CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

THE 8 ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES

1. POWER OF HUMAN RESOURCES
- Employees are valuable assets; effective HR management defines success

2. GLOBALIZATION
- Interconnection among nations demands investment in human capital and global
competitiveness

3. MULTICULTURALISM
- Diversity in culture, gender, and demographics challenges managers to foster inclusivity

4. RAPIDITY OF CHANGE
- Technological and market changes require managers to adopt quickly

5. PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT
- Focus on openness, integrity, and employee well- being fosters trust

6. TECHNOLOGY
- Combining human talent and technology is essential for innovation and efficiency

7. SERVICE ECONOMY
- Growth in service sectors demands excellent customer interactions

8. TEAMWORK
- Collaboration improves engagement, quality, and organizational success

FOUNDATION AND BASIC ASSUMPTION OF OB

ORGANIZATION
- A system of coordinated activities to achieve goals over time
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (OB)
- Study of how individuals and groups behave, think, and feel in organizational settings

1. UNIQUENESS OF AN INDIVIDUAL
- Each person is unique in traits, intelligence, behavior, and reactions. Individual
differences are significant and meaningful
 2. A TOTAL PERSON
- Employees are accepted as a whole, including their skills, knowledge, emotions, and
attitudes

3. ATTRIBUTION
- Understanding the root cause of distributed or abnormal employee behavior is essential.
Managers must identify reasons behind reactions to address issues effectively

4. ETHICS AND DIGNITY

- Employees deserve humane treatment and respect. Treating people as higher- order
beings fosters dignity and respect

5. ORGANIZATIONS AS SOCIAL SYSTEMS BEHAVIOR IS INFLUENCED BY

BOTH PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY
- Two social systems coexist in organizations:
- FORMAL: Official structures and roles
- INFORMAL: Unofficial relationships and social interactions

6. MUTUALITY OF INTEREST
- Employees and organizations work together to achieve shared goals. Cooperation and
conflict avoidance ensure mutual growth and success

7. HOLISTIC ADVANTAGE
- Practicing the six OB concepts creates synergy. Synergy benefits individuals, groups, and
the organization as a whole.

NAME THE IMPORTANCE OF OB IN THE ORGANIZATION

1. EFFECTIVE CONFRONTING
- Proactive thinking helps individuals handle pressures and plan for challenges

2. OB as a SCIENCE
- Based on validated facts, it aids in making decisions with higher probabilities of success
 3. ENHANCES CONVICTION
- Builds confidence to achieve goals and inspire others, even in tough situations

4. IMPROVES PERCEPTUAL SKILLS

- Enhances self- awareness and understanding of others. Helps in conflict resolution,
negotiation, and understanding personality and attitudes

5. MOTIVATES PEOPLE
- Uses motivational theories to delegate authority and inspire employees

6. IMPROVES EMPLOYER- EMPLOYEE RELATIONS

- Conflict resolution and negotiation foster better industrial relations

7. TEACHES CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

- Helps understand consumers, suppliers, and customers, improving marketing and supply
chain relationships

8. DEVELOPS PEOPLE SKILLS IN MANAGERS

- Equips managers with essential interpersonal and leadership skills

DISCUSS THE CHALLENGES OF OB IN MOST ORGANIZATIONS

DEFINITION OF OB
- OB refers to the culture of the organization, including employee interactions, perceptions,
and feelings toward the company

KEY CHALLENGES OF OB
1. MANAGING DIVERSITY
- Cultural and ethic differences among employees can hinder teamwork
- Diversity training and workshops can help employees appreciate and leverage their
differences for mutual benefit
 2. IMPROVING PRODUCTIVITY
- Motivating employee to enhance performance is a constant challenge
- Empowering employees fosters loyalty and makes them feel integral to the organization’s
success

3. HIRING THE RIGHT EMPLOYEES

- Recruiting employees who possess the necessary skills and align with organizational
culture
- Progressive, forward- thinking leadership can boost innovation and employee morale.

4. SUPPORTING WORK- LIFE BALANCE:

- Companies must show care for employee’s personal and professional lives
- EXAMPLE: On- site daycare or family- focused benefits demonstrate organizational
support

GENERALIZE THE ANCHORS THAT REPRESENT THE PRINCIPLES ON WHICH

OB IS DEVELOPED AND REFINED

ANCHORS
- Foundational principles that guide the development and refinement of OB theories and
practices
- PURPOSE: To address challenges like diversity, motivation, recruitment, and
productivity

1. MULTIDISCIPLINARY ANCHOR
DESCRIPTION: OB integrates knowledge from various fields:
PSYCHOLOGY: Understanding individual behavior
SOCIOLOGY: Insights on team dynamics and power
COMMUNICATION, MARKETING AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS: Contribute
useful inputs
IMPACT: Broadens the perspective and application of OB concepts
 2. SYSTEMATIC RESEARCH ANCHOR
DESCRIPTION: OB relies on systematic research methods:
- Formulating questions, collecting data, and testing hypotheses
- Supports evidenced- based management
IMPACT: Ensures decisions are based on verified research data

3. CONTINGENCY ANCHOR
DESCRIPTION: There is no “one- size- fits- all” solution in OB
- Actions may yield different outcomes depending on circumstances
APPROACH: Diagnose each solution carefully
- Choose strategies tailored to specific context
IMPACT: Promotes flexible and situation- specific problem- solving

4. MULTI- LEVELS OF ANALYSIS ANCHOR

DESCRIPTION: OB studies behavior at three levels
a. INDIVIDUAL LEVEL: Focus on attribution, motivation, perception, personality, and
values
b. TEAM LEVEL: Includes team dynamics, decision- making, conflict, leadership, and
power
c. ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL: Examines working relationships, interactions, and the
overall work environment
IMPACT: Provides a holistic view of behavior in organizations

CONCLUSION:
- These anchors guide managers and researchers in understanding and improving behavior
in organizations
- The 4 OB anchors- Multidisciplinary, Systematic Research, Contingency, and Multi-
Levels of Analysis- ensure a comprehensive, evidenced- based, and flexible approach to
studying and applying OB
CHAPTER 2: WORKPLACE DIVERSITY
WORKPLACE DIVERSITY
DIVERSITY is simply differences. Workplace Diversity is a characteristic of a group of people
inside the organization where differences exist on one or more relevant dimensions like gender,
age, religion, race, social class, sexual orientation, personality, functional experience or
geographical background

DIMENSIONS OF WORKPLACE DIVERSITY

- Experts in Diversity have identified three dimensions of diversity that often represent the
types of differences that are represented, particularly in the workplace.
- These dimensions of diversity are also the lenses and filters that a person uses and others
use to identify people

CORE DIMENSIONS OF DIVERSITY

1. AGE
- Age is correlated with a number of positive workplace behaviors, such as higher levels of
citizenship behaviors like volunteering, higher compliance with safety rules, lower work
injuries, lower counterproductive behaviors, and lower rates of tardiness or absenteeism.

2. RACE
- Race is another demographic characteristic that still exists in organizations. Regrettably,
discrimination against ethnic minorities still takes place

3. ETHNICITY
- Ethnicity, like race, is a social construct, but it’s still a construct with significant
implications for the world. How people perceive ethnicity, both their own and that of
others can be tough to measure, particularly given that it’s not subjective.

4. GENDER
- In spite of the existence of strong law, women and men often face different treatment at
work. The earnings gap and the glass ceiling are two of the key problems women may
experience in the workplace. There are many potential explanations for the earnings gap

5. PHYSICAL QUALITIES
 - Employees with a wide range of physical and mental abilities are part of the workforce.
Particularly employees suffering from illnesses that last for a long time and require
ongoing care seem to be at a disadvantage, because they are more likely to be stereotyped

6. SEXUAL/ AFFECTIONAL ORIENTATION

- Lesbian, bisexual, gay, and transgender (LGBT) employees in the workplace face a
number of challenges and barriers to employment

SECONDARY DIMENSIONS OF DIVERSITY

- Are those individual differences that are acquired, discarded and/ or modified throughout
the life of a person
THESE 8 DIMENSIONS ARE:
1. WORK BACKGROUND
2. INCOME
3. MARITAL STATUS
4. MILITARY EXPERIENCE
5. GEOGRAPHIC LOCALE
6. FAMILY BACKGROUND
7. EDUCATION
8. PARENTAL STATUS

 These dimensions add breadth to an individual core’s identity

SECONDARY DIMENSIONS OF DIVERSITY

1. LANGUAGE & COMMUNICATIONS
- Not just the language an individual speaks, but how people desire to share information
with one another

2. APPEARANCE
- Further than clothing like tattoos, piercings, and hairstyles

3. FOOD & EATING HABITS

- Types of food, when a person eats, vegetarian, vegan, lactose intolerance and etc.
 4. TIME- CONSIOUSNESS
- Preferred and most productive time of the day, punctuality, flexibility

5. SENSE OF SPACE
- Further than clothing like tattoos, piercings, and hairstyles

6. LIFESTYLES
- Alcoholic, Sporty, Smoker/ Nonsmoker, and habits

BENEFITS OF WORKPLACE DIVERSITY

- An organization’s success and competitiveness depends upon its ability to embrace
diversity and realize the benefits
- When organizations actively assess their handling of workplace diversity issues, develop
and implement diversity plans, multiple benefits could be attained.

HAVING A DIVERSE WORKFORCE AND MANAGING IT EFFECTIVELY HAVE THE

POTENTIAL TO BRING ABOUT A NUMBER OF BENEFITS TO ORGANIZATIONS.
HERE ARE THE BENEFITS OF WORKPLACE DIVERSITY:
1. HIGHER CREATIVITY IN DECISION- MAKING
- A diverse workforce that feels comfortable communicating varying perspectives provides
a larger pool of ideas and experiences

2. BETTER UNDERSTANDING AND SERVICE OF CUSTOMERS

- A company with a diverse workforce may create products or services that appeal to a
broader customer base

3. MORE SATISFIED WORKFORCE

- When employees feel that they are fairly treated, they are likely to be more satisfied

4. HIGHER STOCK PRICES

- Companies that do a better job of managing a diverse workforce are often rewarded in the
stock market, signaling that investors employ this information to evaluate how well a
company is being managed
 5. LOWER LITIGATION EXPENSES
- Companies doing a particularly bad job in diversity management face costly litigations

6. INCREASED ADAPTABILITY
- Organizations making use of a diverse workforce can convey a greater range of solutions
to problems in service, sourcing, and allocation of resources

7. BROADER SERVICE RANGE

- A diverse collection of skills and experiences permits a company to offer service to
customers on a global basis

8. HIGHER COMPANY PERFORMANCE

- As a result of all these potential benefits, companies that administer diversity more
effectively tend to do better than others

ROADBLOCK TO WORKPLACE DIVERSITY

1. PREJUDICE
- Is the irrational, inflexible opinion based on limited and insufficient info and unfair
negative attitudes who belong to social or cultural groups different from their own

2. DISCRIMINATION
- Is a behavior that results to unequal treatment of individuals based on group membership

STEREOTYPING
- Is a generalized set of beliefs about the characteristics of a group of individuals

DIFFICULT TO STOP DUE TO THE FOLLOWING REASONS

1. It is not easy to dismiss
2. Stereotypes guide what information people look for, process and remember
3. Stereotypes seem to be an enduring human quality

DIFFERENCES IN SOCIAL IDENTITY

 1. A person’s social identity becomes noticeable when he is in the minority on a significant
dimension
2. Belonging to a social identity different from the majority makes a person feel he has to
behave in ways that are unnatural for him in certain situations
3. People in the minority often feel that they might lose their social identities
4. People tend to check on others based on their social group membership

POWER DIFFERENTIALS
- In the organization, power is not always equally distributed among individuals and
groups. Traditionally, here in the Philippines, women, people with the minorities and
people with disabilities are observed to belong to the status compared to men. Thus,
members of these groups have less power in their workplace. Power differentials can
prevent an organization from developing inclusive workplace. The reasons of this
prevention are the following:

1. High- status people speak more and use stronger influence tactics than status people
2. People belonging to groups having different power and level status may avoid interaction
and may form factions with members of own group

POOR STRUCTURAL INTEGRATION

- Poor integration of women and minorities can give several roadblocks creating a diverse
workplace. Here are the reasons:

1. Poor integration creates power and status differentials which can then link in gender or
race
2. Poor integration fosters negative stereotypes
3. Poor integration when overall make use of “exception rule”
4. Poor integration may bring the feeling of being impossible to rise to the top for most
women minorities

COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS
- A potential problem occurs when everyone speaks a particular language fluently and
people who are less fluent may no longer contribute to the conversation. People who
speak the same language may exclude the one who do not speak the language. Many
misunderstandings happen due to language differences
 The differences of the appropriate norms may lead to communication problems among
different cultures. Common disagreements among different cultures in the workplace
are:
1. Willingness to openly disagree
2. The importance of maintaining dignity
3. The way agreement is defined
4. The amount of time for building relationships
5. Willingness to speak aggressively
6. Mode of communication whether verbal or written
7. Personal space and non- verbal communication

EFFECTIVELY CREATING AND MANAGING WORKPLACE DIVERSITY

1. BUILD A CULTURE OF RESPECTING DIVERSITY
- Successful companies embed respect for diversity across all levels, making it a collective
responsibility rather than just an HR task

2. MAKE MANAGERS ACCOUNTABLE FOR DIVERSITY

- Tracking diversity metrics and tying manager evaluations to diversity performance
increases organizational commitment to diversity

3. DIVERSITY TRAINING PROGRAM

- Diversity training is most successful in organizations where a culture of diversity, already
established

4. REVIEW RECRUITMENT PRACTICES

- To enhance diversity, companies should target diverse candidate pools and ensure their
job advertising reflects this commitment

5. AFFIRMATIVE ACTION PROGRAMS

- These policies aim to support protected groups in recruitment and retention but are often
controversial due to differing opinions on their effectiveness

a. SIMPLE ELIMINATION OF DISCRIMINATION

- Controversial programs that are generally favored by employees
 b. TARGETED RECRUITMENT
- Affirmative action plans ensuring a diverse candidate pool, seen as fair by most
employees

c. TIE- BREAKER
- Preference for minority candidates when qualifications are equal, but requires
justification to avoid reverse discrimination issues; viewed as less fair

d. PREFERENTIAL TREATMENT
- Involves hiring less qualified minority candidates; strong programs are mostly illegal

CHAPTER 3: PERSONALITY, ABILITY, ATTITUDES AND VALUES

PERSONALITY AT WORK
- Encompasses the relatively stable feelings, thoughts, and behavioral patterns that have
been formed significantly by genetic and environmental factors which give an individual
his identity. An individual’s personality differentiates him from other people

NURTURE
- Consists of person’s socialization, life experiences, and other forms of interaction in the
environment

FAMILY RELATIONSHIP
- Consists of the experiences a person has with parents, siblings and other family members
is a significant force in nurture

COMMUNITY
- Where a child grows up is the environment in which he learns about life

SOCIAL CLASS
- Determines a person’s self- perception, perception of others and perception about work,
authority and money. Managers must understand social class to avoid organizational
problems on adjustment, quality of work life and dissatisfaction
CULTURE
- Gradually shapes personality, requiring adaptation for shared behaviors and societal
stability

BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS

1. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
- Refers to the number of goals on which a person focuses
- People who focus on few goals are organized, systematic punctual, achievement oriented,
and dependable

2. AGREEABLENESS
- The person’s ability to get along with others
- It causes a person to be nice, tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind and warm

3. NEUROTICISM
- Refers to the degree to which a person is anxious, irritable, aggressive, temperamental,
and moody

4. OPENNESS
- Reflects a person’s flexibility and range of interests. People with high openness are
creative, intellectual, and eager to explore new ideas and learn new things. They are
adaptable and open- minded

5. EXTRAVERSION
- Reflects an individual’s comfort level with relationship
- Extroverts tend to be outgoing, talkative, and sociable

MYERS- BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR

- The Myers- Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is one of the most well- known personality
assessments, alongside the Big Five. Unlike the Big Five, which measures traits on a
spectrum, MBTI categorizes individuals into 16 personality types based on four
dimensions. Developed in 1943 by Isabel Myers and Katherine Cook Briggs, it was
 originally intended to help WWII veterans find suitable careers. Unlike some personality
tests, MBTI is designed for learning rather than employee selection

THROUGH MBTI, 16 TYPES OF PERSONALITIES COULD BE CREATED BY

COMBINATING THE FOUR DIFFERENT SCALES BELOW:
1. EXTRAVERSION (E)- INTROVERSION (I):
- The extraversion- introversion dichotomy describes how people interact with the world.
Extroverts are action- oriented and energized by socializing, while introverts prefer deep
interactions and recharge alone. Everyone exhibits both traits but tends to favor one

2. SENSING (S)- INTUITION (N):

- This scale explores how people gather information. Sensing types focus on facts, details,
and practical experience, while intuitive types prioritize patterns, possibilities, and
abstract ideas. Most people favor one approach. This scale explores how people gather
information. Sensing types focus on facts, details, and practical experience, while
intuitive types prioritize patterns, possibilities, and abstract ideas. Most people favor one
approach

3. THINKING (T)- FEELING (F):

- This scale focuses on decision- making based on sensing or intuition. Thinkers prioritize
facts, objectivity, and logic, while feelers consider emotions and people

4. JUDGING (J)- PERCEIVING (P)

- The final scale examines how people engage with the outside world. Judging types prefer
structure and firm decisions, while perceiving types are more flexible and adaptable. This
scale interacts with the other dimensions, showing whether a person is an extravert when
gathering information or making decisions

OTHER PERSONALITY TRAITS IN THE WORKPLACE

1. PROACTIVE PERSONALITY
- Proactive individuals take initiative to solve problems, challenge the status quo, and drive
change. Their ability to navigate organizational politics and perform at high levels makes
them valuable assets to companies. Proactive people quickly adapt to new roles, build
relationships, and actively seek opportunities to improve their skills

2. MACHIAVELLIANISM
 - Describes behavior aimed at gaining power and controlling others. Highly Machiavellian
individuals are rational, unemotional, goal- driven, and enjoy manipulating people, often
disregarding loyalty and friendship. In contrast, those with lower Machiavellianism are
emotional, value loyalty, and avoid manipulation to succeed

3. RISK PROPENSITY
- Refers to a person’s willingness to take chances and make risky decisions. Managers with
high risk propensity are open to experimentation and innovation but may face failure if
risks don’t pay off. In contrast, those with low risk propensity prioritize stability,
potentially avoiding failure but also leading to stagnation. The organizational
environment plays a key role in determining the outcomes of a manager’s risk- taking
decisions

4. CREATIVITY
- Involves breaking away from habitual thinking to generate innovative and useful ideas. It
drives innovation, essential for the success of growing organizations. Organizations
should encourage creativity by providing employees with opportunities and freedom to
think unconventionally

ABILITY
- Ability is a persons’ talent to perform a mental or physical task
- It includes both the natural aptitudes and the learned capabilities needed to
productively finish a task

THE FOLLOWING ABILITIES HAVE BEEN DISCOVERED TO HELP

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN HIGHER AND LOWER PERFORMERS IN THE
WORKPLACE
 MENTAL ABILITY Also known as intelligence is a better predictor of training
proficiency and job success when selecting candidates for a position

 MENTAL ABILITY Is the acquisition and application of knowledge in solving

problems

THERE ARE SEVERAL TYPES OF MENTAL ABILITIES NAMELY:

1. VERBAL ABILITY
 - This is the ability to understand and express oral and written communication quickly and
accurately
- There are two abilities under verbal ability namely oral comprehension and written
comprehension

2. QUANTITATIVE ABILITY
- It refers to the two types of mathematical abilities
- There are two abilities under quantitative ability which are numerical aptitude and
numerical reasoning

3. REASONING ABILITY
- This is the ability to analyze information so as to make valid judgments on the basis of
insights, rules, and logic

4. SPATIAL ABILITY
- This is the ability linked to visual and mental representation and manipulation of objects
in space
- It has two types precisely spatial orientation and visualization

5. PERCEPTUAL ABILITY
- It is the ability to perceive, understand, and recall patterns of information
- Under this ability are speed and flexibility closure and perceptual speed

4 BASIC COMPONENTS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

1. Ability to recognize and regulate our own emotions
2. Ability to recognize and influence others’ emotion
3. Self- motivation
4. Ability to form effective long- term relationship with others

MORE APPROPRIATE MODEL OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE INCLUDES

1. Appraisal and expression of emotions in oneself
2. Appraisal and recognition of emotions in others
3. Regulation of emotions in oneself
4. Use of emotions to facilitate performance
TACIT KNOWLEDGE
- The unwritten, unspoken, and hidden vast storehouse of work- related practical know-
how that employees acquire based on his/ her emotions, experiences, insights, intuition,
observations, and internalized information
- Also called as informal knowledge

EXAMPLES OF TACIT KNOWLEDGE CRITICAL TO BUSINESS THAT IS

DIFFICULT TO WRITE DOWN, VISUALIZE AND TEACH
1. How to speak a language
2. Innovation
3. Leadership
4. Aesthetic sense
5. Sales
6. Body language
7. Intuition
8. Humor
9. Snowboarding
10. Emotional intelligence

PHYSICAL ABILITY
- Physical ability is performing job- related tasks requiring manual labor or physical skill
- Jobs that require this ability are structural iron and steel workers, tractor trailer and heavy
equipment drivers, farm workers, and firefighters

IMPORTANT TYPES OF PHYSICAL ABILITIES

1. STRENGTH
- It refers to the degree to which the body is capable of exerting force

SEVERAL TYPES OF STRENGTH ACCORDING TO THE JOB:

 STATIC STRENGTH- it refers to the ability to lift, pull or push heavy objects using
hands, arms, legs, shoulders or back

 EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH- it refers to the ability to exert short bursts of energy to

move the body or an object
  DYNAMIC STRENGTH- It is the ability to exert force for a prolonged period of time
without becoming overly fatigued and giving out

2. STAMINA
- It refers to the ability of a person’s lungs and circulatory system to work efficiently while
he is engaging in a prolonged physical activity

FLEXIBILITY AND COORDINATION- Flexibility means the ability to twist, stretch, bend,
or reach. This is required on jobs that need extreme ranges of motion like walking in cramped
compartment or an awkward position. Coordination is the quality of physical movement
 Dynamic Flexibility- is needed for a job that is repeated and somewhat quick bends,
twists, or reaches

 Gross Body Coordination- it is the ability to synchronize the movement of the body,
arms, and legs to do something while the body is in motion

 Gross Body Equilibrium- it is the ability to maintain the balance of the body in unstable
contexts or when the person has to change direction like jumping rope and walking on a
beam balance

3. PSYCHOMOTOR ABILITY
- It means the capability to manipulate and control objects

 Fine manipulative ability- this is the ability to keep the arms and hands steady while
using the hands to do precise work, generally on small delicate objects

 Control movement ability- this is the ability to make precise adjustments using
machinery to complete work effectively like anyone who drills things for a living whether
wood, concrete or teeth

 Response Orientation- this is the ability to choose the right action swiftly in response to
several different signals

 Response time- this is the ability that reflects how quickly a person responds to signaling
information after it happens
 4. SENSORY ABILITY
- It is the capability related with vision and hearing
 Near and far vision
 Night vision
 Visual color discrimination
 Depth perception
 Hearing sensitivity
 Auditory attention
 Speech recognition

ATTITUDE IN THE WORKPLACE

- Attitude is stable
- Attitudes are directed towards some person, object or idea
- An attitude on an object or a person relates to an individual’s behavior towards that object
or person

ATTITUDE FORMATION: COMPONENTS

 AFFECTIVE- this is the emotional component of an attitude which includes the feelings
of a person about an object that could be positive, negative or neutral

 COGNITIVE- consists of the person’s perceptions, beliefs, and opinions about

something

 BEHAVIORAL- attitude is the tendency of a person to take action

2 IMPORTANT ATTITUDES IN THE WORKPLACE

 JOB SATISFACTION- is the degree of gratification or fulfillment of an employee in his
work

 ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT- mirrors the identification and attachment of

an individual to the organization

CHANGE OF ATTITUDE: TECHNIQUES

PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION- persuade people to change attitudes
4 ELEMENTS
 1. COMMUNICATOR- desires to convince others
2. MESSAGE- intended to stimulate the change in other’s attitude
3. SITUATION- surroundings in which message is offered
4. TARGET- person whose attitude the communicator desires to change

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE- uneasy feeling when an individual behaves in a way

inconsistent with existing attitude
3 CONDITIONS:
1. Behaviors must be considerably inconsistent with the attitude rather than slightly
inconsistent
2. Inconsistent behavior may cause damage or have negative effects for others
3. Inconsistent behavior must be voluntary and not forced or at least the person may
perceive it that way

VALUES
 Refer to stable and evaluative life goals that people have, reflecting what is most
important to them
 It is founded during one’s life as a result of the collection of life experiences and are
likely to be relatively constant
 Two types of values: INSTRUMENTAL VALUES & TERMINAL VALUES

INSTRUMENTAL VALUES- can be defined as specific methods of behavior. Instrumental

values are not an end goal, but rather provide the means by which an end goal is accomplished
THESE INCLUDES:
1. Cheerfulness
2. Ambition
3. Love
4. Cleanliness
5. Self- control
6. Capability
7. Courage
8. Politeness
9. Honesty
10. Imagination
11. Independence
12. Intellect
13. Broad- mindedness
 14. Logic
15. Obedience
16. Helpfulness
17. Responsibility
18. Forgiveness

TERMINAL VALUES
- Refers to end goals that people strive to achieve and are most important to us. Terminal
values are the overall goals that people hope to achieve in their lifetime
THESE INCLUDES:
1. A world at peace- free of war and conflict
2. Family security- taking care of loved ones
3. Freedom- independence; equal opportunity for all
4. Equality- brotherhood; equal opportunity for all
5. Self- respect- self esteem
6. Happiness- contentedness
7. Wisdom- a mature understanding of life
8. National security- protection from attack
9. Salvation- saved; eternal life
10. True friendship- close companionship
11. A sense of accomplishment- a lasting contribution
12. Inner harmony- freedom form inner conflict
13. A comfortable life- a prosperous life
14. Mature love- sexual and spiritual intimacy
15. A world of beauty- beauty of nature and the arts
16. Pleasure- an enjoyable, leisurely life
17. Social recognition- respect; admiration
18. An exciting life- a stimulating, active life

VALUES CONGRUENCE
- Refers to how similar an individual’s values hierarchy to the values hierarchy of the
organization, a co- employee or other sources of comparison

IT HAS THREE TYPES:

1. Person- organization congruence- when employee’s values match the organization’s
leading to decisions aligned with its mission
 2. Espoused- enacted congruence- the consistency between what a person claims to value
and their actual behavior, crucial for leadership integrity
3. Organization- society congruence- the alignment of a company’s values with societal
norms

CROSS CULTURAL VALUES

- Influenced organizational behavior, varying across cultures

THESE INCLUDES:
1. Individualism- emphasizes personal freedom, independence, and uniqueness, where
tasks take priority over relationships
2. Collectivism- values group harmony and loyalty, prioritizing over tasks and avoiding
direct confrontation
3. Power Distance- defines acceptance of unequal power distribution, with high- avoidance
cultures seeing hierarchy as natural
4. Uncertainty Avoidance- measures comfort with unstructured situations, with high-
avoidance cultures relying on strict rules and security
5. Achievement Orientation- prioritizes work- related goals over personal life, favoring
hierarchy and structured decision- making

CROSS- CULTURAL VALUES

1. INDIVIDUALISM
- It can be defined as the level to which a person values independence and personal
uniqueness
THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUALISM ARE:
a. Identity is based on the individual
b. Tasks prevail over relationships
c. Speaking one’s mind is a sign of honesty

2. COLLECTIVISM
- It is the extent to which people value duty to groups to which they belong and to group
harmony. High collectivist people defined themselves by their group membership and
value harmonious relationship within the group. The main characteristics of
collectivism are:
a. Identity is based on the group to which one belongs
b. Relationships prevail over tasks
 c. Direct confrontations should be avoided

3. POWER DISTANCE
- Can be defined as the extent to which people allow unequal distribution of power in a
society and in an organization

4. UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
- This is the extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or
comfortable in unstructured situations

5. ACHIEVEMENT ORIENTATION
- A strong achievement orientation means that when work- related come into conflict with
other areas of life, the desire to achieve will win out

CHAPTER 4: SELF- CONCEPT, PERCEPTIONS AND ATTRIBUTIONS

SELF- CONCEPT
- Self- concept refers to how a person thinks about, evaluates or perceives himself. It is an
important and useful way to understand and improve performance and welfare

3 CONCEPTUAL DIMENSIONS OD SELF- CONCEPT

1. COMPLEXITY
- A person’s self- concept has higher complexity when it consists of many categories

2. CONSISTENCY
- A person has high consistency when similar personality traits and values are required
across all aspects of self- concept

3. CLARITY
- This means the level of a person’s self- conceptions are clearly and confidently described,
internally consistent and stable across time

SELF- ENHANCEMENT
 - Self- enhancement is a desire to magnify positive aspects of self- conceptions while
isolating oneself from negative feedback and information
POSITIVE EFFECT:
- When people see their self- concept in a positive light, they have better mental and
physical health
NEGATIVE EFFECT
- Self- enhancement can result in bad decisions such as overestimation of the success in
investment decisions by managers

SELF- VERIFICATION
- Self- verification assumes that people work to preserve their self- views by seeking to
confirm them. It stabilizes a person’s self- concept which helps guide his thought and
actions

Self- verification has numerous implications in organizational behavior which are:

1. It affects the perceptual process because employees are likely to remember information
that is consistent with their self- concepts
2. The more confident employees are in their self- concepts, the less they accept feedbacks
whether positive or negative, that is at odds with their self- concepts
3. Employees are motivated to interact with others who affirm their self- concepts and this
affect how well they get along with their boss and with co- employees in teams

SELF- EVALUATION
- Self- evaluation is an individual’s honest and objective assessment of himself. The self-
evaluation is usually defined by three concepts which are self- esteem, self- efficacy and
locus of control

 Self- esteem
- Is the extent to which a person has generally positive feelings about himself
- People with high self- esteem view themselves in a positive light, are confident, and
respect themselves
- People with low self- esteem often experience high levels of self- doubt and have less
self- worth

 Self- efficacy
 - Is a personal belief on competencies and abilities. In other words, it is a person’s belief of
his ability to do a definite task fruitfully
- Self- efficacy differs from other personality traits
- People have a certain level of generalized self- efficacy and they have the belief that
whatever task or hobby they tackle, they are likely to be successful in it

 Locus of control deals

- Degree to which people feel answerable for their own behaviors
- Internal locus of Control: belief that success is due to personal effort
- External locus of Control: belief that luck or fate determines success

SELF- MONITORING
- Refers to the level of which a person is able of checking his actions and appearance in
social situations

2 TYPES OF SOCIAL MONITORING

1. HIGH SOCIAL MONITOR
- Likely to experience high incidence of stress, probably due to behaving in ways that
disagree their true feelings

2. LOW SOCIAL MONITOR

- Likely to act the way they feel

PERCEPTION
- Is an intellectual process by which an individual selects, organizes and provides meaning
to the world around him

6 STEPS OF PERCEPTION PROCESS

1. Objects are present in the world
2. A person observes
3. The person uses perception to select objects
4. The person organizes the perception of objects
5. The person interprets the perceptions
6. The person responds
PERCEPTION SELECTION
- Are simultaneously exposed to different stimuli in his environment. Owing to the fact
that the various stimuli cannot be taken care of processed at the same time, people
become selective in their approach
- Is the choice of the stimuli that would depend on what people feel is pertinent for them
and or appropriate for them. It is driven by internal and external factors

INTERNAL FACTORS INCLUDE

1. PERSONALITY
- Personality traits influence how a person selects perceptions. For example, conscientious
people tend to pick details and external stimuli to a greater degree

2. MOTIVATION
- People will choose perceptions based on what they need in the moment. They will
support selections that they think will aid them with their present needs, and be more
likely to disregard what is immaterial to their needs

3. EXPERIENCE
- The patterns of incidences or associations one has learned in the past affect current
perceptions. The person will choose perceptions in a way that matched with what they
found in the past

EXTERNAL FACTORS INCLUDE

1. SIZE
- A larger size makes it more likely an object will be selected. The larger the size of a
stimuli, the more likely it is to be perceived like headlines in the newspaper, brand name
on the packaging of a product

2. INTENSITY
- Greater intensity, in brightness, for example, also increases perceptual selection. The
larger the force or power of a stimuli, the greater the chances of it getting perceived like
strong smell or a loud noise; flashy colors on the packaging or in the advertisement;
strong aroma of food
 3. CONTRAST
- When a perception stands clearly out against a background, there is a greater likelihood
of selection. Any stimuli that stands out from the rest of the environment is more likely to
be noticed; like capital and bold letters; a black and white advertisement amongst colored
ads on TV; or a colored advertisement in the black and white newspaper

4. MOTION
- A moving perception is more likely to be selected. Anything that moves has greater
chances of being perceived like a scroll advertisement

5. REPETITION
- Repetition increases perceptual selection. A repeated stimuli is more likely to be noticed;
like advertisements in audio- visual media are more likely to be noticed than in the print
media

6. NOVELTY AND FAMILIARITY

- Both of these increase selection. When a perception is new, it stands out in a person’s
experience. When it is familiar, it is likely to be selected because of this familiarity

CONCEPTS IN PERCEPTUAL SELECTION

1. SELECTING EXPOSURE
- While people are exposed to various stimuli at the same time, they have a tendency to
seek out messages that they find pleasant, are comfortable with, and confirm their beliefs
- On the other hand, they avoid messages and block themselves from messages they find
unpleasant, are uncomfortable with, and are contrary to their beliefs

2. SELECTIVE ATTENTION
- Of the many stimuli people are exposed to, they are attracted to those that they consider
relevant
- They are attentive to those that match their needs and avoid irrelevant ones
- People are also selective about the message and the channel through which is this
information would be transmitted; it could relate to the split- brain theory

3. PERPETUAL DEFENSE
 - Sometimes people may select stimuli which they later find as psychological threatening
and uncomfortable. In such cases, they have a tendency to filter out that stimuli, although
initial exposure has taken place. The threatening stimuli is consciously filtered away

4. PERPETUAL BLOCKING
- When exposed to a large number of stimuli simultaneously, people may often block the
various stimuli, as they get stressed out. This is because the body cannot cope up with so
many stimuli at the same time
- This, the people blocks out various stimuli from their conscious awareness

PERPETUAL ORGANIZATION
FIGURE- GROUND
- Once perceived, objects stand out against their background

PERCEPTUAL GROUPING
- Grouping is when perceptions are brought together into a pattern

PERPETUAL ORGANIZATION
- Each of these factors influence how the person perceived their environment

1. CLOSURE
- This is the tendency to try to create wholes out of perceived parts

2. PROXIMITY
- Perceptions that are physically close to each other are easier to organize into a pattern or
whole

3. SIMILARITY
- Similarity between perceptions promotes a tendency to group them together

4. PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY
 - This means that if an object is perceived always to be or act a certain way, the person will
tend to infer that it actually is always that way

5. PERCEPTUAL CONTEXT
- People will tend to organize perceptions in relation to other pertinent perceptions, and
create a context out of those connections

VISUAL PERCEPTION
- Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment by processing
information that is contained in visible light. The resulting perception is known as
eyesight, sight, or vision

CATEGORIES OF VISUAL PERCEPTION

1. VISUAL DISCRIMINATION
- Is the ability of the child to be aware of the distinctive features of forms including shape,
orientation, size, and color

2. VISUAL FIGURE GROUND

- Is the ability to distinguish an object from irrelevant background information

3. VISUAL CLOSURE
- Is the ability to recognize a complete feature from fragmented information

4. VISUAL MEMORY
- Is the ability to retain information over an adequate period of time

5. VISUAL SEQUENTIAL MEMORY

- Is the ability to perceive and remember a sequence of objects, letters, words and other
symbols in the same order as originally sees

6. VISUAL FORM CONSTANCY

- Is the ability to recognize objects as they change size, shape, or orientation
 7. VISUAL SPATIAL SKILLS
- Refer to the ability to understand directional concepts that organizes external visual space

SOCIAL PERCEPTION
- Is the study of how people form impressions of and interferences about other people

3 DOMAINS OF COMPETENCE
1. Knowing that other people have thoughts, beliefs, emotions, intentions, desires, and the
like
2. Being able to “read” other people’s inner states based on their words, behavior, facial
expression and the like
3. Adjusting one’s actions based on those “readings”. That is, a socially competent person
can make note of other people’s facial expressions, tone of voice, posture, gestures,
words, and the like, and on the basis of these clues, make reasonably accurate judgments
about that person’s state of mind, emotions, and intentions

PERCEPTUAL ERRORS
- In the workplace the process of making evaluations, judgements or ratings of the
performance of employees is subject to a number systematic perception errors. They are
the following:

1. CENTRAL TENDENCY
- Appraising everyone at the middle of the rating scale

2. CONTRAST ERROR
- Basing an appraisal on comparison with other employees rather than on established
performance criteria

3. DIFFERENT FROM ME
- Giving a poor appraisal because the person has qualities or characteristics not possessed
by the appraiser

4. HALO EFFECT
- Appraising an employee undeservedly on one quality (performance, for example)
because s/he is perceived highly by the appraiser on another quality (attractiveness)

5. HORN EFFECT
- The opposite of the halo effect. Giving someone a poor appraisal on one quality
(attractiveness) influences poor rating on other qualities (performance)

6. INITIAL IMPRESSION
- Basing an appraisal on first impressions rather than on how the person has behaved
throughout the period to which appraisal relates

7. LATEST BEHAVIOR
- Basing an appraisal on the person’s recent behavior

8. LENIENT OR GENEROUS RATING

- Perhaps the most common error, bring consistently generous in appraisal mostly to avoid
conflict

9. PERFORMANCE DIMENSION ERROR

- Giving someone a similar appraisal on two distinct but similar qualities, because they
happen to follow each other on the appraisal from

10. SAME AS ME
- Giving a good appraisal because the person has qualities or characteristics possessed by
the appraiser. Spoiler effect: Basing the appraisal, good or bad, on the results of the
previous appraisal rather than on how the person has behaved during the appraisal period

11. STATUS EFFECT

- Giving those in higher level positions consistently better appraisals than those in lower
level jobs

12. STRICT RATING

- Being consistently harsh in appraising performance
ATTRIBUTIONS
- Is the process through which individuals link behavior to its causes to the intentions,
dispositions and events that explain why people act the way they do. It is simply the
process of attaching or attributing causes or reasons to the actions and events people see

ATTRIBUTION THEORY
1. INTERNAL ATTRIBUTES
- Behavior is being caused by something inside the person

2. EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTES
- Point to the cause of the behavior to be the situation, not the person

KEY FACTORS INDIVIDUALS CONSIDER WHEN FORMING CASUAL BELIEFS

1. DISTINCTIVENESS
- This is the degree in which a person behave the same way across different situations. If
Angie smokes when she is out with friends, her behavior is high distinctiveness. If she
smokes at any time or place, distinctiveness is low

2. CONSISTENCY
- This is the degree in which a person behave the same way in different occasions in the
same situation. If Angie only smokes when she is out with friends, consistency is high, if
she only smokes on one special occasion, consistency is low

3. CONSENSUS
- This is the degree in which other people behave the same way. If Angie smokes a
cigarette when she goes out for a meal with her friend. If her friend smokes, her behavior
is high in consensus, if only Angie smokes it is low

ACCORDING TO KELLY PEOPLE FALL BACK ON PAST EXPERIENCE AND LOOK FOR
EITHER
1. MULTIPLE NECESSARY CAUSES
- For instance, people see an athlete win a marathon and they reason that she must be very
fit, highly motivated, have trained hard etc. and that she must have all of these to win
 2. MULTIPLE SUFFICIENT CAUSES
- To illustration, people see an athlete fail a drug test and they reason that she may be
trying to cheat, or have taken a banned substance by accident or been tricked into taking
it by her coach. Any one reason would be sufficient

In addition he categorized attribution characteristics into three causal dimensions which

are locus, stability and controllability
1. LOCUS
- This refers to whether the cause of the event is perceived as internal to the individual or
external learner believes that she failed an exam because she lacks ability, she is choosing
an eternal cause because ability is to the learner. In contrast, if a learner believes that be
failed an exam because the teacher is incompetent, he is choosing an external cause
because teacher incompetence it external to the student

2. STABILITY
- This refers to whether the cause is stable or unstable across time and situations. If a
learner believes that he failed a science exam because he lacks ability in science, then his
cause it stable, particularly is he believes that his lack of ability in science is a permanent
quality, In contrast, If a learner believes that he failed the exam because he was ill at the
time of the exam, then the cause is unstable in cases in which the illness is a temporary
factor. When a student experiences success, attributions to stable causes lead to positive
expectations for success in the future. In the face of failure, however, attributions to
stable causes can result in low expectations for the future

3. CONTROLABILITY
- refers to whether the cause of the event is perceived as being under the control of the
individual. If a runner believes that he lost a race because he did not get enough practice
before the event the cause it controllable because he could have decided to spend more
time. In contrast, if he feels that he lost the race because he simply lacks ability as a
runner, then the cause is uncontrollable. By definition only internal attributions can be
considered controllable

ATTRIBUTION BIASES
Attribution bias is when individuals make an assumption about others without having all the data
they need to be accurate. In the business environment, this is a challenge because this would lead
to a great deal of confusion and miscommunication, which would impact how the company
operates. It would also cause support politics when individuals would take what they assumed
and act on it without taking the time to think through the issue and get the real facts.
There are two different types of bias errors. First is self-serving bias, where individuals attribute
positive dealings to their own character and negative dealings to external factors it's easy to see
why this is viewed as self-serving For example, smokers believe they are less likely than other
smokers to get lung cancer. The other one is the fundamental attribution error when a person
assigned blames or a cause of something in the person themselves and does not take into account
external issues, for example, if a person is overweigh person's first assumption might be that
they have a problem with overeating or are lazy and not that they might have a medical reason
for being heavier set