ACOUSTICS

School of Physics and Materials Science (SPMS)

Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology
(Deemed University)
 Acoustics
Deals with the production, propagation, transmission, detection of
sound waves is called acoustics.

Classification of sound:

• (i) Infrasonic 20 Hz (Inaudible)

• (ii) Audible 20 to 20,000Hz (Music and Noise)
• (iii) Ultrasonic 20,000Hz (Inaudible)
 Decibel levels (dB)
Threshold of audibility or Standard Intensity:
The decibel (dB) is the unit used to measure the intensity of a sound in
comparison to the environment. On the dB scale, the smallest audible sound
(near total silence) is 0 dB.
If you have to raise your voice to be heard by somebody else, then you are
listening to an 85-dB sound. Eight hours of 90-dB sound can cause damage to
your ears.

Any exposure to 140-dB sound causes immediate damage.

• 00 dB: Near total silence • 50 dB: rainfall

• 10 dB: normal breathing • 60 dB: normal conversation
• 20 dB: whispering at 5 feet • 110 dB: shouting in ear, Car horn
• 30 dB: soft whisper • 120 dB: thunder
 Acoustics: Properties
Sound is a mechanical wave and therefore requires a medium to travel.
So, It is reflected, transmitted, or absorbed by the materials it encounters.

• Hard surfaces: ceramic tile, gypsum board, or wood, tend to reflect

sound waves, causing ‘echo’.

• Dense, massive, materials: concrete or brick, tend to transmit sound

waves through the material.

• Soft surfaces: textiles, and fiber materials, tend to absorb sound

waves, preventing them from further motion.
 Acoustics of the buildings
The branch of science which deals with the planning of a building
to provide the best quality audible sound to audience.

Any hall having the good acoustics should have following features:

 The quality of the speech/ music remains unchanged in each and every
portion of the Hall.
 The sound produced must be sufficiently loud.
 There shouldn't be any echo.
 The reverberation should be proper.
 There should not be any focusing of sound in any part of the hall.
 The walls should be sound proof to avoid the external noise in the hall.
 Reverberation
When a sound is produced inside a building, it expands and gets reflected
from all the surfaces, viz; walls, ceiling and floor of the hall. Audience will
receive a direct sound from the source followed by series of sounds
reflected and traveling towards him. These successive sounds will be of
diminishing intensity. Therefore, listener will continue to receive the sound
even after the source of sound has stopped emitting. This is called
reverberation

The persistence of sound in a hall even though the

sound source is stopped called Reverberation
 Reverberation Time
The time taken by the sound wave to fall below the minimum audibility
level after the source is stopped.
Or
to fall to one millionth of its initial intensity, after the source is stopped.
I = I0/106

I and I0 is the initial & final sound intensity level

• If Reverberation Time is too low: Sound disappear quickly and become

inaudible.
• If Reverberation Time is too high: Sound exist for a long period of time -
an overlapping of successive sounds results in unclear information.
Therefore, for the good audibility: Reverberation time should be optimum.
Optimum reverberation time

Activity in Hall Optimum Reverberation

Time (Sec)
Conference halls 1 to 1.5
Cinema theatre 1.3
Assembly halls 1 to 1.5
Public lecture halls 1.5 to 2
Music concert halls 1.5 to 2
Churches 1.8 to 3

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 Sabine’s Formula for Reverberation Time
Prof. W. C. Sabine (1868-1919) determined the reverberation times of
empty halls and furnished halls of different sizes and arrived at the
following conclusions:

• The reverberation time depends on the reflecting properties of the

walls, floor and ceiling of the hall.
• The reverberation time depends upon the volume of the hall.
• The reverberation time depends on the absorbing power of the
various surfaces (carpets, cushions, curtains etc).
• The reverberation time depends on the frequency of the sound.
• The reverberation time is independent of the positions of the
source and the listener and the shape of the room.
 Sabine’s Formula for Reverberation Time
Prof. Sabine summarized his results in the form of the following equation.
V
Reverberation Time, T  V= volume of hall
A A= Absorption
V
T = K
A
where K is a proportionality constant, whose value depends upon the units
in which the length is measured
If it is in feet then k = 0.05 and (velocity of sound 1120 ft s-1)
If it is in meter then k = 0.161 (velocity of sound 340 m s-1)
00.05
.161V 0.161V
T= or
A A
This Equation is known as Sabine’s formula (Law) for reverberation time.
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 Total absorption (A) is defined as:
total absorption (A) = 1S1   2 S 2   3 S3  .......   n S

0.05V
T
1S1   2 S 2   3 S3  .......   n S n

0.05V
T N

1
n Sn

where Sn are different surfaces (sq. ft) of absorption coefficients n

as V, S and  can be calculated from plans and specifications, so it is

possible for an architect to design an auditorium with any desired
time of reverberation.

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 Limitation of Sabine’s Formula
1. It is good for only small values of absorption coefficient ( < 0.2)
2. It is not valid for higher values of 
This is because for  = 1, T should be zero, whereas Sabine’s
formula fines T = kV/A, a non zero value.
3. For higher values of absorption coefficient, the Sabine’s formula
gives higher value of reverberation time than its actual value.

Therefore, Eyring’s Formula came in existence

 Eyring’s Formula
Under the same assumptions, as has been considered for Sabine’s case
Fraction of energy absorbed = average absorption coefficient = 
and
Fraction of energy reflected = average reflection coefficient = 1- 

00.05
.161V
T= (when velocity of sound s 1120 ft s-1)
-S logAe (1-)

0.161V
T= (when velocity of sound is 340 m s-1)
-S logAe (1-)

Note:
1. Both formulae gave identical value when  is small
2. However, for large value of , two gave different values of T
 Sabine’s vs Eyring’s Formulae
00.05
.161V 00.05
.161V
T= T=
SA -S logAe (1-)

1. Both formulae gave identical value when  is small

2. However, for large value of  (= 1), two gave different values

00.05
.161V T= 0
T=
SA

Since in this case there is no reflection of sound energy, there is no

reverberation time, so Eyring’s formula gives correct results
Q. 1. If a cubical hall of dimension a and average absorption coefficient
a has reverberation time 2 s, what will be the reverberation time if its (a)
Dimension is doubled and (b) Volume is doubled?

Solution V= (a)3 S= 2[ (a)2 + (a)2 + (a)2] = 6 a2

T= 0.05 V/a average S= 0.05 V/ a average (6a2) = 2 s given
Case I: Dimensions =2a, so volume (2a)3
Surface area= 2[ (2a)2 + (2a)2 + (2a)2] = 24 a2 Reverberation time =2* 2s
=doubled

Case II: Volume = 2V =2a3 hence Dimension= (21/3 a)

Surface area= 6(21/3 a)2 Reverberation time= 21/3 *2s =21/3 times
 Absorption of sound
The property of a surface by which sound energy is converted into
other form of energy (heat) is known as absorption.

It is mainly due to two causes:

1. Porosity: In the process of absorption, sound energy is converted
into heat due to frictional resistance inside the pores of the material.
The fibrous and porous materials absorb sound energy more, than
other solid materials.
2. Flexural vibration: When sound waves fall on flexible materials
not rigidly mounted, the material of course is set into vibration and
the damping forces called into paly dissipate the incident sound
energy into heat.

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 Absorption Coefficient of Sound
The coefficient of absorption `’ of a materials is defined as the ratio
of sound energy absorbed by its surface to that of the total sound
energy incident on the surface.

Sound energy absorbed by the surface

= Total sound energy incident on the surface

The unit of absorption is the open window unit (O.W.U.), which is

named a “sabin” after the scientist who established the unit.

1ft2 sabin is the amount of sound absorbed by one square feet area of
fully open window.

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Methods to measure absorption Coefficient

Two important methods;

1. Reverberation chamber method
2. Stationary wave method
 Reverberation chamber method
One can use three different ways to measure absorption coefficient of material:

Method-1: Using concept of open window

Step 1: Reverberation time of room with cushions or other absorbent

materials presented in hall is first measured.

Step 2: The cushions or other absorbent materials are then removed and
the extent of the open window is gradually adjusted until the reverberation
time is the same as before.

Step 3: The ratio of the area of window opened to the total area of
cushions or other absorbent materials is then determined and consider as
absorption coefficient of the substance.
 Method- 2 : Using concept of change of absorption
Reverberation time (T) of room is measured without absorbing material
(T1) and with absorbing materials (T2).

0.05V
T1 is measured without absorbing materials T1 
S
0.05V
T2 is measured with absorbing materials T2 
S   m S m
1 1
Now, Absorption Coefficient of unknown material (m) is from; 
T2 T1
0.05V T1  T2
m  .
Sm T1 T2
Thus knowing T2, T1, V, Sm , the absorption Coefficient m can be measured
 Reverberation chamber method- 3
Using concept of decay of intensity
The average value of the absorption coefficient of a room may be calculated
by the concept of decay of intensity.
According to which after the source of sound is switched off, the intensity I,
at t is given by,
Here, C = Sv/4V [v=velocity of sound, V=volume of hall]
I= Ime-Ct Im is the maximum intensity of sound

Let two different sources of sound are placed one by one in the hall and
Im and I’m are the maximum intensities. Now if T1 and T2 be, respectively, the
times for these intensities to fall to the threshold intensities (ITh) of sound, then

ITh = Ime-CT1 (for source one) ITh = I’me-CT2 (for source two)

Hence, 4 V ×2.3026 (ln10 Im – ln10 I’m)

Im/I’m = eC(T1-T2) =
S v(T1 – T2)
 4 V ×2.3026 (ln10 Im – ln10 I’m)
=
S v(T1 – T2)
Velocity of sound (v) = 1120 ft/s
Velocity of sound (v) = 340 m/s

Absorption coefficient, if power of the source is given

We know I= P/A, so Im/I’m = Pm/P’m

4 V ×2.3026 (ln10 Pm – ln10 P’m)

=
S v(T1 – T2)
 Numerical

A curtain of 4 ft x 4 ft is hanged at the center of the reverberation chamber

whose dimensions are (10 x 20 x 30) ft3. If the reverberation time is 1 s and
1.5 s, respectively for two different sources of sound of 50 mW and 80 mW,
respectively, calculate the absorption coefficient of the curtain. Velocity of
sound is 1126 ft/s.
 Applications of acoustics- Designing of hall
Acoustically good hall means that in which every syllable or musical note
reaches an audible level of loudness at every point of the hall and then quickly
dies away to make the room ready for the next syllable or group of notes.

Desirable acoustics properties

 Even Dispersion Shape and surface

of the hall
 A feeling of musical "presence“
 Good Projection of Sound
 Good clarity and articulation Control of
 Long enough reverberation time but not too long reverberation time
 Good balance of low and high frequencies
 External Noise and Sound Insulation an Sound
Sound insulation
Insulation Sound Insulation
 Shape of the hall
Internal
shape

Surface &
Ceiling

Floors

A rectangular shoebox-shaped concert halls with stage across one

narrow end is best for music.

For greater seating capacity the side wall should

be splayed from the stage (30 – 60 )
 Shape of the hall

Surface & Ceiling

 Avoid round walls (circular or elliptic shape) because such
walls concentrate the reflected sound (like spherical mirrors)
in particular areas that leads to a non-uniform sound
intensity in the audience area

 Avoid strictly parallel plain walls (like those in halls of a

strictly rectangular shape) because (resonance) standing
waves with a highly non-uniform sound intensity (nodes and
antinodes) can be formed between such walls
walls (like those in halls of a strictly

Angled side walls spread the sound energy and contribute

to even dispersion
Shape of the hall
Surface & Ceiling

 Ceiling reflectors/clouds are used to

direct the sound energy from the stage
to the seating areas

 In some cases reflectors/clouds are

make absorptive to avoid late
reflection - covering high ceiling with
absorbent material – to avoid echos
echoes
Shape of the hall
Floors

 Sloping floor – generally the floor of

an auditorium should not be less than
8

 covering floor with carpet – to avoid

echo effect
 Controlling reverberation time
 By providing windows and ventilators can be opened and closed to
make the optimum time of reverberation.

 Using heavy curtains with folds.

 The walls are lined with absorbent material such as felt, fibre board,
glass wool etc.

 Having full capacity of audience.

 By covering floor with carpet.

A broadcasting room should practically have no reverberation –

it entirely be covered with porous materials to have almost
100% absorption
 Controlling reverberation time
With large absorption, the time of reverberation will be smaller
which will minimize the chances of confusion, and may go below
the level of clarity of hearing. Hence, sufficient loudness in every
portion of the hall is an important factor for satisfactory hearing.
The loudness can be maintained at desired level by can be
maintained at desired level by

 Using large sounding boards behind the speaker and

facing the audience

 Large polished wooden reflecting surfaces immediately

above the speakers.

 Low ceiling are also useful in reflecting the sound energy

towards the audience.

 By providing additional sound energy using more number

of speakers
External Noise and Sound insulation
 avoiding openings for pipes and ventilators.

 allotting suitable locations for doors and windows .

 using heavy glasses to doors and windows.

 by providing double wall construction with air space

between them.

 by interposing layers of some acoustical insulators.

 use of soft floor finish e.g. carpet, rubber etc.

 insulating machines like refrigerators, lifts,

typewriters, projector etc.

 constructing small sound proof cabin for machine

and office staff.

 making hall sound proof

An anechoic chamber is a space in which
there are no echoes or reverberations.
The surfaces absorb all sound, and reflect none.
 An anechoic chamber is a space in which
there are no echoes or reverberations.
The surfaces absorb all sound, and reflect none.

An anechoic chamber on the campus of Microsoft broke

the world record with a measurement of – 20.6 db -
officially the quietest place on the planet Earth

Quietest place on the planet Earth