figure 111.2 Bridge Rectifier- Positive Half Cycle

Basic Electronics (4321601)

For Positive Half Cycle D1 and D2 is Forward Biased and D3 and D4 is Reverse Biased.

Bridge Rectifier – Negative Half Cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1
and D2 switch of as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the
same direction as before.

Figure 11.3 Bridge Rectifier- Negative Half Cycle

Figure 11.4 Diagram of Bridge Rectifier

Basic Electronics (4321601)

G. Procedure to be followed:

Open Virtual lab and select Basic Electronic Lab and choose VI characteristics Practical
OR
Open via this link: http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp7/fullwaverectifier_ver2.html
1. Set the resistor RLRL.
2. Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment.
3. Click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform
4. Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the rectified output.
5. Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.
6. Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
7. Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2 shows the output rectified
waveform.
8. Calculate the Ripple Factor. Theoretical Ripple Factor=0.483.

Input signal

Figure 11.5 Input signal in VLab

Basic Electronics (4321601)

Output Signal

Figure 11.6 Output Signal in VLab

I. Practical related Quiz.

1. Draw circuit diagram of Bridge rectifier
Basic Electronics (4321601)

J. References
1. YouTube Video Link
 https://youtu.be/JG3asbRqHDs
 https://youtu.be/EkHch86UXpY

2. Web Reference

 http://vlabs.iitkgp.ac.in/be/exp7/index.html

K. Graph( Not Applicable for CE & IT subjects)

 Draw following graph in single graph.

1. Input A.C Signal
2. Output D.C Signal
Basic Electronics (4321601)
Basic Electronics (4321601)

PRACTICAL-12
AIM: Measurement of various electrical quantities in a circuit using Digital Multimeter.

A. Objective:

Student would able to Measure amplitude,wavelength (λ), frequency (f) and time Duration (T)
B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)
 PO1
 PO2
 PO4
 PO6
 PO7

C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency:

Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

 What is a multimeter?
Basic Electronics (4321601)

A multimeter is a handy tool that you use to measure electricity, just like you would use a
ruler to measure distance, a stopwatch to measure time, or a scale to measure weight. The
neat thing about a multimeter is that unlike a ruler, watch, or scale, it can measure different
things — kind of like a multi-tool. Most multimeters have a knob on the front that lets you
select what you want to measure. Below is a picture of a typical multimeter. There are many
different multimeter models.
Basic two type multimeter: Analog and Digital.

 What can multimeters measure?

Almost all multimeters can measure voltage, current, and resistance.
Some multimeters have a continuity check, resulting in a loud beep if two things are
electrically connected. This is helpful if, for instance, you are building a circuit and connecting
wires or soldering; the beep indicates everything is connected and nothing has come loose.
You can also use it to make sure two things are not connected, to help prevent short
circuits.
Some multimeters also have a diode check function. A diode is like a one-way valve that only
lets electricity flow in one direction. The exact function of the diode check can vary from
multimeter to multimeter. If you're working with a diode and can't tell which way it goes in
the circuit, or if you're not sure the diode is working properly, the check feature can be
quite handy. If your multimeter has a diode check function, read the manual to find out
exactly how it works.
Advanced multimeters might have other functions, such as the ability to measure and
identify other electrical components, like transistors or capacitor. Since not all multimeters
have these features, we will not cover them in this tutorial. You can read your multimeter’s
manual if you need to use these features.
What are voltage, current, and resistance?
Remember that voltage, current, and resistance are measurable quantities that are each
measured in a unit that has a symbol, just like distance is a quantity that can be measured in
meters, and the symbol for meters is m.
 Voltage is how hard electricity is being "pushed" through a circuit. A higher voltage
means the electricity is being pushed harder. Voltage is measured in volts. The symbol
for volts is V.
 Current is how much electricity is flowing through the circuit. A higher current means
more electricity is flowing. Current is measured in amperes. The symbol for amperes is A.
 Resistance is how difficult it is for electricity to flow through something. A higher
resistance means it is more difficult for electricity to flow. Resistance is measured
in ohms. The symbol for ohms is Ω (the capital Greek letter omega).
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Digital multimeter

Figure 12.1 Digital multimeter

A digital multimeter is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical values principally
voltage (volts), current (amps) and resistance (ohms). It is a standard diagnostic tool for
technicians in the electrical/electronic industries.

Analog multimeter

Figure 12.2 Analog multimeter

Basic Electronics (4321601)

Analog multimeter was first of its type, but due to latest technological development after
development of digital multimeters, nowadays it is of less use. However, despite such
advancements, it is still essential, and we can’t neglect it. An analog multimeter is a PMMC
meter. It works based on the d’Arsonval galvanometer principle. It consists a needle to indicate
the measured value on the scale. A coil moves in a magnetic field when current passes through
it. The indicating needle is fastened to the coil. During the flow of current through the coil, a
deflecting torque gets produced due to which the coil rotates at some angle, and the pointer
moves over a graduated scale. A pair of hairsprings is attached to the moving spindle to provide
the controlling torque. In a multimeter, the galvanometer is a left- zero-type instrument, i.e.
needle rests to the extreme left of the scale from where the scale begins with zero.

Advantages of Analog Multimeter

 A sudden change in signal can detect by analog multimeter more swiftly than a digital
multimeter.
 All measurements are possible by using one meter only.
 Increase or decrease in signal levels can be observed.

Disadvantage of Analog Multimeter

 Analog meters are bulky in size.
 They are bulky and costly.
 The pointer movement is slow, can’t be used to measure voltages with frequencies
higher than 50 HZ.
 Inaccurate due to the effect of earth magnetic field.
 They are vulnerable to shock and vibration.

Figure 12.3 Series and Parallel Circuit

Basic Electronics (4321601)

G. Procedure to be followed:

 Open Electronic Workbench

 Take one DC power source, ground, multimeter and resistor
 Connect component as per given circuit.
 To measure voltage across resistor, connect multimeter in parallel to resistor.
 Switch on simulation.
 Double click on multimeter to open its display for observation.

Figure 12.4 Voltage Measurement using multimeter

 Now to measure current flowing in the circuit, connect multimeter in series to resistor.
 Switch on simulation.
 Double click on multimeter to open its display for observation.

Figure 12.5 Current Measurement using multimeter

Basic Electronics (4321601)

H. Observations and Calculations

NOTE : Take R = 2 Ω

Sr. Battery Voltage Voltage across Current though

No. Vin Register VR Register IR
1 5V

2 10 V

3 15 V

4 20 V

5 25 V

I. Conclusion
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

J. Practical related Quiz.

1. What are the types of Mulimeter?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

K. References
1. YouTube Video Link
 https://youtu.be/-YW7FDO6lFI
 https://youtu.be/Mzyw2sotpMU
Basic Electronics (4321601)

 https://youtu.be/mT1W3C0ADv4

2. Web Reference

 https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/measuring-resistance-voltage-current-digital-
multimeter
 https://dengarden.com/home-improvement/Using-a-Multimeter
Basic Electronics (4321601)

PRACTICAL-13
AIM: Study Front panel controls of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

A. Objective:
Student would able to identify different Front panel controls of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
(CRO)

B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)

 PO1
 PO2
 PO4
 PO6
 PO7
C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency:
Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

F. Prerequisite Theory:
Basic Electronics (4321601)

The cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument, it is used to obtain waveforms
when the different input signals are given. In the early days, it is called as an Oscillograph. The
oscilloscope observes the changes in the electrical signals over time, thus the voltage and time
describe a shape and it is continuously graphed beside a scale. By seeing the waveform, we can
analyze some properties like amplitude, frequency, distortion, time interval and etc

The following type of trace is observed on CRO after setting up, when there is no
Input signal connected.

Figure 12.1 Front Panel Controls of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Introduction to Front Panel Control of CRO

1. ON - OFF: The ON-OFF switch control employed to manage the CRO in ON-OFF position.

2. INTENSITY: intensity knob manages the intensity or brightness of the light generated by beam
spot. It in fact controls the number of electrons per second that are bombarding the screen. The
potentiometer that is connected to the control grid voltage differ the intensity.
Basic Electronics (4321601)

3. FOCUS: This manages the sharp of the spot. This is acquired through varying the voltage
applied to the focussing anodes.
4. SCREEN: It is some type of plastic screen in front of the cathode ray tube. This screen has
engraved such as graph paper. This is termed as graticule this scale facilitates the measurements
of the oscilloscope.

5. V. POSITION: With the assist of this control the pattern acquired on the screen can be shifted a
whole to vertically downward and upward. This is attained through adding DC voltages to input
signals.

6. H. POSITION: This is employed to shift the display like a whole to left or right.

7. VET - SET - ATTENUATOR: This creates the gain of the vertical amplifier 10 times larger than
normal.

8. GROUND: The input of the amplifier is grounded. There will be no vertical deflection. It is
employed for measuring voltage with respect to ground.

9. SYNC LEVEL: To acquire the standard pattern on the screen. There are several signals that can
be applied to the trigger circuit. The signals can be chosen by using a sync selector switch. 1.
Internal 2. Line 3. External.

10. SWEEP SELECTOR: The horizontal amplifier receives an input from saw tooth sweep
generator that is triggered by sync. Amplifier.

Applications of CRO
1. Voltage measurement
2. Current measurement
3. Examination of waveform
4. Measurement of phase and frequency
5. To test the components like capacitors, diodes etc.
Basic Electronics (4321601)

F. Conclusion
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

G. Practical related Quiz.

2. List Applications of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope(CRO)
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. List different controls of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope(CRO)
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

H. References
1. YouTube Video Link
 https://youtu.be/52zUwQsJqM8
 https://youtu.be/IsIblR3MJJI

2. Web Reference

 https://www.svce.ac.in/acdcsignal/simulation.html
 https://pzdsp.com/elab/
 https://academo.org/demos/virtual-oscilloscope/
Basic Electronics (4321601)

PRACTICAL-14
AIM: Measurement of Amplitude and Frequency electrical signal using Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope(CRO)

A. Objective:

Student would able to measure amplitude and frequency of electrical signal using Cathod Ray
Oscilloscope (CRO)
B. Expected Program Outcomes (POs)
 PO1
 PO2
 PO4
 PO6
 PO7

C. Expected Skills to be developed based on competency:

Write course competency and its relevant 2 to 3 skills expected

D. Expected Course Outcomes(Cos)

Write Tick marked Co here against practical out come.

E. Practical Outcome(PRo)

Write from curriculum

F. Prerequisite Theory:

What is Sign wave?

Sine waves are one of the most common forms of electrical or electronic waveform. Sine
waves are the waveform that is seen when displaying electrical supply or mains waveforms,
most RF or radio frequency waveforms, as well as some audio test signals.
Sine waves are also found in many other areas of science and life in general because huge
numbers of mechanical and other items vibrate - clock pendulums are but one of very many
examples.

The sine wave is the most basic of signals, and when undistorted it does not contain any
harmonics - just the single frequency of the signal, unlike other waveforms that contain
harmonics.

Sine waves (and not sign waves as has been seen in some cases) are electronic waveforms
that oscillate smoothly either side of a central value - normally zero volts, although they can
oscillate about another voltage.

Sine wave basics

The sine wave follows a sine curve alternating equally either side of a central value. If the sine
wave is displayed on an oscilloscope screen, it can be seen that there are several parameters
that can be measured and used.

The sine wave follows the values of sine over the period of the cycle. As one cycle is
equivalent to 360° or 2Π radians, the instantaneous value of sine can be calculated from the
angle in degrees or radians, i.e. how far advanced the waveform is in its cycle.

Parameters like the phase angle, amplitude, time period and the like can all be seen.
The diagram below shows some of the main parameters of interest for the sine waveform
including the time period, phase, amplitude and the like.

 Amplitude: It can be seen that the amplitude varies across the cycle, but two points which
can easily be measured are the positive peak identified as +Apeak and the negative peak
identified as -Apeak.
Often the peak voltage of a sine wave is used as this is the voltage that would be generated if
the waveform was fed into a diode rectifier with a smoothing capacitor after it. The capacitor
would charge up to the peak voltage and hold this value, assuming there is no load.
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Figure 13.1 Sign wave

Another value known as the peak to peak voltage may also be used in some instances and this
is just the total voltage between +Apeak and -Apeak, i.e. it is twice +Apeak.
 Time period: the time period is the period of time between one point on one cycle of the
waveform and the corresponding point on the next one. In other words, it is the time for one
complete cycle.
Normally the most convenient point to take on a sine wave centred about 0V is the place
where it crosses the 0V line. It is very easy for logic, or other circuitry to detect the zero
crossing point for the positive (or negative) going edge.

 Phase: The phase of a sine wave can be understood as the horizontal position of a waveform
with respect to one cycle. Looking at the diagram below, it can be seen that the instantaneous
phase of the waveform with respect to the start is the angle that is angle that is between the
start of the waveform and the current position.

 Amplitude—distance between the resting position and the maximum displacement of

the wave
 Frequency—number of waves passing by a specific point per second
 Period—time it takes for one wave cycle to complete

G. Procedure to be followed/Source code (CE & IT software subjects):

Here we use Electronic Work Bench, we use function generator to generator to generate
particular frequency and we measure that signal using CRO. In this reading will be taken by
following figure
Basic Electronics (4321601)

Figure 14.2 Circuit implemented in Electronic WorkBench

Voltage and frequency can be calculated using following formulas

Voltage = No of div * Volt per div

=2*5
= 10 Volts

Time period T = No of div * time per div

= 1 * 0.5
= 0.5 sec

1
Frequency 𝑓 = 𝑇
1
=
0.5
= 2 Hz
Basic Electronics (4321601)

H. Observations and Calculations

Sr. No of Volts/Div Amplitude No. of Time/Div Time Frequency

No Vertical setting Horizontal setting period 𝟏
𝒇=
Division division 𝑻
from from Y
ground axis
line
A B C=(A X B) D E T=D X E F

I. Conclusion:

J. Practical related Quiz.

1. Define is amplitude?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

2. Define frequency?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Basic Electronics (4321601)

3. Define Period?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________

K. References / Suggestions ( lab manual designer should give)

1. YouTube Video Link

 https://youtu.be/-LcKO7f-sEk
 https://youtu.be/be2EB7S5KuA
 https://youtu.be/kh-oIlf4e3Y

2. Web Reference

NOTES
Basic Electronics (4321601)
Basic Electronics (4321601)

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