General Biology

Cat Know-tes
2nd Semester | Midterms

L1.1 Animals’ Specialized Structures Locations:

ANIMAL TISSUES Alveoli of lungs (gas exchange).
Capillaries (diffusion and osmosis).
Lining of blood vessels and heart.
Cuboidal Epithelium
Single layer of cube-shaped cells.
Functions: Absorption and secretion.
Locations:
Kidney tubules.
Ducts of glands.
Secretory cells of glands.
Columnar Epithelium
Single layer of elongated cells.
Functions: Absorption and secretion (large
Cells are organized into tissues. A tissue is a
cytoplasmic volume for complex activities).
group of similar cells that perform a common
Locations:
function.
Lining of small intestines (90% of nutrient
Cells are the basic unit of life
absorption).
The study of animal and plant tissues is called
Contains microvilli to increase surface area
Histology. While the study of cells is called
for absorption.
Cytology.
Goblet cells secrete mucus (stomach and
A microtome is an instrument used to cut tissues
small intestines).
into ultrathin sections.
Ciliated type
There are four types of tissues found in animals:
Found in small bronchioles (mucus
epithelial, connectives, muscular, and nervous.
movement) and fallopian tubes
An organ is made up of different types of tissues.
(reproductive cell movement).
For example is the stomach that is made up of 4
tissues:
Pseudostratified Epithelium (Additional)
Epithelial tissue: Inner wall lined with
columnar epithelial cells for absorbing Appears layered but is a single layer of tall,
digested food. thin columnar cells.
Muscle tissue: Surrounded by smooth muscle All cells rest on the basement membrane.
tissue for movement (peristalsis) during Ciliated type:
digestion. Found in the upper respiratory tract.
Nervous tissue: Contains nerves that transmit Cilia move mucus secreted by goblet
signals to and from the brain. cells.
Connective tissue: CONNECTIVE TISSUES
Blood: Transports nutrients from absorbed
Functions:
food.
Bind and support other tissues.
Loose connective tissue: Provides support
Protection, cushioning, and maintaining
and structure.
body form.
Filling body spaces, fat storage, and
EPITHELIAL TISSUES
nutrient/waste transport.
Epithelial tissues may be simple or stratified. A simple Body defense and repair of body parts.
epithelium is made up of a single layers of cells. A Characteristics:
stratified epithelium has more than one layer of cells. Composed of dispersed cells and a large
Epithelial protects and can be found in lining in extracellular matrix.
internal cavities: Extracellular matrix includes:
For protection (Skin) Protein fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular).
For absorption (Intestines)
Ground substances secreted by connective
Secretion (Sweat Glands)
tissue cells.
Sensory (Nose)
Matrix can be solid (bone), soft (connective
There are types of epithelium based on their shape:
tissue), or liquid (blood).
squamous, cuboidal, and columnar
Classification:
Squamous Epithelium 1. Connective Tissue Proper:
Single layer of flattened cells. Loose (e.g., areolar, adipose) and dense
Found in thin barriers for exchange of (e.g., tendons, ligaments).
nutrients, wastes, and gases. 2. Supportive Connective Tissue:
Disclaimer: All rights reserved to the authors. The reviewers Cartilage and bones.
3. Fluid Connective Tissue:
made by Cat Know-tes are just supplementary materials. All
Blood and lymph.
information is seen in your respective textbooks. BIO | 01
 General Biology
Cat Know-tes
2nd Semester | Midterms
Bones
L1.1 Animals’ Specialized Structures
Forms structural framework of the body;
1. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER enables movement with muscles.
Loose Connective Tissue (Areolar) Long bones contain bone marrow, where
Watery matrix (ground substance) with blood cells are produced.
fibroblasts and macrophages. Acts as a calcium reservoir.
Contains collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers. Osteocytes are the cells found in bones.
Femur is the largest bone
Found beneath skin epithelia, around blood
vessels, muscles, nerves, and organs (lungs, 3. FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE
bladder). Blood
Functions: binds tissues, supports/protects Liquid matrix: blood plasma.
organs, stores body fluids. Contains:
Dense Connective Tissue Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells) – Transport
Closely packed collagen fibers, fewer cells. oxygen.
Less flexible but more rigid than loose Leukocytes (White Blood Cells) – Defend
connective tissue. against infection.
Found in tendons (muscle to bone), ligaments Thrombocytes (Platelets) – Aid in blood
(bone to bone), and dermis (skin). clotting.
Achilles Tendon Functions: transports nutrients, removes
Connects leg muscles to heel bone. waste, regulates fluids, ions, and pH balance.
Reticular Connective Tissue The clumping of blood is called coagulation
Made of reticulocytes (specialized fibroblasts)
and reticular fibers. MUSCULAR TISSUES
Supports soft organs (spleen, lymph nodes, Function: Contractile tissues responsible for
liver). movement.
Provides framework for bone marrow and Main Proteins: Myosin & Actin (involved in
lymphoid organs. muscle contraction).
Elastic Connective Tissue Voluntary muscles are muscles you can control,
Highly elastic with flattened fibroblast cells. like your arms and legs.
Contains elastic fibers that stretch up to 1.5x Involuntary muscles work on their own without
normal length and recoil. you thinking about it, like your heart and
Found in large arteries (aorta), bronchial tubes, stomach.
vertebral ligaments. Types of Muscular Tissues:
Adipose Tissue (Fat Tissue) 1. Skeletal Muscle
Stores fat in adipocytes with large vacuole, Attached to bones via tendons.
nucleus pushed to the side. Controls body movement & locomotion.
Found throughout the body, especially in Voluntary control.
empty spaces. Structure:
Functions: energy storage, insulation, cushioning. Long, cylindrical, unbranched fibers with
Found in subcutaneous skin layer, around kidneys, multiple nuclei.
heart, and eyes. Striated (alternating dark & light bands due
EPITHELIAL
2. SUPPORTIVE TISSUES
CONNECTIVE TISSUE to actin & myosin arrangement).
2. Cardiac Muscle
Cartilage Found in heart walls.
Soft bone Responsible for heartbeat and blood
Made of chondrocytes in lacunae, surrounded pumping.
by perichondrium. Striated, with branching fibers and one
Matrix contains chondrin (protein-carbohydrate nucleus per cell.
complex). Involuntary control.
Found in ears, nose, joints; forms embryonic Intercalated discs join fibers, allowing
skeleton in vertebrates, adult skeleton in sharks. coordinated contractions.
Provides strength, support, and protection to 3. Smooth Muscle
soft body parts. Non-striated, spindle-shaped fibers with one
Bones nucleus per cell.
Made of osteocytes in lacunae, with a matrix Involuntary control.
containing collagen fibers and mineral
Found in walls of stomach, intestines, urinary
deposits (calcium phosphate, magnesium,
bladder, uterus, and blood vessels.
carbonate, fluoride).
Contractions:
Other tissues that connect to other bones
Peristalsis (stomach & intestines).
are called ligaments
Urine expulsion (urinary bladder).
Disclaimer: All rights reserved to the authors. The reviewers Constrict organ diameter (blood vessels,
made by Cat Know-tes are just supplementary materials. All bladder).
information is seen in your respective textbooks. BIO | 02
 General Biology
Cat Know-tes
2nd Semester | Midterms

L1.1 Animals’ Specialized Structures 7. Respiratory System

Major Structures: Lungs, nose, mouth, trachea
NERVOUS TISSUES
Functions:
Main Cell Type: Neurons Moves air into and out of the lungs
Found in brain and spinal cord. Controls gas exchange between blood and
Specialized for impulse conduction to and lungs
from the brain. 8. Excretory System
Neuron Structure: Major Structures: Kidneys, bladder, ureters,
Dendrites: Receive impulses and send urethra
them to the cell body. Functions:
Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus Removes wastes from the blood
and organelles. Regulates body fluids
Axon: Long, fiber-like structure that 9. Endocrine System
transmits impulses away from the cell Major Structures: Hypothalamus, pituitary,
body to the next neuron. thyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes,
ovaries
HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS Functions:
1. Integumentary System Regulates metabolism, growth, and
Major Structures: Skin, hair, nails reproduction
Functions: Maintains homeostasis
Protects against injury, infection, and fluid 10. Reproductive System
loss Major Structures: Testes (males), ovaries
Provides structure and support (females), uterus, penis
2. Muscular System Functions:
Major Structures: Skeletal, smooth, and Produces gametes (sperm & egg)
cardiac muscles Supports development of offspring
Functions: 11. Immune System
Moves limbs and trunk Major Structures: White blood cells, lymph
Moves substances through the body nodes, skin
Provides structure and support Functions:
3. Skeletal System Defends against pathogens and diseases
Major Structures: Bones and joints
Functions: Mnemonic to Remember the 11 Systems:
Protects and supports the body and "I Must Sing Cool New Dances Right Every Evening
organs Right Inside"
Works with muscles for movement (Integumentary, Muscular, Skeletal, Circulatory,
4. Circulatory System Nervous, Digestive, Respiratory, Excretory,
Major Structures: Heart, blood vessels, blood, Endocrine, Reproductive, Immune)
lymph nodes, lymph
Functions: Quick Memorization Trick
Transports nutrients, gases, hormones, Protection & Covering → Integumentary (skin)
and wastes Movement → Muscular & Skeletal (muscles &
5. Nervous System bones)
Major Structures: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, Transport → Circulatory & Respiratory (blood &
sense organs air)
Functions: Control & Communication → Nervous &
Regulates behavior Endocrine (brain & hormones)
Controls sensory and motor functions Digestion & Waste Removal → Digestive &
Maintains homeostasis Excretory (food & pee)
6. Digestive System Reproduction & Defense → Reproductive &
Major Structures: Mouth, esophagus, Immune (babies & immunity)
stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas
Functions:
Extracts and absorbs nutrients from food
Removes waste
Maintains water balance

Disclaimer: All rights reserved to the authors. The reviewers

made by Cat Know-tes are just supplementary materials. All
information is seen in your respective textbooks. BIO | 03
 General Biology
Cat Know-tes
2nd Semester | Midterms

L1.2 Plants Have Organs, Too FUNDAMENTAL (GROUND)

PLANT TISSUES Main bulk of plants – Fill spaces in plant

organs
Plant Organs (Vegetative): Functions: Support, food production, and
Roots – Anchor plant, absorb water & storage
minerals Three Types of Fundamental Tissue Cells:
Stem – Supports plant, transports 1. Parenchyma (Versatile Cells)
water/nutrients, distributes food Large, thin-walled, with a central vacuole
Leaves – Site of photosynthesis (food Found in: Leaves, stems, roots, flowers,
production) fruits
Reproductive Organs: Flowers, fruits, seeds Functions:
Types of Plant Tissues: Photosynthesis (if exposed to light,
1. Meristematic Tissue – Actively dividing cells contains chloroplasts)
for growth Food storage (if not exposed to light,
2. Permanent Tissues (mature, non-dividing) contains colorless plastids)
Surface (Dermal) – Outer protective layer Can divide and form new cells (e.g., root
Fundamental (Ground) – Storage, growth from cuttings)
support, photosynthesis 2. Collenchyma (Flexible Support)
Vascular – Transport (xylem for water, Thicker, uneven cell walls (especially at
phloem for food) corners)
MERISTEMATIC TISSUE (GROWTH TISSUE) Found in: Stems, leaf stalks (petioles),
rapidly growing areas
Meristematic tissues are group of cells that Function: Provides flexible support for young
divide continuously growing tissues
Undifferentiated cells → Become vascular, 3. Sclerenchyma (Rigid Support)
ground, or dermal tissue Thick secondary cell wall with lignin (very
Meristems – Areas of fastest growth in plants tough)
Apical Meristems – Found at stem/root tips, Nonliving at maturity
allow lengthwise growth Two Types:
Lateral Meristems – Found in stem nodes, Fibers – Long & slender (e.g., abaca,
form branches pineapple fibers for cloth)
Cambium – Set of rings in mature stems, Sclereids – Irregularly shaped, form seed
increases thickness (diameter) coats & nutshells
Vascular Cambium – Produces vascular
tissues VASCULAR
Cork Cambium – Produces cork (surface Vascular plants have tube-like structures that
tissue) transport water, minerals, and nutrients. They
Cells: Small, thin-walled, no central vacuole, include shrubs (e.g., gumamela), grasses, and
undergo mitosis flowering plants.
Function: Cell division & differentiation into Two Types of Vascular Tissues:
surface, ground, or vascular tissue 1. Xylem – Transports water & minerals (roots →
leaves)
SURFACE (DERMAL) TISSUE Tracheids – Elongated, hollow, nonliving,
Covers & protects plant organs with tapered ends & pits
Epidermis: Vessel Elements – Larger, hollow, nonliving,
Outer layer of leaves, stems, roots, no end walls, form continuous pipelines
flowers, seeds Parenchyma cells – Store substances
Cuticle (cutin layer) – Waxy coating 2. Phloem – Transports organic nutrients (e.g.,
(cutin) prevents water loss & protects sugars, amino acids) both directions
Sieve Tube Members – Living, elongated,
from bacteria
few organelles, no nucleus
Root hairs – Increase surface area for
Sieve Plates – Perforated end walls for
absorption
cytoplasmic connections
Guard cells – Control stomata (leaf
Companion Cells – Control transport in
openings for gas exchange)
sieve tube members
Cork:
Covers bark of woody stems & roots Plant Organ Systems
Made of dead cork cells, protects from Shoot System (Above Ground)
mechanical injury Includes stem, leaves, flowers
Produced by cork cambium Elevates the plant above soil
Root System (Underground)
Disclaimer: All rights reserved to the authors. The reviewers Includes roots
made by Cat Know-tes are just supplementary materials. All Absorbs water & nutrients,
information is seen in your respective textbooks. provides anchorage BIO | 04
 General Biology
Cat Know-tes
2nd Semester | Midterms
Types of Roots:
L1.2 Plants Have Organs, Too
Fibrous Roots – Thin, spread out (e.g.,
LEAVES grass)
Main Function: Photosynthesis Taproot – Large central root for food
Other Functions: storage (e.g., carrot)
Asexual reproduction (some plants) Adventitious Roots – Grow from stems or
Modifications: leaves (e.g., corn prop roots for support)
Tendrils – Help climbing (e.g., peas) Replanting Note: Successful replanting
Venus flytrap leaves – Catch insects requires intact lateral roots & root hairs
Cactus spines – Prevent water loss, HIERARCHY OF LIFE
protect from animals
Types of Plants Based on Leaves:
Deciduous – Change color or shed leaves
in winter (e.g., maple)
Evergreen – Remain green all year (e.g.,
pine)
Leaf Structure:
Stomata – Pores for gas exchange
Veins – Contain xylem (water transport) &
phloem (sugar transport)
Chloroplasts – Near surface for light
absorption
STEMS
Additional notes
Main Functions:
Support leaves Organelles - little organs (ex: mitochondria)
Transport water (xylem) and nutrients Main organ of circulatory system is HEART
(phloem) Blood Vessels: Capillaries, Arteries, Veins
Produce new tissue for growth 5 senses: Touch, Taste, Sight, Hearing, Smell
Parts of the Stem: Homeostasis: regulates body temperature,
Terminal Bud (Apical Bud) – Produces new controls emotion and an internal regulator.
leaves/tissues Normal Temperature of Human is 37°C
Lateral Bud (Axillary Bud) – Grows into Main Organ of Excretory is Kidneys
branches Metabolism: summary of all chemical reactions.
Node – Point where leaves attach Catabolism is breaking down
Internode – Region between nodes Anabolism is building up
Types of Stems: Gametes are sex cells
Herbaceous – Soft, no cambium growth Dermatology - Integumentary
(e.g., daisy) Excretory - Urologist
Woody – Hard, rigid (e.g., tree trunks) Circulatory - Cardiologist
Stem Modifications: Digestive - Gastroenterologist
Cactus stems – Store water & perform Cancer - Oncologist
photosynthesis Nervous System - Neurologist
Potato stems (tubers) – Store food Largest internal organ is liver
Bulbs, rhizomes, tubers – Help in asexual Leaves has chlorophyll, sunlight, CO2, water for
reproduction photosynthesis
Ferns date back to the dinosaur era, while mosses
ROOTS are nonvascular but contribute to plant diversity.
Monocots – Plants with one seed leaf (cotyledon).
Main Functions:
They have parallel veins, fibrous roots, and flower
Anchor the plant in soil
parts in multiples of three.
Absorb water & minerals (nitrogen,
Example: Rice, corn, banana, coconuts
phosphorus, potassium)
Dicots – Plants with two seed leaves (cotyledons).
Store food (e.g., carrots, sweet potatoes)
They have net-like veins, taproots, and flower
Root Structure:
parts in multiples of four or five.
Root Cap – Protects growing tip from
Example: Mango, rose, sunflower, cactus
damage
Largest part of brain that has intelligence:
Root Hairs – Increase water absorption &
Cerebrum
help anchoring
Hypothalamus regulates hunger
Stoma is a greek word that means mouth
Disclaimer: All rights reserved to the authors. The reviewers
made by Cat Know-tes are just supplementary materials. All
information is seen in your respective textbooks. BIO | 05