UNIT-I

PN JUNCTION DIODE
1.0 INTRODUCTON
1.0.1. Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified as insulators,
semiconductors, and conductors.

Insulator: An insulator is a material that offers a very low level (or negligible) of conductivity when
voltage is applied. Eg: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz. Typical resistivity level of an insulator is of the order
of 1010 to 1012 Ω-cm. The energy band structure of an insulator is shown in the fig.1.1. Band structure
of a material defines the band of energy levels that an electron can occupy. Valance band is the range
of electron energy where the electron remain bended too the atom and do not contribute to the
electric current. Conduction bend is the range of electron energies higher than valance band where
electrons are free to accelerate under the influence of external voltage source resulting in the flow of
charge.
The energy band between the valance band and conduction band is called as forbidden band
gap. It is the energy required by an electron to move from balance band to conduction band i.e. the
energy required for a valance electron to become a free electron.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
For an insulator, as shown in the fig.1.1 there is a large forbidden band gap of greater than 5Ev.
Because of this large gap there a very few electrons in the CB and hence the conductivity of insulator is
poor. Even an increase in temperature or applied electric field is insufficient to transfer electrons from
VB to CB.

CB
CB CB

o
Forbidden band Eo =≈6eV
gap Eo ≈6eV

VB
VB
VB

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

FiG:1.1 Energy band diagrams insulator, semiconductor and conductor
Conductors: A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of charge when a voltage is
applied across its terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. Eg: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold. The
resistivity of a conductor is in the order of 10-4 and 10-6 Ω-cm. The Valance and conduction bands
overlap (fig1.1) and there is no energy gap for the electrons to move from valance band to conduction
band. This implies that there are free electrons in CB even at absolute zero temperature (0K).
Therefore at room temperature when electric field is applied large current flows through the
conductor.

Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between the
insulator and conductor. The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 104 Ω-cm. Two of the most
commonly used are Silicon (Si=14 atomic no.) and germanium (Ge=32 atomic no.). Both have 4 valance
electrons. The forbidden band gap is in the order of 1eV. For eg., the band gap energy for Si, Ge and
GaAs is 1.21, 0.785 and 1.42 eV, respectively at absolute zero temperature (0K). At 0K and at low
temperatures, the valance band electrons do not have sufficient energy to move from V to CB. Thus
semiconductors act a insulators at 0K. as the temperature increases, a large number of valance
electrons acquire sufficient energy to leave the VB, cross the forbidden bandgap and reach CB. These
are now free electrons as they can move freely under the influence of electric field. At room
temperature there are sufficient electrons in the CB and hence the semiconductor is capable of
conducting some current at room temperature.
Inversely related to the conductivity of a material is its resistance to the flow of charge or
current. Typical resistivity values for various materials’ are given as follows.

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

-6
10 Ω-cm (Cu) 50Ω-cm (Ge) 1012 Ω-cm
(mica)

50x103 Ω-cm (Si)

Typical resistivity values

1.0.1 Semiconductor Types

A pure form of semiconductors is called as intrinsic semiconductor. Conduction in

intrinsic sc is either due to thermal excitation or crystal defects. Si and Ge are the two most important
semiconductors used. Other examples include Gallium arsenide GaAs, Indium Antimonide (InSb) etc.
 Let us consider the structure of Si. A Si atomic no. is 14 and it has 4 valance electrons. These 4
electrons are shared by four neighboring atoms in the crystal structure by means of covalent bond. Fig.
1.2a shows the crystal structure of Si at absolute zero temperature (0K). Hence a pure SC acts has poor
conductivity (due to lack of free electrons) at low or absolute zero temperature.

Covalent bond

Valence electron

Fig. 1.2a crystal structure of Si at 0K

At room temperature some of the covalent bonds break up to thermal energy as shown in fig
1.2b. The valance electrons that jump into conduction band are called as free electrons that are
available for conduction.

Free electron

Valance electron

hole

Fig. 1.2b crystal structure of Si at room

temperature0K
 The absence of electrons in covalent bond is represented by a small circle usually referred to as
hole which is of positive charge. Even a hole serves as carrier of electricity in a manner similar to that
of free electron.

The mechanism by which a hole contributes to conductivity is explained as follows:

When a bond is in complete so that a hole exists, it is relatively easy for a valance electron in
the neighboring atom to leave its covalent bond to fill this hole. An electron moving from a bond to fill
a hole moves in a direction opposite to that of the electron. This hole, in its new position may now be
filled by an electron from another covalent bond and the hole will correspondingly move one more
step in the direction opposite to the motion of electron. Here we have a mechanism for conduction of
electricity which does not involve free electrons. This phenomenon is illustrated in fig1.3

Electron movement

Hole movement

Fig. 1.3a

Fig. 1.3b Fig. 1.3c

 Fig 1.3a show that there is a hole at ion 6.Imagine that an electron from ion 5 moves into the
hole at ion 6 so that the configuration of 1.3b results. If we compare both fig1.3a &fig 1.3b, it appears
as if the hole has moved towards the left from ion6 to ion 5. Further if we compare fig 1.3b and fig
1.3c, the hole moves from ion5 to ion 4. This discussion indicates the motion of hole is in a direction
opposite to that of motion of electron. Hence we consider holes as physical entities whose movement
constitutes flow of current.

In a pure semiconductor, the number of holes is equal to the number of free electrons.

1.0.2 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Intrinsic semiconductor has very limited applications as they conduct very small amounts of
current at room temperature. The current conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor can be
increased significantly by adding a small amounts impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor. By adding
impurities it becomes impure or extrinsic semiconductor. This process of adding impurities is called as
doping. The amount of impurity added is 1 part in 106 atoms.

N type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a pentavalent atom then the resultant semiconductor
is called N-type semiconductor. Examples of pentavalent impurities are Phosphorus, Arsenic, Bismuth,
Antimony etc.

A pentavalent impurity has five valance electrons. Fig 1.4a shows the crystal structure of N-type
semiconductor material where four out of five valance electrons of the impurity atom(antimony) forms
covalent bond with the four intrinsic semiconductor atoms. The fifth electron is loosely bound to the
impurity atom. This loosely bound electron can be easily

Fifth valance electron of SB

CB
Ec
Ed
B
Donor energy level B
Ev
B VB

Fig. 1.4a crystal structure of N type SC Fig. 1.4bEnergy band diagram of N type
SC
Excited from the valance band to the conduction band by the application of electric field or increasing
the thermal energy. The energy required to detach the fifth electron form the impurity atom is very
small of the order of 0.01ev for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.

The effect of doping creates a discrete energy level called donor energy level in the forbidden band
gap with energy level Ed slightly less than the conduction band (fig 1.4b). The difference between the
energy levels of the conducting band and the donor energy level is the energy required to free the fifth
valance electron (0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si). At room temperature almost all the fifth electrons
from the donor impurity atom are raised to conduction band and hence the number of electrons in the
conduction band increases significantly. Thus every antimony atom contributes to one conduction
electron without creating a hole.

In the N-type sc the no. of electrons increases and the no. of holes decreases compared to those
available in an intrinsic sc. The reason for decrease in the no. of holes is that the larger no. of electrons
present increases the recombination of electrons with holes. Thus current in N type sc is dominated by
electrons which are referred to as majority carriers. Holes are the minority carriers in N type sc

P type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a trivalent atom then the resultant semiconductor is
called P-type semiconductor. Examples of trivalent impurities are Boron, Gallium , indium etc.

The crystal structure of p type sc is shown in the fig1.5a. The three valance electrons of the
impurity (boon) forms three covalent bonds with the neighboring atoms and a vacancy exists in the
fourth bond giving rise to the holes. The hole is ready to accept an electron from the neighboring
atoms. Each trivalent atom contributes to one hole generation and thus introduces a large no. of holes
in the valance band. At the same time the no. electrons are decreased compared to those available in
intrinsic sc because of increased recombination due to creation of additional holes.

hole

Fig. 1.5a crystal structure of P type sc

 Thus in P type sc , holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. Since each
trivalent impurity atoms are capable accepting an electron, these are called as acceptor atoms. The
following fig 1.5b shows the pictorial representation of P type sc

hole (majority carrier)

Electron (minority carrier)

Acceptor atoms

Fig. 1.5b crystal structure of P type sc

The conductivity of N type sc is greater than that of P type sc as the mobility of electron is
greater than that of hole.

For the same level of doping in N type sc and P type sc, the conductivity of an Ntype sc is
around twice that of a P type sc

1.0.3 CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTOR

In a pure sc, the no. of holes is equal to the no. of electrons. Thermal agitation continue to
produce new electron- hole pairs and the electron hole pairs disappear because of recombination. with
each electron hole pair created , two charge carrying particles are formed . One is negative which is a
free electron with mobility µn . The other is a positive i.e., hole with mobility µp . The electrons and
hole move in opppsitte direction in a an electric field E, but since they are of opposite sign, the current
due to each is in the same direction. Hence the total current density J within the intrinsic sc is given by

J = J n + Jp

=q n µn E + q p µp E

= (n µn + p µp)qE

=σ E

Where n=no. of electrons / unit volume i.e., concentration of free electrons

P= no. of holes / unit volume i.e., concentration of holes

E=applied electric field strength, V/m

q= charge of electron or hole I n Coulombs

 Hence, σ is the conductivity of sc which is equal to (n µn + p µp)q. he resistivity of sc is reciprocal
of conductivity.

Ρ = 1/ σ

It is evident from the above equation that current density with in a sc is directly proportional to
applied electric field E.

For pure sc, n=p= ni where ni = intrinsic concentration. The value of ni is given by

ni2=AT3 exp (-EGO/KT)

therefore, J= ni ( µn + µp) q E

Hence conductivity in intrinsic sc is σi= ni ( µn + µp) q

Intrinsic conductivity increases at the rate of 5% per o C for Ge and 7% per o C for Si.

Conductivity in extrinsic sc (N Type and P Type):

The conductivity of intrinsic sc is given by σi= ni ( µn + µp) q = (n µn + p µp)q

For N type , n>>p

Therefore σ= q n µn

For P type ,p>>n

Therefore σ= q p µp

1.0.4 CHARGE DENSITIES IN P TYPE AND N TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:

Mass Action Law:

Under thermal equilibrium for any semiconductor, the product of the no. of holes and the
concentration of electrons is constant and is independent of amount of donor and acceptor impurity
doping.

n.p= ni2

where n= eleetron concentration

p = hole concentration

ni2= intrinsic concentration

 Hence in N type sc , as the no. of electrons increase the no. of holes decreases. Similarly in P
type as the no. of holes increases the no. of electrons decreases. Thus the product is constant and is
equal to ni2 in case of intrinsic as well as extrinsic sc.

The law of mass action has given the relationship between free electrons concentration and
hole concentration. These concentrations are further related by the law of electrical neutrality as
explained below.

Law of electrical neutrality:

Sc materials are electrically neutral. According to the law of electrical neutrality, in an

electrically neutral material, the magnitude of positive charge concentration is equal to tat of negative
charge concentration. Let us consider a sc that has ND donor atoms per cubic centimeter and NA
acceptor atoms per cubic centimeter i.e., the concentration of donor and acceptor atoms are ND and
NA respectively. Therefore ND positively charged ions per cubic centimeter are contributed by donor
atoms and NA negatively charged ions per cubic centimeter are contributed by the acceptor atoms. Let
n, p is concentration of free electrons and holes respectively. Then according to the law of neutrality

ND + p =NA + n …………………………………eq 1.1

For N type sc, NA =0 and n>>p. Therefore ND ≈ n ………………………………….eq 1.2

Hence for N type sc the free electron concentration is approximately equal to the concentration
of donor atoms. In later applications since some confusion may arise as to which type of sc is under
consideration a the given moment, the subscript n or p is added for Ntype or P type respectively.
Hence eq1.2 becomes ND ≈ nn

Therefore current density in N type sc is J = ND µn q E

And conductivity σ= ND µn q

For P type sc, ND = 0 and p>>n. Therefore NA ≈ p

Or NA ≈ pp

Hence for P type sc the hole concentration is approximately equal to the concentration of
acceptor atoms.

Therefore current density in N type sc is J = NA µp q E

And conductivity σ= NA µp q

Mass action law for N type, nn pn= ni2

pn= ni2/ ND since (nn≈ ND)

Mass action law for P type, np pp= ni2

np= ni2/ NA since (pp≈ NA)

1.1 QUANTITATIVE THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

1.1.1 PN JUNCTION WITH NO APPLIED VOLTAGE OR OPEN CIRCUIT CONDITION:

In a piece of sc, if one half is doped by p type impurity and the other half is doped by n type
impurity, a PN junction is formed. The plane dividing the two halves or zones is called PN junction. As
shown in the fig the n type material has high concentration of free electrons, while p type material has
high concentration of holes. Therefore at the junction there is a tendency of free electrons to diffuse
over to the P side and the holes to the N side. This process is called diffusion. As the free electrons
move across the junction from N type to P type, the donor atoms become positively charged. Hence a
positive charge is built on the N-side of the junction. The free electrons that cross the junction uncover
the negative acceptor ions by filing the holes. Therefore a negative charge is developed on the p –side
of the junction..This net negative charge on the p side prevents further diffusion of electrons into the p
side. Similarly the net positive charge on the N side repels the hole crossing from p side to N side. Thus
a barrier sis set up near the junction which prevents the further movement of charge carriers i.e.
electrons and holes. As a consequence of induced electric field across the depletion layer, an
electrostatic potential difference is established between P and N regions, which are called the potential
barrier, junction barrier, diffusion potential or contact potential, Vo. The magnitude of the contact
potential Vo varies with doping levels and temperature. Vo is 0.3V for Ge and 0.72 V for Si.

Fig 1.6: Symbol of PN Junction Diode

The electrostatic field across the junction caused by the positively charged N-Type region tends
to drive the holes away from the junction and negatively charged p type regions tend to drive the
electrons away from the junction. The majority holes diffusing out of the P region leave behind
negatively charged acceptor atoms bound to the lattice, thus exposing a negatives pace charge in a
previously neutral region. Similarly electrons diffusing from the N region expose positively ionized
donor atoms and a double space charge builds up at the junction as shown in the fig. 1.7a
 Fig 1.7a

It is noticed that the space charge layers are of opposite sign to the majority carriers diffusing
into them, which tends to reduce the diffusion rate. Thus the double space of the layer causes an
electric field to be set up across the junction directed from N to P regions, which is in such a direction
to inhibit the diffusion of majority electrons and holes as illustrated in fig 1.7b. The shape of the charge
density, ρ, depends upon how diode id doped. Thus the junction region is depleted of mobile charge
carriers. Hence it is called depletion layer, space region, and transition region. The depletion region is
of the order of 0.5µm thick. There are no mobile carriers in this narrow depletion region. Hence no
current flows across the junction and the system is in equilibrium. To the left of this depletion layer,
the carrier concentration is p= NA and to its right it is n= ND.
 Fig 1.7b

1.1.2 FORWARD BIASED JUNCTION DIODE

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage becomes
greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium,
the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow. This is because the
negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the energy to cross over
and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by the
positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point,
called the "knee" on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little
increase in the external voltage as shown below.

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Fig 1.8a: Diode Forward Characteristics

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby
allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is
represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the "knee" point.

Forward Biased Junction Diode showing a Reduction in the Depletion Layer

Fig 1.8b: Diode Forward Bias

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large currents
to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential difference
across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v
for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes. Since the diode can conduct
"infinite" current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are
used in series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current
specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was designed for
resulting in a very quick failure of the device.

1.1.2 PN JUNCTION UNDER REVERSE BIAS CONDITION:

Reverse Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-type
material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The positive voltage applied to the N-
type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and away from the junction, while the
holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction towards the negative electrode. The
net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a
high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus
preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.

Reverse Biased Junction Diode showing an Increase in the Depletion

Fig 1.9a: Diode Reverse Bias

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current flows
through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage current
does flow through the junction which can be measured in microamperes, (μA). One final point, if the
reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high enough value, it will
cause the PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction. This may
cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and this
shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Fig 1.9b: Diode Reverse Characteristics

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilizing circuits where a series
limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset maximum
value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of diodes are commonly
known as Zener Diodes

1.2 VI CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE

Diode terminal characteristics equation for diode junction current:
v
vT
ID I 0 (e 1)

Where VT = KT/q;
VD_ diode terminal voltage, Volts
Io _ temperature-dependent saturation current, µA
T _ absolute temperature of p-n junction, K
K _ Boltzmann’s constant 1.38x 10 -23J/K)
q _ electron charge 1.6x10-19 C
 = empirical constant, 1 for Ge and 2 for Si

Fig 1.10: Diode Characteristics

Temperature Effects on Diode

Temperature can have a marked effect on the characteristics of a silicon semiconductor diode
as shown in Fig. 11 It has been found experimentally that the reverse saturation current Io will just
about double in magnitude for every 10°C increase in temperature.

Fig 1.11 Variation in Diode Characteristics with temperature change

It is not uncommon for a germanium diode with an Io in the order of 1 or 2 A at 25°C to have a leakage
current of 100 A - 0.1 mA at a temperature of 100°C. Typical values of Io for silicon are much lower than
that of germanium for similar power and current levels. The result is that even at high temperatures
the levels of Io for silicon diodes do not reach the same high levels obtained. For germanium—a very
important reason that silicon devices enjoy a significantly higher level of development and utilization in
design. Fundamentally, the open-circuit equivalent in the reverse bias region is better realized at any
temperature with silicon than with germanium. The increasing levels of Io with temperature account
for the lower levels of threshold voltage, as shown in Fig. 1.11. Simply increase the level of Io in and not
rise in diode current. Of course, the level of TK also will be increase, but the increasing level of Io will
overpower the smaller percent change in TK. As the temperature increases the forward characteristics
are actually becoming more “ideal,”

1.3 IDEAL VERSUS PRACTICAL RESISTANCE LEVELS

DC or Static Resistance
The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will result in an
operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with time. The resistance of the diode
at the operating point can be found simply by finding the corresponding levels of VD and ID as shown
in Fig. 1.12 and applying the following Equation:

The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than the resistance levels obtained for
the vertical rise section of the characteristics. The resistance levels in the reverse-bias region will
naturally be quite high. Since ohmmeters typically employ a relatively constant-current source, the
resistance determined will be at a preset current level (typically, a few mill amperes).
 Fig 1.12 Determining the dc resistance of a diode at a particular operating point.

AC or Dynamic Resistance
It is obvious from Eq. 1.3 that the dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the
characteristic in the region surrounding the point of interest. If a sinusoidal rather than dc input is
applied, the situation will change completely. The varying input will move the instantaneous operating
point up and down a region of the characteristics and thus defines a specific change in current and
voltage as shown in Fig. 1.13. With no applied varying signal, the point of operation would be the Q-
point appearing on Fig. 1.13 determined by the applied dc levels. The designation Q-point is derived
from the word quiescent, which means “still or unvarying.” A straight-line drawn tangent to the curve
through the Q-point as shown in Fig. 1.13 will define a particular change in voltage and current that can
be used to determine the ac or dynamic resistance for this region of the diode characteristics. In
equation form,

Where Δ Signifies a finite change in the quantity

Fig 1.13: Determining the ac resistance of a diode at a particular operating point.

1.4 DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the actual
terminal characteristics of a device, system, or such in a particular operating region. In other words,
once the equivalent circuit is defined, the device symbol can be removed from a schematic and the
equivalent circuit inserted in its place without severely affecting the actual behavior of the system. The
result is often a network that can be solved using traditional circuit analysis techniques.

Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

One technique for obtaining an equivalent circuit for a diode is to approximate the
characteristics of the device by straight-line segments, as shown in Fig. 1.31. The resulting equivalent
circuit is naturally called the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit. It should be obvious from Fig. 1.31 that
the straight-line segments do not result in an exact duplication of the actual characteristics, especially
in the knee region. However, the resulting segments are sufficiently close to the actual curve to
establish an equivalent circuit that will provide an excellent first approximation to the actual behaviour
of the device. The ideal diode is included to establish that there is only one direction of conduction
through the device, and a reverse-bias condition will result in the open- circuit state for the device.
Since a silicon semiconductor, diode does not reach the conduction state until VD reaches 0.7 V with a
forward bias (as shown in Fig. 1.14a), a battery VT opposing the conduction direction must appear in
the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 1.14b. The battery simply specifies that the voltage across the
device must be greater than the threshold battery voltage before conduction through the device in the
direction dictated by the ideal diode can be established. When conduction is established, the
resistance of the diode will be the specified value of rav.

Fig: 1.14aDiode piecewise-linear model characteristics

 Fig: 1.14b Diode piecewise-linear model equivalent circuit
The approximate level of rav can usually be determined from a specified operating point on the
specification sheet. For instance, for a silicon semiconductor diode, if IF _ 10 mA (a forward conduction
current for the diode) at VD _ 0.8 V, we know for silicon that a shift of 0.7 V is required before the
characteristics rise.

Fig 1.15 Ideal Diode and its characteristics

Fig 1.16: Diode equivalent circuits(models)

1.5 TRANSITION AND DIFFUSION CAPACITANCE
Electronic devices are inherently sensitive to very high frequencies. Most shunt capacitive
effects that can be ignored at lower frequencies because the reactance XC=1/2πfC is very large (open-
circuit equivalent). This, however, cannot be ignored at very high frequencies. XC will become
sufficiently small due to the high value of f to introduce a low-reactance “shorting” path. In the p-n
semiconductor diode, there are two capacitive effects to be considered. In the reverse-bias region we
have the transition- or depletion region capacitance (CT), while in the forward-bias region we have the
diffusion (CD) or storage capacitance. Recall that the basic equation for the capacitance of a parallel-
plate capacitor is defined by C=€A/d, where € is the permittivity of the dielectric (insulator) between
the plates of area A separated by a distance d. In the reverse-, bias region there is a depletion region
(free of carriers) that behaves essentially like an insulator between the layers of opposite charge. Since
the depletion width (d) will increase with increased reverse-bias potential, the resulting transition
capacitance will decrease. The fact that the capacitance is dependent on the applied reverse-bias
potential has application in a number of electronic systems. Although the effect described above will
also be present in the forward-bias region, it is over shadowed by a capacitance effect directly
dependent on the rate at which charge is injected into the regions just outside the depletion region.
The capacitive effects described above are represented by a capacitor in parallel with the ideal diode,
as shown in Fig. 1.38. For low- or mid-frequency applications (except in the power area), however, the
capacitor is normally not included in the diode symbol.

Fig 1.17: Including the effect of the transition or diffusion capacitance on the semiconductor diode

Diode capacitances: The diode exhibits two types of capacitances transition capacitance and diffusion
capacitance.
 Transition capacitance: The capacitance which appears between positive ion layer in n-region
and negative ion layer in p-region.
 Diffusion capacitance: This capacitance originates due to diffusion of charge carriers in the
opposite regions.
The transition capacitance is very small as compared to the diffusion capacitance.
In reverse bias transition, the capacitance is the dominant and is given by:
 where CT - transition capacitance
A - diode cross sectional area
W - depletion region width
In forward bias, the diffusion capacitance is the dominant and is given by:

where CD - diffusion capacitance

dQ - change in charge stored in depletion region
V - change in applied voltage
- time interval for change in voltage
g - diode conductance
r - diode resistance
The diffusion capacitance at low frequencies is given by the formula:

The diffusion capacitance at high frequencies is inversely proportional to the frequency and is given by
the formula:

Note: The variation of diffusion capacitance with applied voltage is used in the design of varactor.

1.6 BREAK DOWN MECHANISMS

When an ordinary P-N junction diode is reverse biased, normally only very small reverse
saturation current flows. This current is due to movement of minority carriers. It is almost independent
of the voltage applied. However, if the reverse bias is increased, a point is reached when the junction
breaks down and the reverse current increases abruptly. This current could be large enough to destroy
the junction. If the reverse current is limited by means of a suitable series resistor, the power
dissipation at the junction will not be excessive, and the device may be operated continuously in its
breakdown region to its normal (reverse saturation) level. It is found that for a suitably designed diode,
the breakdown voltage is very stable over a wide range of reverse currents. This quality gives the
breakdown diode many useful applications as a voltage reference source.

The critical value of the voltage, at which the breakdown of a P-N junction diode occurs, is called the
breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage depends on the width of the depletion region, which, in
turn, depends on the doping level. The junction offers almost zero resistance at the breakdown point.

There are two mechanisms by which breakdown can occur at a reverse biased P-N junction:

1. avalanche breakdown and

2. Zener breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown

The minority carriers, under reverse biased conditions, flowing through the junction acquire a
kinetic energy which increases with the increase in reverse voltage. At a sufficiently high reverse
voltage (say 5 V or more), the kinetic energy of minority carriers becomes so large that they knock out
electrons from the covalent bonds of the semiconductor material. As a result of collision, the liberated
electrons in turn liberate more electrons and the current becomes very large leading to the breakdown
of the crystal structure itself. This phenomenon is called the avalanche breakdown. The breakdown
region is the knee of the characteristic curve. Now the current is not controlled by the junction voltage
but rather by the external circuit.

Zener breakdown

Under a very high reverse voltage, the depletion region expands and the potential barrier
increases leading to a very high electric field across the junction. The electric field will break some of
the covalent bonds of the semiconductor atoms leading to a large number of free minority carriers,
which suddenly increase the reverse current. This is called the Zener effect. The breakdown occurs at a
particular and constant value of reverse voltage called the breakdown voltage, it is found that Zener
breakdown occurs at electric field intensity of about 3 x 107 V/m.
 Fig 1.18: Diode characteristics with breakdown

Either of the two (Zener breakdown or avalanche breakdown) may occur independently, or
both of these may occur simultaneously. Diode junctions that breakdown below 5 V are caused by
Zener effect. Junctions that experience breakdown above 5 V are caused by avalanche effect. Junctions
that breakdown around 5 V are usually caused by combination of two effects. The Zener breakdown
occurs in heavily doped junctions (P-type semiconductor moderately doped and N-type heavily doped),
which produce narrow depletion layers. The avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly doped junctions,
which produce wide depletion layers. With the increase in junction temperature Zener breakdown
voltage is reduced while the avalanche breakdown voltage increases. The Zener diodes have a negative
temperature coefficient while avalanche diodes have a positive temperature coefficient. Diodes that
have breakdown voltages around 5 V have zero temperature coefficient. The breakdown phenomenon
is reversible and harmless so long as the safe operating temperature is maintained.

1.7 ZENER DIODES

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction. When biased
in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current, but as soon
as a reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated voltage of the device, the diodes
breakdown voltage VB is reached at which point a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the
semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in
voltage.

The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit value
(which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved this reverse saturation current remains
fairly constant over a wide range of applied voltages. This breakdown voltage point, VB is called the
"zener voltage" for zener diodes and can range from less than one volt to hundreds of volts.
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very
accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes semiconductor
construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, (Vz) for example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This
zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical straight line.

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

Fig 1.19 : Zener diode characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias" or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the zener
diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage regardless of
the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even with large
changes in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min)
and the maximum current rating IZ(max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilize a voltage source against
supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost
constant turns out to be an important application of the zener diode as a voltage regulator. The
function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel with it in
spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the zener diode will

continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls

below the minimum IZ(min) value in the
reverse breakdown region.
 UNIT II
RECTIFIERS & FILTERS

2.0 INTRODUCTION

For the operation of most of the electronics devices and circuits, a d.c. source is required. So it is
advantageous to convert domestic a.c. supply into d.c.voltages. The process of converting a.c. voltage
into d.c. voltage is called as rectification. This is achieved with i) Step-down Transformer, ii) Rectifier,
iii) Filter and iv) Voltage regulator circuits.
These elements constitute d.c. regulated power supply shown in the fig 1 below.

Fig 2.1: Block Diagram of regulated D.C Power Supply

 Transformer – steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier – converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing – smooth the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator – eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

The block diagram of a regulated D.C. power supply consists of step-down transformer, rectifier,
filter, voltage regulator and load. An ideal regulated power supply is an electronics circuit designed to
provide a predetermined d.c. voltage Vo which is independent of the load current and variations in the
input voltage ad temperature. If the output of a regulator circuit is a AC voltage then it is termed as
voltage stabilizer, whereas if the output is a DC voltage then it is termed as voltage regulator.
2.1 RECTIFIER
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance
to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a
sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional Waveform, with a non-
zero average component. A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating
d.c. voltage (Unidirectional).
Characteristics of a Rectifier Circuit:
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance
to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a
sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional waveform, with a non-
zero average component.
A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating d.c..Load currents: They
are two types of output current. They are average or d.c. current and RMS currents.
Average or DC current: The average current of a periodic function is defined as the area of one cycle of
the curve divided by the base.
It is expressed mathematically as
Area over one period
i) Average value/dc value/mean value=
Total time period
T
1
Vdc V d ( wt )
T 0

ii) Effective (or) R.M.S current:

The effective (or) R.M.S. current squared ofa periodic function of time is given by the area of one cycle
of the curve, which represents the square of the function divided by the base.

T
1
Vrm s V 2 d ( wt )
T0

iii) Peak factor:

It is the ratio of peak value to Rms value

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue
iv) Form factor:

It is the ratio of Rms value to average value

Rmsvalue
Form factor=
averagevalue

v) Ripple Factor ( ) :
It is defined as ration of R.M.S. value of a.c. component to the d.c. component in the output is known
as “Ripple Factor”.
Vac
Vdc
2
Vac Vrms Vdc2

vi) Efficiency ( ):
It is the ratio of d.c output power to the a.c. input power. It signifies, how efficiently the rectifier circuit
converts a.c. power into d.c. power.

o / p power
i / p power

vii) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying
the junction.

viii) Transformer Utilization Factor (UTF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the
Transformer used in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as

Pdc
TUF
p ac(rated)
ix) % Regulation:

The variation of the d.c. output voltage as a function of d.c. load current is called regulation. The
percentage regulation is defined as

VNL VFL
% Re gulation *100
VFL

For an ideal power supply, % Regulation is zero.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS

Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.
1) Half - Wave Rectifier
2) Full – Wave Rectifier
3) Bridge Rectifier
2.2.1 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:
A Half – wave rectifier as shown in fig 1.2 is one, which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating voltage
using only one half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.

Fig 1.2: Basic structure of Half-Wave Rectifier

The a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer-rectifying element i.e., p-
n junction diode and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected is series. The a.c. voltage is applied to the
rectifier circuit using step-down transformer
 V=Vm sin (wt)
The input to the rectifier circuit, Where Vm is the peak value of secondary a.c. voltage.

Operation:
For the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode D is forward biased and hence it conducts.
Now a current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across RL. The waveform of the diode
current (or) load current is shown in fig 3.
For the negative half-cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not
Conduct. Now no current flows in the circuit i.e., i=0 and Vo=0. Thus for the negative half- cycle no
power is delivered to the load.

Analysis:

In the analysis of a HWR, the following parameters are to be analyzed.

1. DC output current
2. DC Output voltage
3. R.M.S. Current
4. R.M.S. voltage
5. Rectifier Efficiency (η )
6. Ripple factor (γ )
 7. Peak Factor
8. % Regulation
9. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
10. form factor
11. o/p frequency

Let a sinusoidal voltage Vi be applied to the input of the rectifier.

Then V=Vm sin (wt) Where Vm is the maximum value of the secondary voltage. Let the diode be
idealized to piece-wise linear approximation with resistance Rf in the forward direction i.e., in the ON
state and Rr (=∞) in the reverse direction i.e., in the OFF state. Now the current ‘i’ in the diode (or) in
the load resistance RL is given by V=Vm sin (wt)

i) AVERAGE VOLTAGE

T
1
Vdc V d ( wt )
T 0

2
1
Vdc V ( )d
T 0
2
1
Vdc V ( )d
2
1
Vdc Vm sin( wt )
2 0

Vm
Vdc

ii).AVERAGE CURRENT:

Im
I dc
iii) RMS VOLTAGE:

T
1
Vrm s V 2 d ( wt )
T 0

2
1
Vrm s (Vm sim( wt )) 2 d ( wt )
2 0

Vm
Vrm s
2

IV) RMS CURRENT

Im
I rm s
V) PEAK FACTOR

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue

Vm
Peak Factor =
(Vm / 2)

Peak Factor =2

vi) FORM FACTOR

Rmsvalue
Form factor=
averagevalue

(Vm / 2)
Form factor=
Vm /

Form Factor =1.57

 Vac
vii) Ripple Factor:
Vdc

2
Vac Vrms Vdc2

Vrm2 s Vdc2
Vac

Vrm2 s
1
Vdc2

1.21

viii) Efficiency ( ):

o / ppower
*100
i / ppower

p ac
= *100
Pdc
=40.8

ix) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer
used in the circuit. Therefore, transformer utilization factor is defined as
p dc
TUF
Pac(rated)

TUF =0.286.
The value of TUF is low which shows that in half-wave circuit, the transformer is not fully utilized.
If the transformer rating is 1 KVA (1000VA) then the half-wave rectifier can deliver
1000 X 0.287 = 287 watts to resistance load.
x) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the
junction. The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half-wave
rectifier, PIV is Vm.

DISADVANTAGES OF HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

1. The ripple factor is high.

2. The efficiency is low.
3. The Transformer Utilization factor is low.
Because of all these disadvantages, the half-wave rectifier circuit is normally not used as a
power rectifier circuit.

2.2.2) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:

A full-wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the
applied ac voltage. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two diodes are used in this
circuit. The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a center-tap transformer. A center-tap
transformer is the one, which produces two sinusoidal waveforms of same magnitude and frequency
but out of phase with respect to the ground in the secondary winding of the transformer. The full wave
rectifier is shown in the fig 4 below
Fig. 5 shows the input and output wave forms of the ckt.
During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at the
same time the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not
conduct. The load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input
voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative and the anode of
D2 becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2
and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. It is noted that the load current flows
in the both the half cycles of ac voltage and in the same direction through the load resistance.

i) AVERAGEVOLTAGE

ii) AVERAGE CURRENT

iii) RMS VOLTAGE:

T
1
Vrm s V 2 d ( wt )
T 0

2
1
Vrm s (Vm sim( wt )) 2 d ( wt )
2 0

IV) RMS CURRENT

2I m
I rm s

V) PEAK FACTOR

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue
 Vm
Peak Factor =
(Vm / 2)

Peak Factor =2

vi) FORM FACTOR

Rms value
Form factor=
average value

(Vm / 2 )
Form factor=
2Vm /

Form Factor =1.11

vii) Ripple Factor:

viii) Efficiency ( ):

o / ppower
*100
i / ppower
ix) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer
used in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as
p dc
TUF
Pac(rated)

x) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the
junction. The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half- wave
rectifier, PIV is 2Vm
xi) % Regulation

.
Advantages

1) Ripple factor = 0.482 (against 1.21 for HWR)

2) Rectification efficiency is 0.812 (against 0.405 for HWR)
3) Better TUF (secondary) is 0.574 (0.287 for HWR)
4) No core saturation problem
Disadvantages:
1) Requires center tapped transformer.

2.2.3) BRIDGE RECTIFIER.

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit
above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual
rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The
main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer,
thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode
bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current
during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below (fig
7).

The Positive Half-cycle

The Negative Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series (fig 8), but diodes D1
and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same
direction as before.

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is
also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC
voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax. However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows
through two diodes instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2
x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply
frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply)

2.3 FILTERS

The output of a rectifier contains dc component as well as ac component. Filters are used to minimize
the undesirable ac i.e., ripple leaving only the dc component to appear at the output.
Some important filters are:

1. Inductor filter

2. Capacitor filter

3. LC or L section filter

4. CLC or Π-type filter

2.3.1 CAPACITOR FILTER

This is the most simple form of the filter circuit and in this arrangement a high value capacitor C is
placed directly across the output terminals, as shown in figure. During the conduction period it gets
charged and stores up energy to it during non-conduction period. Through this process, the time
duration during which Ft is to be noted here that the capacitor C gets charged to the peak because
there is no resistance (except the negligible forward resistance of diode) in the charging path. But the
discharging time is quite large (roughly 100 times more than the charging time depending upon the
value of RL) because it discharges through load resistance RL.

The function of the capacitor filter may be viewed in terms of impedances. The large value capacitor C
offers a low impedance shunt path to the ac components or ripples but offers high impedance to the
dc component. Thus ripples get bypassed through capacitor C and only dc component flows through
the load resistance RL

Capacitor filter is very popular because of its low cost, small size, light weight and good
characteristics.
CAPACITOR FILTER WITH HWR

CAPACITOR FILTER WITH FWR

The worthnoting points about shunt capacitor filter are:

1.For a fixed-value filter capacitance larger the load resistance RL larger will be the discharge time
constant CRL and therefore, lower the ripples and more the output voltage. On the other hand lower
the load resistance (or more the load current), lower will be the output voltage.

2.Similarly smaller the filter capacitor, the less charge it can hold and more it will discharge. Thus the
peak-to-peak value of the ripple will increase, and the average dc level will decrease. Larger the filter
capacitor, the more charge it can hold and the less it will discharge. Hence the peak-to-peak value of
the ripple will be less, and the average dc level will increase. But, the maximum value of the
capacitance that can be employed is limited by another factor. The larger the capacitance value, the
greater is the current required to charge the capacitor to a given voltage. The maximum current that
can be handled by a diode is limited by the figure quoted by the manufacturer. Thus the maximum
value of the capacitance, that can be used in the shunt filter capacitor is limited.