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COMP 101 Notes Final-1-2

information TECHNOLOGY (Kisii National Polytechnic)

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COMP 101 Computer Applications

KISII UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF INFORMATION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Course Outline
Subject Code: COMP 101
Subject Name: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATION
Course Instructor/Lecturer: Charles Nyatangi Misati
Contact: 0722 849 625 ([email protected])

Objective:
The course is designed to aim at imparting a basic level appreciation programme for the common man. After
completing the course, the incumbent is able to the use the computer for basic purposes of preparing his
personnel/business letters, viewing information on Internet (the web), sending mails, using internet banking
services etc. This allows a common man or housewife to be also a part of computer users list by making them
digitally literate. This would also aid the PC penetration program. This helps the small business communities,
housewives to maintain their small account using the computers and enjoy in the world of Information
Technology.

Syllabus outline:
1. Introduction to Information Technology Communication: Concepts of information communication
technology, Data and Information, Information systems, Components of Information Systems and Basic
components of IT.
2. Knowing computer: What is Computer, Basic Applications of Computer; Components of Computer
System, Central Processing Unit (CPU), VDU, Keyboard and Mouse, Other input/output Devices,
Computer Memory, Concepts of Hardware and Software; Concept of Computing, Data and
Information; Applications of IECT; Connecting keyboard, mouse, monitor and printer to CPU and
checking power supply. Data presentation.
3. Operating Computer using GUI Based Operating System: What is an Operating System; Basics of
Popular Operating Systems; The User Interface, Using Mouse; Using right Button of the Mouse and
Moving Icons on the screen, Use of Common Icons, Status Bar, Using Menu and Menu-selection,
Running an Application, Viewing of File, Folders and Directories, Creating and Renaming of files and
folders, Opening and closing of different Windows; Using help; Creating Short cuts, Basics of O.S
Setup; Common utilities.
4. Understanding Word Processing: Word Processing Basics; Opening and Closing of documents; Text
creation and Manipulation; Formatting of text; Table handling; Spell check, language setting and
thesaurus; Printing of word document.
5. Using Spread Sheet: Basics of Spreadsheet; Manipulation of cells; Formulas and Functions; Editing of
Spread Sheet, printing of Spread Sheet.
6. Introduction to Internet, WWW and Web Browsers: Basic of Computer networks; LAN, WAN; Concept
of Internet; Applications of Internet; connecting to internet; What is ISP; Knowing the Internet; Basics
of internet connectivity related troubleshooting, World Wide Web; Web Browsing softwares, Search
Engines; Understanding URL; Domain name; IP Address; Using e-governance website
7. Communications and collaboration: Basics of electronic mail; Getting an email account; Sending and
receiving emails; Accessing sent emails; Using Emails; Document collaboration; Instant Messaging;
Netiquettes.

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8. Making Small Presentation: Basics of presentation software; Creating Presentation; Preparation and
Presentation of Slides; Slide Show; Taking printouts of presentation / handouts.
COURSE OUTLINE
WEEK TOPIC SUB-TOPIC/S
1. Introduction to  Concepts of information communication technology
Information Technology  Data and Information.
Communication  Information systems
 Components of Information Systems
 Basic components of IT
2. Introduction to  Basic Applications of Computer
Computers  Components of Computer System
 Hardware
 Software
o Application Software
o Systems software
 Concept of computing, data and information
 Applications of computer
 Data presentations

3. Operating computer using  Basics of Operating System

GUI based operating  The User Interface
system  Operating System Simple Setting
 File and Directory Management
 Common utilities
4. Word processing  Word Processing Basics
 Opening and closing Documents
 Text Creation and manipulation
 Formatting the Text
 Table Manipulation
5. Spread sheet  Introduction
 Elements of Electronic Spread Sheet
 Manipulation of Cells
 Formulas and Function
6. Introduction to internet,  Introduction
WWW and web browsers  Basic of Computer Networks
 Internet
 World Wide Web (WWW)
 Web Browsing Software’s
 Search Engines
 Understanding UR
 Surfing the web
7. Communications and  Introduction
collaboration  Basics of E-mail
 Using E-mails

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 Document collaboration
 Instant Messaging and Collaboration
8. Making small  Introduction
presentations  Creation of Presentation
 Preparation of Slides
 Presentation of Slides
 Slide Show

NOTE:
1. In all four questions are to be set; at least one from each unit. At least 1/3 more sections are to be set
for choice within each unit.
2. Laboratory should be an integral part of the course.
Text Books:
1. Sanders, D.H., "Computer Today ", Mc-Graw Hill, 1988.
2. Suresh K. Basandra, “Computers Today”, Galgotia Publications Pvt. Ltd.
3. Microsoft Web Publishing Step by Step, Active Education.
4. Bokhari & Ahmad “UNIX Operating System”, Dhanpat Rai & Co.
Reference Books:
1. Raja Raman V., "Fundamental of Computers" (4th edition.), Prentice Hall of India, New
2. Delhi.
3. Trainer T., et al, "Computers”, McGraw Hill.
4. Norton, Peter, “Introduction to Computers, Mc-Graw-Hill.
5. B. Ram, “Computer Fundamentals”, New Age International Pvt. Ltd.
6. S.Jaiswal, “Fundamental of Computer & IT”, Wiley dreamtech India.

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Information Communication Technology

Introduction
Information is the facts and observations which outcome when data (they are the facts and observations under
the physical phenomena) are processed and directly support decision making, control of activities and future
plans of an organization.
Communication is the Two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only
exchange (encode-decode) information, news, ideas and feelings but also create and share meaning. In general,
communication is a means of connecting people or places. In business, it is a key function of management--an
organization cannot operate without communication between levels, departments and employees. See also
communications.
Technology is a body of knowledge devoted to creating tools, processing actions and extracting of materials.
The term ‘Technology” is wide and everyone has their own way of understanding the meaning of
technology. We use technology to accomplish various tasks in our daily lives, in brief; we can describe
technology as products, processes or organizations. We use technology to extend our abilities, and that makes
people as the most important part of any technological system.
Information Communication Technology (ICT)
a) It is the acquisition, processing, storage and distribution of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical
information by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunication.
Information technology is the collection, storage, processing, distribution and use of information.
b) It refers to all the technology used to handle telecommunications, broadcast media, intelligent building
management systems, audiovisual processing and transmission systems, and network-based control and
monitoring functions.

Functions of information technology

1. It enhances our ability to communicate information
2. To organize in-house information and make it available for retrieval
3. To access external database which contain published or semi- published information.

Components of information technology

1. Computer technology- the wide spread use of computer technology has made dramatic development
in the information transmission processes and in every field of human endeavor during the past few
years. The current development in computer technology included mini computers, micro computers,
speaking computers and different types of software developments.
2. Communication technology- a communication system in its simplest form consists of a transmitter, a
channel and a receiver. The channel is saddled with noise that special considerations like amplification
of signal and filtering of noise are required. The original signal to be transmitted is rarely in the form
required for transmission.
3. CD-ROM technology- the combination of computers and lasers has led to a compaction of information
into small lines. This has optical computing holography, neural networking, optical connection, laser
printers, laser scanner and optical storage. CD-ROM is acronym that stands for compact disc read only
memory. Data is recorded in digital form using laser beam. User can only read the disc, but cannot
write on it nor can erase anything written on it.

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4. Reprography, micrographic and printing technology- the technology of reprography makes a big
impact on the document delivery systems. Most the research has reprographic and provide
photocopies of any document on demand. By using micrographic and reprographic techniques, we can
have condensed the bulky archives and newspapers and solve the storage problem. They also serve
the purpose of preservation and help in resource sharing and save the time of users.

Impact of information technology

1. Increased computer power leading to faster and cheaper computer processing which facilitated
automation of low budget.
2. Improved telecommunication with greatly increased capacity for data transmission, which facilitated
the introduction of new services such as electronic mail, fax, teleconferencing, etc
3. Cheaper data storage, such as optical storage media that increased the storage capacity.
4. Digitization of information text, graphics, photographic speech, sound etc. that provides quick
transmission of any type of data.
5. Better data transfer between different system and media such as coaxial cables, optical fiber cables;
satellite communication etc has promoted the resources sharing.
6. Increased reliability of hardware and software, which has increased the performance efficiency.
7. User friendly systems that are developed to enhance the interface between technology and the users.

How IT has transformed organizations

1. Unemployment- one of the objectives of the introduction of new information technology is to
perform various production and clerical tasks more efficiently and to minimize the time that
professionals and management spend in gathering information and decision making.
2. Data protection- data protection and associated legislation is concerned with the privacy of the
individual the advert of computer databases and their ability to hold personal data transmit it to other
databases and allow various people and organizations direct access to it, has considered potential for
misuse and the infringement of individual privacy.
3. Tran’s border data fows- Trans border is generally considered to be the electronic flow of
information across national boundaries. The information that flows may include various kinds of
database with business banking and personal data being some of those sensitive categories.
4. Copyright- the objective legislation is to protect the work of the author on creator of a piece of work
form indiscriminate copying, so that the creator is able to benefit sufficiently to make continuing
creativity work while.
5. Archiving and bibliographical control- The creation of an active is the process whereby a permanent
record is kept of text and data for reference o historical purposes. They should also attempt to
maintain bibliographic records of documents containing this knowledge

Challenges
1. Switch over to new technology- the introduction of new technologies has created the problem that
how traditional forms could be integrated with the electronic resources.
2. Lack of skilled manpower- it is seeming that the workers do not take much interest in gasping new
technologies.
3. Financial constraints- the introduction of modern technology and their associated system are out of
pocket and out of the reach of the users due to its high changes. Further to develop infrastructure

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facilities and to access the electronic sources through communication a network much costs is
needed.
4. Assessment of electronic publications- the electronic publications are available in various forms and
format. The concept of evaluation in order to assess the relevance of information available in
electronic format in another problem.
5. Training of professionals and end users- extra staff and funds are needed to train the present staff and
users to get acquainted themselves with the modern technologies.

Information systems
1. An information system is an arrangement of a number of elements that provides effective information
for decision-making and / or control of some functionalities of an organization.
2. An information system is a set of interrelated components that collect, manipulate, process and
transform data into information and provide feedback to meet a specified objective.
3. An information system can be defined as a set of organized components that collect, process, store and
distribute information to support decision making and control in an organization.
4. An information system that uses the resources of people, hardware, software and communication
technology to perform input, processing, output, storage and control activities that convert data
resources into information products
Role of Information Systems
1. Information system will help managers in effective decision-making to achieve the organizational goal.
2. Based on well-designed information system, an organization will gain edge in the competitive
environment.
3. Information systems help take right decision at the right time.
4. Innovative ideas for solving critical problems may come out from good information system.
5. Knowledge gathered though information system may be utilized by managers in unusual situations.
6. If information system is viewed as a process it can be integrated to formulate a strategy of action or
operation.
Components of an information system
1. People – These use the system to fulfill their informational needs. They include end users and operations
personnel such as computer operators, systems analysts, programmers, information systems management
and data administrators.
2. Computer Hardware – Refers to physical computer equipment and devices, which provide for five major
functions.
o Input or data entry
o Output
o Secondary storage for data and programs
o Central processor (computation, control)
o Communication
3. Computer Software – Refers to the instructions that direct the operation of the computer hardware. It is
classified into system and application software.
4. Telecommunication System/Communication network
5. Databases – Contains all data utilized by application software. An individual set of stored data is referred
to as a file. Physical storage media evidences the physical existence of stored data, that is: tapes, disk
packs, cartridges, and diskettes.
6. Procedures – Formal operating procedures are components because they exist in physical forms as
manuals or instruction booklets. Three major types of procedures are required.
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Introduction to Computer

Definition:
1. A computer may be defined as a machine which accepts data from an input device perform
arithmetical and logical operations in accordance with a predefined program and finally transfers the
processed data to an output device
2. A computer is an electronic device that accepts data and instructions, stores them temporarily in its
memory waiting processing, automatically executes/ obeys the sets of the issued instructions to
produce information from the input raw data.
3. It is described as an electronic device because it is a processing tool/aid that makes work easy (the
work of processing) using electric energy in its logical operations.
4. It accepts data and instructions this means that it must be having means of communicating from its
external environment, what are collectively described as input device.
5. A computer is an information-processing machine. It may also be defined as a device that works under
the control of stored programs automatically accepting, storing and processing data to produce
information that is the result of that processing.

Why use computers?

1. Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of processing, measured as
number of instructions executed per second.
2. Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they will always
give correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the inaccuracies, which could
arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected and their consequences avoided in a
way, which is completely transparent to the user.
3. Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce exactly the
same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
4. Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that failure of one of
the components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.
5. Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of data.
6. Processing capability – A computer has the ability to execute millions of instructions per second.

Computer application areas

1. Communication – digital communication using computers is popular and is being adopted
worldwide as opposed to analogue communication using the telephony system. Computers have also
enhanced communication through email communication, electronic data interchange, electronic funds
transfer, Internet etc. More specific examples include:
2. Banking – the banking sector has incorporated computer systems in such areas as credit analysis,
fund transfers, customer relations, automated teller machines, home banking, and online banking.
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3. Organizational management – the proliferation of management information systems have aided

greatly the processes of managerial planning, controlling, directing as well as decision-making.
Computers are used in organization for transaction processing, managerial control as well as decision-
support. Other specific areas where computer systems have been incorporated include sales and
marketing, accounting, customer service etc.
4. Science, research and engineering – computers used
a. as research tools, complex computations
b. for simulation e.g. outer-space simulations, flight simulations
c. as diagnostic and monitoring tools,
d. computerized maps using global positioning satellite (GPS) technology
e. for modern mass production methods in the auto industry using computer driven technology
5. Education– computers incorporate databases of information that are useful in organizing and
disseminating educational resources. Such E-learning and virtual or distributed classrooms have
enabled the teaching industry to have a global reach to the students. Computers are also used for test
scoring uniform tests done in schools, school administration and computer aided instructions.
6. Management of information materials- The Internet has massive reference material on virtually
every learning area. Computer systems have enabled the efficient running of libraries for information
storage and retrieval.
7. Manufacturing and production – computer aided design (CAD), computer integrated
manufacturing (CIM), and process control systems among other technologies are computer systems
that have revolutionized the production industry.
8. Entertainment – use of computers in the entertainment industry has increased tremendously over the
years. Computers enable high-quality storage of motion pictures and music files using high-speed and
efficient digital storage devices such as CDs, VCDs and DVDs. The Internet is also a great source of
entertainment resources. Computer games have also become a major source of entertainment.
9. Retailing – computers are used in point of sale systems and credit card payment systems as well as
stock inventories.
10. Home appliances – computers (especially embedded computers or microprocessors) are included in
household items for reasons of economy and efficiency of such items. Major appliances such as
microwave ovens, clothes washers, refrigerators and sewing machines are making regular use of
microprocessors.
11. Reservation systems – guest booking, accommodation and bills accounting using computers in
hotels have made the process to be more efficient and faster. Airline computer reservation systems
have also enhanced and streamlined air travel across major airlines. Major players in the industry have
also adopted online reservation systems.
12. Health care and medicine – computers have played an important role in the growth and
improvement of health care that the use of computers in medicine has become a medical specialty in
itself. Computers are used in such areas as maintenance of patient records, medical insurance systems,
medical diagnosis, and patient monitoring.

History of Computers
The first electronic computers were produced in the 1940s. Since then, a series of breakthroughs in electronics
have occurred leading to great improvements in the capacity, processing speed and quality of computer
resources.
1. The evolution of computerization in business may be summarized as:
2. 1870s: Development of the typewriter allows speedier communication and less copying.

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3. 1920s: Invention of the telephone enables both Wide Area Networks (WAN) and Local Area Networks
(LAN) communication in real time. This marks the beginning of telecommunication.
4. 1930s: Use of scientific management is made available to analyze and rationalize.
5. 1940s: Mathematical techniques developed in World War II (operations research) are applied to the
decision making process.
6. 1950s: Introduction of copying facilitates cheap and faster document production, and the (limited)
introduction of Electronic Data Processing (EDP) speeds up large scale transaction processing.
7. 1960s: Emergence of Management Information Systems (MIS) provides background within which
office automation can develop.
8. 1970s: Setting up of telecommunication networks to allow for distant communication between
computer systems. There is widespread use of word processors in text editing and formatting,
advancement in personal computing- emergence of PCs. Use of spreadsheets.
9. 1980s: Development of office automation technologies that combine data, text, graphics and voice.
Development of DSS, EIS and widespread use of personal productivity software.
10. 1990s: Advanced groupware; integrated packages, combining most of the office work- clerical,
operational as well as management.
11. 2000s: Wide spread use of Internet and related technology in many spheres of organizations including
electronic commerce (e-commerce), e-learning, e-health
Classification of computer
Computers are classified according to:
1. Generations
2. Purpose
3. Function
4. Size

Computer generation Computers

1. Gives a grouped summary of the gradual developments in the computer technology

First generation computers

1. The earliest time computers which were in use from around the mid 1950 ’s to rate 50 ’s
2. Comparatively large in size as compared to present day computers.
3. Generated lot of heat, they are not consistent and reliable as the valves tended to fail frequently.
4. Low capacity of internal memory.
5. Processors operated in milliseconds speed range.
6. Internal storage consisted of magnetic drum and delay lines.

Examples
1. Univac
2. Commercial computer called LEO (Lyon’s Electronic Office)

Advantages
1. These computers were the fastest calculating machine at their time they could perform computation
in few seconds.
2. The vacuum tube technology makes possible to advent of electronic digital computer.

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Disadvantages
1. Too bulky in size
2. Unreliable
3. Air conditioning was required.
4. Manual assembling for individual components to functioning units was required.
5. Limited commercial use.
6. Constant maintenance
7. Thousands of vacuum tubes that were used to produce large amount of heat and burnt out frequently.

Second generation computers

1. These were computers of the closing of the 1950 ’s to early 60 ’s which used transistors which are
relatively smaller too replace the valves
2. Smaller in size as compared to the 1st generation computers.
3. Generated a lower level of heat, as components were much smaller.
4. Greater degree of reliability because of solid state technology.
5. Use of core storage instead of magnetic drum and delay lines.
6. Processor operated in the microsecond speed.
7. High cost direct accesses storage.

Examples
1. IBM series
2. ATLAS

Advantages
1. Small in size as compared to first generation computer.
2. More reliable because they store more information and not producing more heat.
3. Less heat was generated.
4. Were able to reduce computations times.
5. Better portability
6. Wider commercial use.
7. Less prone to hardware failure.

Disadvantages
1. Required air conditions.
2. Commercial production was difficult and costly.
3. Require frequent maintenance.
4. Manual assemble of individual component into a functioning unit was required.

Third generation computers

1. The computers of this generation came being towards mid 60 ’s and they used integrated circuits to
replace transistors, diodes etc.
2. Smaller in size as compared to 2nd generation computers.
3. Higher capacity internal storage
4. Remote communication facilities.

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5. Multiprogramming facilities
6. Reduced cost of direct access storage.
7. Use of high level languages such as COBOL.
8. Wide range of optional peripherals.

Examples
1. ICL 1900 Series
2. IBM 360

Advantages
1. More reliable
2. High storage capacity compared to the second generation.
3. Computation speed was increased.
4. Small in size and portable as compared to second generation computer.
5. Maintenance cost was minimal
6. Commercial use was possible.
7. Assembling of individual component into a functioning unit was made easy.

Fourth generation computers

1. A modification of the third generation computer’s technology
2. They use complex circuitry
3. Marked the origin of the mini computers in use today.

Advantages
1. They are very fast.
2. Less expensive.
3. Portable.
4. Have greater data processing capacity than equivalent sized third generation computers
5. Use advanced technique to feed data into them and bring out processed data for the outside world

Fifth generation computers

1. The design of these computers was based on the VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) technology, the
micro chip technology that gave rise to smaller computer known as the micro computers.

Example
1. IBM Personal Computer
2. BBC micro etc.

Advantages
1. They store large amount of information
2. When fully developed will be able to process non-numerical data.

Function
Analogue computers

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1. They perform arithmetic operations and logical comparisons by measuring changes in physical
magnitudes e.g. electronic voltage, pressure changes, temperature changes etc
2. The application of analogue computers in confirmed to specialized areas as in scientific or engineering
experiments, manufacturing process and military weapons.
3. An analogue computer has the ability to accept inputs which vary with time and intensity
4. The output from the system may be in the form of a smooth graph.

Example
1. Slide rule
2. Car speedometer.

Digital computer
1. These are most commonly used type of computer
2. They process both numeric and alphabetic or alphanumeric data
3. The accuracy of digital computers is influenced by the memory size and the precisions of the data
input.
4. The digital computer also has unique ability and that is storing large quantities of data.

Hybrid computers
1. Are designed by interconnecting the digital computer and analogue computer’s element directly into
one processor, using a suitable interfacing circuitry.
2. Are more advantageous because they and analogue computers, through because of their capabilities
they are more expensive.

Purpose
Special purpose computers
1. Are designed to carry out special processing tasks in one or more applications e.g. the serves.

General purpose computers.

1. These are computers designed to be used in a variety of application environments as required.
Dedicated purpose computers.
1. These are computers which are capable of performing a variety of tasks in different applications
environments
Size
Mainframe computers
1. They are most expensive of all the computers and are very big in size and offer the maximum
computing power.
2. These are big general purpose computers capable of handling all kinds of problems whether of bytes
per second.
3. They can accept and transfer data from input / output devices at the rate of millions of bytes per
second.
4. They can accept all types of high level language.
5. They support large number of terminals.
6. They have large on-line secondary storage capabilities.

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Mini computers
1. Are medium sized
2. They are physically bigger than the micro computer but smaller than the main frame computers.
3. They support average internal and backing store.
4. These computers support several users at a time i.e. several work stations are connected to one
central mini- computer.
5. They are very fast in their operational speed more powerful and reliable than the micros though lower
that the mainframe computer’s capability.
6. They are costlier than the micros though cheaper than the mainframes.

Micro computers
1. The micro computers are the most common form of computers in offices of today as desktop, personal
or stand alone systems.
2. They are smallest of the three computer classes.
3. Their design is based on large scale circuit integration, that confines several physical components per
small elements thumb size, IC hence the size dramatically reduced.
4. Their internal memory is smaller than the mini computers and the mainframe computers and they
support limited backing storage media.
5. They are cheaper than the mini-computers and the main frame computers.

Personal computers (PC)

They are called so because they are designed for personal use of individual or business units ’ office
automation units or professionals

Safe use and care of computers

Precautions to take while handling computers
1. Cabling-all cables connecting various components should be properly connected to avoid damage and
short circuit.
2. Stable power supply- there should be no interruption of power as this would lead to damage or loss of
data. The U.P.S should be encouraged.
3. Ventilation- the computer room should have free air circulation. Fans should be used to improve
ventilation.
4. Dust and dump proof- dust destroys the delicate parts of the computer system thus the computer lab
should be free of dust and dampness.
5. Lighting- a computer lab should be well lit with natural light and also artificial lighting.
6. Floor space- should be kept clean and dry
7. Firefighting equipment- automatic fire direction devices should be used such as fire extinguishers
8. Furniture- the computer must rest on a firm table to avoid any shaking that may damage the hard disk.

Advantages of the computer

1. It operates at high speed, hence there may be cost saving e.g. staff costs, equipment costs etc.
2. The computer results are accurate.
3. It works continuously without getting bored or tired.
4. It can work on voluminous data items.
5. Computer can operate in risky environment.

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6. Computer is flexible
7. Produces reliable information.
8. Computer help to reduce paper work significantly
9. Provide useful information to management for control and decision making
10. Use of computer for office activities reduces the requirements of office space which otherwise is
required.

Disadvantages of a computer
1. Computers are costly.
2. They become outdated very fast due to change of technology.
3. Fear of loss of jobs to employees.
4. Controlling the computer master file’s contents is a difficult exercise due to fact that the contents of
the master files of computer based systems are non-human sensible.
5. In case the computer system fails, it might be extremely difficult to revert back to the old manual
system.

Components of Computer
A computer system is made of two elements namely computer hardware and software.
Computer hardware
They are the physical parts of the computer which can be seen and touched. Generally, a computer system
performs the following operations:
1. Inputting – the process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.
2. Storing – saving data and instructions so that they are available for initial or additional processing as
and where required.
3. Processing- performing arithmetic operations or logic operations on data in order convert them into
useful information.
4. Outputting – the process of producing useful information or results for the user, such as a printed
reporter visual display.
5. Controlling- directing the manner and sequences in which all of the above operations are performed.

Computer hardware include: -

Input unit- Data and information must enter into the computer system before any computation can be
performed on the supplied data so that task is performed by input that link the particular device used to other
devices.

Functions
1. It accepts (read) the list of instructions and data from outside world.
2. It converts these instructions and data in a computer acceptable form
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system to the further processing.

Examples of input devices

Keyboard

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Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the computer. The
layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided
for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also
available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows −
S.No Keys & Description
Typing Keys
1 These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the same layout as that
of typewriters.
Numeric Keypad
2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are
laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.
Function Keys
3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboards which are arranged in a row at the top of the
keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
Control keys
4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys. Control keys also
include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
Special Purpose Keys
5 Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space
bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size
box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to
the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. A
mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the
computer.

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Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick
having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The
joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing
(CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on
the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its photocell
sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a
ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

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Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in
various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some information is
available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be stored on the
disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal
from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by
the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary
inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

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The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for
mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed every day.
The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains
particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is
that it is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable code, and stores
the text on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers

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Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark lines). Bar
coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or may
be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the
computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used
where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

Output unit- It supplies information and results of computation to the outside world, thus links the computer
with external environment.

Functions
1. Accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form.
2. It converts the coded results to human acceptable readable form.
3. It supplies the converted results to the outside world.

Examples Output Devices

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It forms
images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image
depends upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 Flat-Panel Display

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Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the
image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the
letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of
character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are
capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −
 Large in Size
 High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power
requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses
of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For
example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from
some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).
Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers −
 Impact Printers

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 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −
 Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types −
 Character printers
 Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
 Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular because of
their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of pattern of dots and head
consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which comes out to form a character which is why it
is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower) which is why it
is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices that require a
few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

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Advantages
 More reliable than DMP
 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP
 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is divided into a
number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum
will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different character sets available in the market
are 48-character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in
speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used; hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set may
have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.

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Disadvantages
 Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a
time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-Impact Printers
 Faster than impact printers
 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the characters to
be printed on a page.

Advantages
 Very high speed
 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print characters by
spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features.

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They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes available.
Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable
Disadvantages
 Expensive as the cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer
Processing unit. This is where the manipulation of data is done. It is basically done in the Central Processing
Unit (CPU). Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features
1. CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
2. CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
3. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
4. It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has following three components.
 Memory or Storage Unit
 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other units of
the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage
or Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of
memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
1. It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
2. It stores intermediate results of processing.
3. It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
4. All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data processing
operations.
Functions of this unit are −
1. It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
2. It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

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3.It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the computer.
4.It communicates with Input/output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
5.It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,
1. Arithmetic Section
2. Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
1. Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above
operations.
Logic Section
1. Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data.

Storage unit
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the storage
space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The
memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address,
which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this
memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer
between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most
frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by
the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

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 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently working. It has a
limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device.
These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the
main memory.
Characteristics of Main Memory
 These are semiconductor memories.
 It is known as the main memory.
 Usually volatile memory.
 Data is lost in case power is switched off.
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Types of primary storage
It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and program
result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is
switched off, data is erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy
to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but
it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure.
Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in
terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However,
data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no

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capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular
basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage
space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the
memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most
system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one
capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
 Short data lifetime
 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
Read Only Memory
OM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This
type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.
A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap.
ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and
microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions.
These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
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PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters
the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt
open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM
eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region.
The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge,
ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates
the charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times.
Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be
selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire
chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −
 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory.
These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead
they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the
main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Advantages of Secondary Storage Devices

1. Non-Volatile Storage Devices: The Non-Volatile Storage Devices are Non-Volatile in the nature means
them never loss their data when the Power goes switched off. So that data which is Stored into the Non-
Volatile Storage Devices will never be Loosed When the Power Switched off.
2. Mass Storage: The Capacity of these Devices is very high means we can Store the Huge Amount of
data into the Secondary Storage Devices. We can Store data into the Secondary Storage Devices in the
form of Giga Bytes and Tera Bytes.
3. Cost Effective: The Cost of Secondary Storage Devices is very lower in compare to the Main Memory
So that they are also called as the more cost effective and they are very small and couldn’t easily
damage. And the data can’t be easily loss from these Disks.
4. Reusability: As Memory Contains the Data in the Temporary as well as Permanent Manner. But the
Secondary Storage Devices are always Reusable means they can be erased and stored any Time. Means
we can add or Remove the Contents from these Disks when we Requires.

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Types Of Storage Devices

There are three main types of storage devices:

1. Magnetic Tape
2. Magnetic Disk
3. Optical Disk
Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape is the oldest storage device. It is made of plastic coated with magnetic material. Data is stored
on magnetic tape in the form of magnetic spots. Tape drive is used to read and write data on tape. Magnetic
disk is sequential access device. It is slower device than magnetic disk or optical disk. Magnetic tapes are used
in reels of different lengths, for example 200, 600, 1200 feet etc.

Magnetic Disk

A magnetic disk is a thin circular metal or plastic disk coated with magnetic material. Data is stored in the form
of magnetic spots. Magnetic disk is random access device. It is faster than magnetic tape. There are three main
types of magnetic disk:
a. Hard Disk b. Floppy Disk c. Zip Disk

Hard Disk

The hard disk is also called fixed disk. It consists of one or more metal plates. The plates are fixed in the drive.

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Metal plates are coated with magnetic material to store data. A motor rotates disks. There is also an access arm
and read / write heads to read and write data on disks.
b. Floppy Disk

Floppy disk is a small plastic plate coated with magnetic material. Data is stored in magnetic spots. Main
advantage of floppy disk is that it is used to transfer data from one computer to another. Floppy disk drive is
used to read and write data on floppy disk.

Floppy disk is available in two sizes:

· 3 ½ INCH Floppy Disk
It is also called micro floppy disk. Its diameter is 3½ inch. It is covered in a hard plastic cover. Read/Write
window is covered with a metal shutter. When disk is inserted into disk drive then shutter is automatically
opened. It can be write protected by a notch. Storage capacity of micro floppy is 1.44 MB.
· 5¼ Inch floppy disk.
It is a 5¼ inch diameter plastic plate coated with magnetic material. Its storage capacity is 1.2 MB. It is not
used in modern computers.

c. Zip Disk

Zip disk is similar to 3 ½ inch floppy disk. But it can store 100 MB or more data. Zip disk drive is used to read
and write data on a zip disk.
Advantages of Magnetic Disk
1. Very fast access to data
2. Data can be read directly from any part of the hard disc.
3. In most of the magnetic storage devices the access speed is about 1000kb/s
4. Some of the magnetic storage devices are very cheap for example floppy disks.
5. Most of the magnetic storage devices store very large amounts of data.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Disk
1) Data can be altered by magnetic fields, dust, mechanical problems
2) Gradually lose their charge over time - data lost
3) Hard disks eventually fail which stops the computer from working.

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4) Regular crashes can damage the surface of the disk, leading to loss of data in that sector.
5) The disk is fixed inside the computer and cannot easily be transferred to another computer.

Optical Disk
LASER technology is used to read and write data on Optical disk. LASER stands for Light Amplification
through Emission of Radiation. Laser beam writes on the surface of optical disk by creating very small holes.
The presence of hole represents a One and absence of the hole represents a Zero. There are following main
types of optical disk.
1. CD-ROM,
2. CD-R or WORM,
3. CD-RW
4. DVD-ROM,
5. 5. DVD-R,
6. 6. DVD-RW
Advantages of Optical Disks
 Low setup costs. Optical disks are inexpensive when bought in bulk, and most new computers come
equipped with DVD writers (or "DVD burners") right from the factory. Most DVD burners also include
manufacturer-provided software to simplify the backup process.
 Durability. Although not indestructible, optical disks should remain readable for many years if
protected from scratching, heat, and bright light.
 Simplicity. Especially when used for data-only backups, using an optical disk to back up data can be as
simple as dragging and dropping the files to be backed up onto the drive icon, and then clicking "Burn
Disk."
Disadvantages of Optical Disks
 High ongoing cost compared to other solutions. Although inexpensive, the cost of using optical disks
for backup can add up over time. Network or online backup can actually wind up being less expensive
when all is said and done. In addition, optical drives tend to have high failure rates and typically require
replacement every year or so under heavy use.
 Cumbersome to automate. Although some backup software allows backups to optical drives to be
scheduled, a human still has to place the disk in the drive prior to a scheduled backup. So what, you
ask? The Backup Nut knows from experience that the likelihood of a backup being completed is
inversely proportional to the amount of human effort involved.
 Security Concerns. Ideally, backups should be stored away from the computer, which usually means
that a user tucks the disk in his or her pocket on the way to (or from) work, which creates a risk of loss
or theft of the data.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 These are magnetic and optical memories.
 It is known as the backup memory.
 It is a non-volatile memory.
 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 It is used for storage of data in a computer.
 Computer may run without the secondary memory.
 Slower than primary memories.
Computer hardware considerations
1. Processor type and speed.
2. Memory capacity

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3. Warranty
4. Expansion and upgrades
5. The user needs
6. Cost
7. Portability

Computer Software
Software, by definition, is the collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that performs
different tasks on a computer system. It actually tells the computer what to do and how to do it. Software may
enter the computer through one of following three ways.
i. I may be built into the computer circuit in the form of firmware.
ii. It may be loaded into the computer from a secondary storage device such as CD-ROM or hard disk
drives
iii. It is also being typed into the computer with the aid of the keyboard and programming tools

Relation between hardware and software

Software refers to the computer programs that are loaded into a computer system, and hardware refers to all the
visible devices, which are assembled together to build a computer system. The blending of software and
hardware gives life to a computer system. Even though hardware is the physical part of a computer, it is
nothing unless it has software to control it. Hardware and software then share a special relationship. If
hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, software is its 'soul'. Both are complimentary to each other.
Hardware is of no use without software and software cannot be used without hardware.

Qualities of good software

Some of the most essential attributes of good software include
a. Usability: This is the ease and convenience with which software can be used by human being. This is
affected by technologies such as the Human-Computer Interface
b. Efficiency: This is the degree with which software fulfills its purposes without waste of resources
c. Portability: It is the ease with which software can be used in other computer systems different from the
currents one.
d. Reusability: This is the ease with which software can be reused to design other software.
e. Maintainability: this is the ease with which modifications can be made to satisfy new requirements or
to correct deficiencies. Well-designed software should be flexible enough to accommodate future
changes that will be needed as new requirements come to light.
f. Security: This is the with which software is able to protect its data against unauthorized access and to
withstand malicious interference on its operations
g. Reliability: This is the frequency and extends to which software fails to perform its functions under
normal operating circumstances.
h. Understandability: It is the ease with which software can be understood by computer users.
i. Completeness: This is the characteristic whereby, the software possesses all of its parts, each of them
being fully developed.
j. Correctness: This is the degree with which software meet its specified requirements.
k. Robustness: This is the degree with which software resist to user’s manipulations errors

Ways of acquiring computer software

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Software can enter the computer through different channels. Some of the common ways of acquiring computer
software include:
a. Buying the computer: when you buy a new computer from the shop, you are usually supplied with
some software for free, from the computer manufacturer
b. Buying the software from a shop:
c. Downloading the software from a website for free (freeware) or after paying some money to the vendor
d. Ordering from the vendor either by email, fax or postal letter. Here you also need to pay for the product
before it is sent to you.
e. Copying from other people’s machines: This is what most Cameroonians do and it is what referred to
as software piracy. Software piracy is illegal and therefore punishable by law

Classification of software
Computer software can be organized into categories based on common function, task, or field of use. We can
then categorize software in different ways.

Classification of software based on task

Based on the kind of task they perform, software can be divided into two major groups: System software and
application software. The diagram below gives a simplified hierarchical organization of the main parts of
software in a general-purpose computer. At the highest level of this hierarchy lies the application software,
whose services are carried out by the underlying system software. The devices of the system software are then
executed by the underlying hardware components
Computers operate by executing software programs. This involves passing the instructions from the application
software, through the system software to the hardware that ultimately receives the instruction as machine code.
Each instruction causes the computer to carry out an operation such as data transmission, data processing, and
data storage or data control.

System software
System software is a type of computer software that controls the operation of the computer and provides
facilities that extend the general capabilities of the machine. This provides the basic functions for computer
usage and helps to run the computer hardware and system. It includes a combination of the following:

Operating system
An operating system is a group of computer programs that coordinates all the activities among computer
hardware devices. This is the most important type of system software in a computer. A user can ’t run an
application program on the computer except it is self-booting without the Operating System. Operating
systems are contained in almost all devices including mobile phones. (To be extended in the next chapter)

Functions of an operating system

a. Memory allocation and loading- Before processing commences, the operating system ensures that
the programs are transferred into the available memory location from the backing store. The operating
system also handles the data files that are to be used by the programs being executed by the CPU.
b. Job scheduling- The operating systems transfers control from one job to another, from the programs
maintained in the computer awaiting execution to ensure that the CPU time is not tied up by one job.
This ensures that the CPU does not remain idle at any given instance as in multiprogramming, where
several user programs share the computer resources such as CPU time, memory and peripherals.

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c. Peripheral control- The operating system controls the I/O transfer by regulating the speed imbalance
between I/O devices and the CPU e.g. during the program run, if it requires much printing the
operating system may direct the output to a media whose contents can be output through the printer
at a convenient time.
d. Error reporting- During the program execution, if there occurs an error of any sort, the operating
system furnishes diagnostics messages to the user through e.g. screen and the program execution is
stopped for the user’s corrective responses.
e. Interfaces the user or the operator to the system ’s hardware- The operator invokes the services of
the operating system by the use of commands and the operating system communicates the messages
regarding the processing to the operator through e.g. the screen or printer.
f. Logging and accounting- The operating systems keep the records on the computer’s resources use. A
log of the tasks carried by the computer is kept. The operating system also keeps internal logs on the
time, memory usage, peripherals used and the appropriate charges usually in time sharing systems.

Utility programs
This is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a computer. A single piece
will be called a utility or tool. Some Well-known utility software includes:
a. Antivirus programs: They are used to detect and eliminate computer viruses and related malicious
software. Some examples are: avast, AVG, Avira, BitDefender, Norton
b. Backup programs: They help to make copies of all information valuable to a computer or information
system and store it safe. The information can be restored in the event of disk failure or other accidents
that will lead to data loss.
c. Data Recovery: As the name implies, data recovery programs are used to recover data. Since disk
drives or other hardware may fail, these utilities are essential to recover data in such a scenario.
d. Data Compression programs: They make the data more compact, reducing the space occupied by the
data.
e. Disk management program: These are program involving formatting and arranging disk files in an
orderly manner.
f. Memory management software: It handles locations in RAM where data put their current data. It can
move certain memory-resident items out of the way so as to increase the memory space.
g. The Server: In the context of client-Server architecture, a server is a computer program running to
serve the requests of other programs – “the clients”. The clients may run on the same systems or
through networks.

Functions of utility software

1. Test editors- they are used to create and subsequently, modify textual information. Editing can be
carried out using the edit keys on the keyboard or by using sequence of instructions.
2. Language translators- these are software to translate the source code, to machine language.
3. Sort utility- this is used to arrange the records within a file according to some predetermined sequence.
4. Merge utility- this is used to influence the combing of the contents of two or more input files to produce
one output file
5. Copy utility- it is usually a good practice to maintain copies of operational files so that in case
something goes wrong, their contents can be recreated.
6. Dump utility- ‘dump’ means copying the contents of the main memory onto an output device. This
is useful when an error occurs during the running of an application program.

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Programming software
It is the type of software that is used for creating other software. Another name for programming software is
Integrated Development Environment (IDE). An IDE normally consist of a source code editor, a translator
(compiler or interpreter) and a debugger.
a. Editor: It is a programming tool that is used for creating and modifying application programs. It helps
the computer user to enter, search, delete, replace, copy and insert text or sections of a text in a desired
position.
b. Compiler: It is used to convert a complete program written in a high-level language (such as Pascal
and C) into a program in machine language.
c. Interpreter: A program which translates the program statements into machine language one line at a
time as the program is running.
d. Assembler: A programming tool that convert a program in assembly language into program in machine
language.
e. Debugger: It is a program that is used for locating and correcting programming errors.
f. Linker: A linker or link Editor is a program that takes one or more objects generated by the compiler
and combines them to a single executable program.
g. Loader: Loader is a kind of system software, which is responsible for loading and relocation of the
executable program in the main memory. The functions of a loader include assigning load time space
for storage, that is, storage allocation and assisting a program to execute appropriately.

Device driver
Device drivers are computer programs that allow higher level computer programs to communicate and interact
with a hardware device. All hardware devices have the devices drivers that communicate with them through the
computer bus to which the hardware is connected. Drivers are hardware dependent and operating system
specific. Some specific categories of device drivers are
a. Logical Device Drivers (LDD) which are written by the Operating System vendors
b. Physical Device Drivers (PDD) which are written and implemented by the hardware vendor. To solve
device driver crises, Microsoft has created the Windows Drivers Foundation (WDF) which collects and
keeps all device drivers as a database.

Application software
This refers to programs, which help the computer to solve the user’s problem. They are used to handle the
requirement of the organization or a particular individual. It enables the end users to accomplish certain
specific tasks. Business software, databases and educational software are some forms of application software.
Different word processors, which are dedicated to specialized tasks to be performed by the user, are other
examples of application software.

General purpose software

A general purpose application, sometimes known as ‘off-the-shelf’ is the sort of software that you use at
home and school. Examples include word processors, spreadsheets, databases, desktop publishing packages,
graphics packages etc.
This type of software tries to be a ‘jack-of-all-trades’. It provides many features that the majority of users
will want e.g. formatting text, creating charts, organizing tables. But it does try to be’ all things to all
people’ and so there will be a vast number of features that you may never use e.g. statistical functions, mail
merge. This makes the storage size of these applications fairly large.
There are several good reasons for using general purpose software:

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a. It is relatively cheap
b. It is easily available from most computer shops
c. It will have been thoroughly tested so there won’t be any serious problems or bugs
d. There will be lots of user support i.e. books, user guides, online help and discussion forums on the
Internet

Examples include
1. Word processing – Create, edit and print text documents. E.g. MS Word, Word Perfect.
2. Spreadsheets – Provide a wide range of built-in functions for statistical, logical, financial,
database, graphics, data and time calculations. E.g. Lotus 1-2-3, Excel, Quattro Pro.
3. Database management systems (DBMS) – Store, manipulate and retrieve data. E.g. Access,
FoxPro, dBase.
4. Online Information Services – Obtain a broad range of information from commercial services.
E.g. America Online, CompuServe
5. Communications- Ms Outlook for email
6. Browsers e.g Internet Explorer, Eudora
7. Graphics – Develop graphs, illustrations and drawings. E.g. PaintShop, FreeHand, Corel
8. Project Management – Plan, schedule, allocate and control people and resources needed to
complete a project according to schedule. E.g. Project for Windows, Time Line.
9. Financial Management – Provide income and expense tracking and reporting to monitor and plan
budgets. E.g. Quicken
10. Desktop publishing -used to create high-quality printed output including text and graphics; various
styles of pages can be laid out; art and text from other programs can also be integrated into
published pages. E.g. PageMaker, Publisher.
11. Presentation packages like MS Power point

Specific purpose software

Function-specific software is highly specialized software that is designed to handle specific tasks. They're more
limited in what they can do, but they usually perform much better than a general purpose program in a specific
task.
For example, TurboTax (a tax preparation package) is a special purpose application. Sure, it adds and subtracts
numbers like a spreadsheet, but you can't use it to plan your monthly budget. It does only one thing - prepare
tax returns. Other examples of special purpose application software are web browsers, calculators, media
players, calendar programs etc. Again, make sure that you don't use brand names!
a. Communications software: Used to send messages and emails Example software: MS Outlook
Express. MS Messenger.
b. Desktop publishing programs: Used to combine and control graphics and text in a single document.
Example software: Adobe PageMaker. MS Publisher.
c. Web browser: Computer program that enables internet users to access, navigate, and search World
Wide Web sites. It is also called browser. Ex: Mozilla Firefox, Internet explorer, Opera, Google
chrome
d. Enterprise Software: It deals with the needs of organization processes and data flow. Customer
relationship management or the financial processes in an organization are carried out with the help of
enterprise software. Ex: Sage Saari
e. Multimedia Software: They allow users to create and play audio and video files. They are capable of
playing media files. Audio converters, audio players, burners, video encoders and decoders are some

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forms of multimedia software. Examples of this type of software include Real Player and Windows
Media Player.

Bespoke software
Although most organizations use general purpose software, some organizations will find that it just doesn’t
do exactly what they want or it doesn’t work with their current systems. In this case, they might decide to
have the software system they need designed and developed specifically for them. This is called ‘tailor-
made’ or ‘bespoke’ software. Bespoke application software is tailor made for a specific user and purpose.
For example, a factory may require software to run a robot to make cars; however, it is the only factory making
that car in the world, so the software required would have to be specially built for the task.

Advantages
a. The company will get the exact software/system that they need
b. The software will work exactly how they want it to work
c. The software will only have the features that they specifically need in their business.
Disadvantages
a. It takes a long time to develop such a system, between a few months to years
b. It costs a great deal of money to develop such a system.
c. The company may need to employ a team of people such as business analysts, programmers, testers etc
d. There will be little in the way of user support and online help

Advantages of application software

1. Simplify the Installation and Un-Installation Procedures.
2. Once packaged, applications can be quickly installed on a range of desktops in multiple locations,
saving administrative costs, simplifying the manager of licensing fees and minimizing support and
repair expenditures.
3. Saves Space of the product by doing apt modifications to applications.
4. Has a great flexibility of obtaining the lost files through a phenomenon called Self Heal, this reduces
the down time of application.
5. Upgrading of the application can be done with ease.
6. Clean installation and Un-Installation is achieved by a process called Roll-Back.
7. Simplifies management of new user set-up along with the revision and distribution of software repairs
and new applications to existing users. Application recovery can also be improved.
8. Helps eliminate uncontrolled software downloads and installation, enables applications to be safely
removed and reduces non-business traffic on a corporate network.

Disadvantages of application software

1. Most of them may not fit well into the organization specific processing task because they are intended
to meet a variety of users need
2. The user lacks sense of ownership and ability to make any changes since this software has copyright
that prohibits any changes on them
3. They are not sold together with their source codes therefore cannot be modified
4. They require a user to be trained on how to use, which can take time

Classification of software based on source

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Based on code source, we distinguish two types of software: Open Source Software and Closed Source
Software.
a. Closed source software - Also called proprietary software, it is software with restricting on using,
copying and modifying the source code as enforced by the proprietor. In other words, computer users
do not have any access to the source code of the proprietary software. Well known examples of
proprietary software include: Windows, RealPlayer, Adobe Photoshop, Mac OS.
b. Open source software - It is the type of software that has no proprietary restriction attached to it,
particularly the restriction about the access to the source code. In other words, open source software is
designed in such a way that computer users can freely access and modify the source code to suit their
individual need. It is also called non-proprietary software. E.g. Linux, Open Office

Classification of software based on license

The term license refers to a legal document or agreement giving someone permission to do and use something.
A software license comprises the permissions, rights and restriction imposed on a piece of software. Under a
software license, the Licensee is permitted to use the license software in compliance with a specific term on the
license. Based on license, computer software may be divided into the following:
a. Public Domain Software.GPL - The GNU General Public License (GNU GPL or simply GPL) is a
free software license, originally written by Richard Stallman for the GNU project (a project to create a
complete free software operating system). It has since become one of the most popular licenses for free
software. The latest version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991. The GNU Lesser General
Public License (LGPL), another commonly-used license, is a modified version of the GPL intended for
software libraries.
i. The GPL grants the recipients of a computer program the following rights, or
"freedoms":
ii. The freedom to run the program, for any purpose.
iii. The freedom to study how the program works, and modify it. (Access to the source code
is a precondition for this)
iv. The freedom to redistribute copies.
v. The freedom to improve the program, and release the improvements to the public.
(Access to the source code is a precondition for this)
b. Freeware- This is a Copyrighted software given away for free by the author. Although it is available
for free, the author retains the copyright, which means that you cannot do anything with it that is not
expressly allowed by the author. Usually, the author allows people to use the software, but not sell it.
c. You are also free to distribute it to anyone you want, provided the distribution is an unmodified version
of what you downloaded from the provider’s web site. In fact, they encourage you to distribute their
Freeware. Freeware is provided on an "as is" basis and no technical support is usually available.
d. Shareware -This may be copyrighted software, regularly in trial version, but generally the developer
allows users to make copies without an initial charge. However, if the user intends to use it beyond a
brief tryout, the developer requests that the program be paid for. A marketing method for software,
whereby a trial version is distributed in advance and without payment. A user tries out the program,
and thus shareware has also been known as 'try before you buy', demoware, trialware and by many
other names.
e. Crippleware - The shareware version of a program whose most advanced and most desirable features
have been disabled with the intention of increasing user’s apetite for the better version. If the fee is
paid, a code is acquired, which uncripple the program.

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f. Nagware -Nagware (also known as annoyware) is a type of shareware that reminds— or nags — the
user to register it by paying a fee. It usually does this by popping up a message when the user starts the
program or, worse, intermittently while the user is using the application. These messages can appear as
windows obscuring part of the screen or message boxes that can quickly be closed. Some nagware
keeps the message up for a certain time period, forcing the user to wait to continue to use the program
g. Adware- Advertising-supported software is any software package which automatically plays, displays,
or downloads advertising material to a computer after the software is installed on it or while the
application is being used.
h. Liteware - This is the free version of a program, that does not contain those features that are attractive
to frequent or heavy user.
i. Vapoware -Vaporware (or vapourware) is software or hardware which is announced by a developer
well in advance of release, but which then fails to emerge, either with or without a protracted
development cycle.

Software considerations
1. It is important to get the original software.
2. It should be reliable
3. Must meet the user needs.
4. User friendly
5. It should meet the system requirements
6. Cost
7. Portability

Operating Systems
An operating system is a software which acts as an interface between the end user and computer hardware.
Every computer must have at least one OS to run other programs. An application like Chrome, MS Word,
Games, etc needs some environment in which it will run and perform its task.
Features of Operating System
1. Protected and supervisor mode
2. Allows disk access and file systems Device Drivers Networking Security
3. Program Execution
4. Memory management Virtual Memory Multitasking
5. Handling I/O operations
6. Manipulation of the file system
7. Error Detection and handling
8. Resource allocation
9. Information and Resource Protection
Objectives of Operating System
1. To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
2. To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
3. To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
4. To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the users to access
and use other resources.
5. To manage the resources of a computer system.
6. To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating conflicting
requests from different programs and users.

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7.To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.
Functions of Operating System
1. Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of it is in use by whom,
what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when a process or program requests it.
2. Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates the processor
when it is no longer required.
3. Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O controller that decides
which process gets the device, when, and for how much time.
4. File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the resources.
5. Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords and other
similar techniques.
6. Job Accounting − Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or users.
7. Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request for a service and from the
system.
8. Interaction with the Operators − Interaction may take place via the console of the computer in the
form of instructions. The Operating System acknowledges the same, does the corresponding action,
and informs the operation by a display screen.
9. Error-detecting Aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error-
detecting methods.
10. Coordination Between Other Software and Users − Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the various users of the computer systems.
The advantage of using Operating System
1. Allows you to hide details of hardware by creating an abstraction
2. Easy to use with a GUI
3. Offers an environment in which a user may execute programs/applications
4. The operating system must make sure that the computer system convenient to use
5. Operating System acts as an intermediary among applications and the hardware components
6. It provides the computer system resources with easy to use format
7. Acts as an intermediator between all hardware's and software's of the system
Disadvantages of using Operating System
1. If any issue occurs in OS, you may lose all the contents which have been stored in your system
2. Operating system's software is quite expensive for small size organization which adds burden on them.
Example Windows
3. It is never entirely secure as a threat can occur at any time

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Data representation

Introduction
Data exists as electrical voltages in a computer. Since electricity can exist in 2 states, on or off, binary digits
are used to represent data. Binary digits, or bits, can be “0” or “1”. The bit is the basic unit of
representing data in a digital computer.
A bit is either a 1 or a 0. These correspond to two electronic/magnetic states of ON (1) and OFF (0) in digital
circuits which are the basic building blocks of computers. All data operated by a computer and the instructions
that manipulate that data must be represented in these units. Other units are a combination of these basic units.
Such units include:
 1 byte (B) = 23 bits = 8 bits – usually used to represent one character e.g. ‘A’
 1 kilobyte (KB) – 210 bytes = 1024 bytes (usually considered as 1000 bytes)
 1 megabyte (MB)– 220 bytes = 1048576 bytes (usually considered as 1000000 bytes/1000 KB)
 1 gigabyte (GB)– 230 bytes = 1073741824 bytes (usually considered as 1,000,000,000 bytes/1000
MB)
 1 terabyte (TB) – 240 bytes = 1099511627776 bytes (usually considered as one trillion bytes/1000
GB)

Definitions
 Bit- the digit 0 and 1 are called BInary digiTs
 Word- a binary number
 Byte- is a 8-bit word
 Nibble-a 4-bit word/ half word

Number systems
Human beings use decimal (base 10) and duodecimal (base 12) number systems for counting and
measurements (probably because we have 10 fingers and two big toes). Computers use binary (base 2) number
system, as they are made from binary digital components (known as transistors) operating in two states - on
and off. In computing, we also use hexadecimal (base 16) or octal (base 8) number systems, as a compact form
for represent binary numbers.

The number systems are:

1. Decimal number systems
2. Binary number systems

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3. Octal number systems

4. Hexadecimal number systems
Decimal number systems
Decimal number system has ten symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, called digits. It uses positional notation.
That is, the least-significant digit (right-most digit) is of the order of 10^0 (units or ones), the second right-
most digit is of the order of 10^1 (tens), the third right-most digit is of the order of 10^2 (hundreds), and so on.
For example,

MSD Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones LSD (Least Significant Digit)

3 9 4 6 6x1 = 6
4x10 = 40
9x100 = 900
3x1000 = 3000

We can also express the positional weights in powers of ten as given below:
Ones 1=10
Tens 10=101
Hundreds 100=102
Thousands 1000=103
Tens of Thousands 10000=104
Hundreds of Thousands 100000=105
Million 1000000=106

Therefore, the number 3946 can be written as:-

(3x103) + (9x102) + (4x101) + (6x100)
= (3x1000) + (9x100) + (4x10) + (6x1)
= 3000+900+40+6
=3946

Binary number systems

In binary number system only two digits 0s and 1s are used to express any quantity. Digits are assigned to the
position which indicates its weight. The weight of the digits increases from right to left as it is for decimal
system. For the binary systems the increase in value is ascending powers of two unlike the decimal which is
ascending powers of ten.
The advantage of binary representation is that it is easier to design logic that has two states (e.g. ON and OFF)
instead of ten states.

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Example
An 8-bit system i.e. the computer with word size of 8-bits will have numbers represent 0 up to 255 where we
are going to have:-
111111112
= 1x20 + 1x21 + 1x22 + 1x23 + 1x24 + 1x25 +1x26 1x27
=1+2+4+8+16+32+64+128
=255
Octal Number System
In the octal number system, there are only eight possible digits (0 to 7). The position of a digit to the left of
the octal point carries a weight in ascending powers of eight.

Example
21638
3
=2 12 61 30
= 2x83+ 1x82 + 6x81 +3x80
=512 + 64 + 48 + 48 + 3
= 62710

Hexadecimal Number Systems

The hexadecimal system popularly known as the Hex system is similar to the octal system with the exception
that the base is 16 and there must the 16 digits. The sixteen symbols used in this system are decimal digits 0
to 9 and the alphabets A to F.

Examples
12A016
1 2 A 0
163 162 161 160
=1x163 + 2x162 + 10x161 + 0x160
=4096 + 512 +160 +0
=512010

Number Conversions

Decimal to Binary Conversion

To convert a decimal integer to binary, divide the decimal number repeatedly by 2 until the quotient is 0. Then
write the reminder of the division in reverse order.

Example 1.
Convert 15710 to binary.
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2 157 1
2 78 0
2 39 1
2 19 1
2 9 1
2 4 0
2 2 0
2 1 1
2 0
100111012

Example 2.
Convert 76.2510
For fractional numbers, the number is divided into two parts; the whole number part and the fraction part.
The whole number part is then converted to binary individually as above. The fraction part is repetitively
multiplied by two, noting the complete units of two. The procedure proceeds until the fraction becomes a
zero or starts recurring.

2 76 0
0.25x2 =0.50 0
2 38 0 0.50x 2=1.00 1
2 19 1
0.2510=0.012
2 9 1

2 4 0

2 2 0

2 1 1 76.2510=1001100.012

2 0

10011002
Binary to Decimal conversion
To convert a binary integer to decimal number, simply add the weights of the non- zero positions of the binary
number.

Example
Convert 110110012 to decimal
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
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27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
=1x27+ 1x26 + 0x25+ 1x24 + 1x23 + 0x22 +0x21 +1x20
=128 +64 +16 +8 +1
=21710

Example 2

Convert 11010.012 to decimal

For fraction numbers, the whole number is converted to decimal as above. The fraction part digits are divided
by multiples of two, starting from the decimal point.

1 1 0 1 0 . 0 1
24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2
=1x24 + 1x23 +0x22 +1x21 +0x20 +0x2-1 +1x2-2
=16 +8 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 0 +1/4
=26.2510

Binary to Octal conversion

Steps
1. Arrange the bits in group of three starting from the right
2. Then convert each group to its octal equivalent.

Example
Convert 10110001111011112 to octal
1 011 000 111 101 111
0
= 1x2 1x21+1x20 0 1x22+1x21+1x20 1x22+1x20 1x22+1x21+1x20
=1 3 0 7 5 7
=1307578

Octal to Binary conversion

To convert an octal number to binary, convert each octal digit into binary using groups of three bits.

Example
Convert 1643528 to binary
1 6 4 3 5 2
001 110 100 011 101 010
1643528=0011101000111010102

Decimal numbers to Octal number conversion

The procedure to convert a decimal number to octal is the same as the conversion from decimal to binary
with a difference that repetitive division is done by 8 instead of 2.

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Example 1
Convert 78910 to octal
8 789 5

8 98 2

8 12 4

8 1 1

78910=14258
Example 2
Convert 98.510 to octal
The procedure to convert fractional decimal numbers to octal is also the same as that of the fractional
decimal numbers to binary, but the multiplication is by 8 instead of 2.

8 98 2
8 12 4 0.50 x 8 =4.00 4

8 1 1
0
98.5 10 = 142.48

Convert Octal Numbers to Decimal Numbers

The procedure is the same as from binary to decimal, but the weights are assigned in terms of 8 ’s.

Example
Convert 15678 to decimal
1 5 6 7
3 2 1
8 8 8 80
=1x8 + 5x8 + 6x8 + 1x80
3 2 1

=512+320+48+7
=88710

Example 2
Convert 142.18
The fractional octal numbers are converted to decimal using the same procedure as that of converting
fractional binary numbers to decimal, but the division is by multiples of eight.
1 4 2 . 1

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82 81 80 8-1
=1x82 + 4x81 + 2x80+1x8-1
=64 +32 +2 + 1/8
=98.12510

Binary to hexadecimal conversions

Steps
1. Arrange the bits in groups of four starting from right.
2. Then change each group to its hexadecimal equivalent.

Example
Convert 10110001111011112
=1011 0001 1110 1111
=B 1 E F
=B1EF16

Convert Hexadecimal to Binary conversion

To convert a hexadecimal number to binary, convert each Hex digit into binary individually using groups of
four bits

Example
Convert AC2716 to binary
A C 2 7
1010 1100 0010 0111
AC2716=10101100001001112

Convert Decimal numbers to Hexadecimal

To procedure is the same as from decimal to binary, though divisions are by 16.

Example
Convert 15010 to Hexadecimal
16 150 6

16 9 9

15010=9616
Example 2
The procedure to convert fractional decimal numbers to hexadecimal is also the same as that of the fractional
decimal numbers to binary, but the multiplication is by 16 instead of 2.

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Example
Convert 298.12510 to hexadecimal
16 298 A 0.125x16=2.00 2
16 18 2 =12A.216
16 1 1

Convert Hexadecimal Numbers to Decimal Numbers

The procedure is the same as from binary to decimal, but the weights are assigned in terms of 16 ’s.
Examples
Convert 7AE16 to decimal Numbers
=7x162 + 10x161 + 14x160
=1792 +160 +14
=196610

Example 2
Convert 206.2516 to decimal
=2x162 + 0x161+6x160 + 2x16-1 + 5x16-2
=512 + 6 + 1/8 + 5/256
=518.144510

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Data communication and Networking

Introduction
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium
such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:
a. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended
device or user and only by that device or user.
b. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and
left uncorrected are unusable.
c. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the
case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time
transmission.
d. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets.
Components:
A data communications system has five components

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a. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
b. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
c. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
d. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable,
fiber-optic cable, and radio waves
e. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices.

Data transmission modes

a. Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of
the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors
are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept
output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Examples of simplex Mode is loudspeaker, television broadcasting, television and remote, keyboard
and monitor etc.

b. Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. In a half-duplex
transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is
transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems. The
half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example of half-duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent
in both the directions.

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a. Full-Duplex: In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. The full-duplex
mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. In full-duplex
mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals going in the other
direction. One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two
people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-
duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of
the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.

Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons
by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Transmission Mediums
Data is represented by computers and other telecommunication devices using signals. Signals are transmitted in
the form of electromagnetic energy from one device to another. Electromagnetic signals travel through
vacuum, air or other transmission mediums to travel between one point to another (from source to receiver).
Electromagnetic energy (includes electrical and magnetic fields) includes power, voice, visible light, radio
waves, ultraviolet light, gamma rays etc.
Transmission medium is the means through which we send our data from one place to another. The first layer
(physical layer) of Communication Networks OSI Seven-layer model is dedicated to the transmission media;
we will study the OSI Model later.

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Factors to be considered while choosing Transmission Medium

a. Transmission Rate
b. Cost and Ease of Installation
c. Resistance to Environmental Conditions
d. Distances
Bounded/Guided Transmission Media
It is the transmission media in which signals are confined to a specific path using wire or cable. The types of
Bounded/ Guided are discussed below.

Twisted Pair Cable

This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others. It is lightweight, cheap, can be installed
easily, and they support many different types of network. Some important points:
a. Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.
b. Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.
c. Typical delay is 50 µs/km.
d. Repeater spacing is 2km.
Twisted Pair is of two types:

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Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable - It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own color plastic
insulator. Identification is the reason behind colored plastic insulation. UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of
twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector.

Advantages:
a. Installation is easy
b. Flexible
c. Cheap
d. It has high speed capacity,
e. 100-meter limit
f. Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.
Disadvantages:
a. Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable
b. Provides less protection from interference.
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable - This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair
of insulated conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also
eliminates crosstalk (explained in KEY TERMS Chapter). It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair. It
is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable. It is more expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.

Advantages:
a. Easy to install
b. Performance is adequate
c. Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission
d. Increases the signalling rate
e. Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
f. Eliminates crosstalk
Disadvantages:
a. Difficult to manufacture
b. Heavy

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Coaxial Cable
Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other. Copper is used
in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one. It is surrounded by PVC installation, a
sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, barid or both. Outer metallic wrapping is used as a
shield against noise and as the second conductor which completes the circuit. The outer conductor is also
encased in an insulating sheath. The outermost part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.
Here the most common coaxial standards.
a. 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.
b. 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
c. 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
d. 93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.

There are two types of Coaxial cables:

a. BaseBand - This is a 50 ohm (Ω) coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission. It is mostly used
for LAN’s. Baseband transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed. The major drawback is
that it needs amplification after every 1000 feet.
b. BroadBand - This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits several
simultaneous signal using different frequencies. It covers large area when compared with Baseband
Coaxial Cable.
Advantages:
a. Bandwidth is high
b. Used in long distance telephone lines.
c. Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
d. Much higher noise immunity
e. Data transmission without distortion.
f. The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared to
twisted pair cable
Disadvantages:
a. Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
b. Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
c. If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

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Fiber Optic Cable

These are similar to coaxial cable. It uses electric signals to transmit data. At the centre is the glass core
through which light propagates. In multimode fibres, the core is 50microns, and In single mode fibres, the
thickness is 8 to 10 microns. The core in fiber optic cable is surrounded by glass cladding with lower index of
refraction as compared to core to keep all the light in core. This is covered with a thin plastic jacket to protect
the cladding. The fibers are grouped together in bundles protected by an outer shield.
Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second)

Advantages:
a. Provides high quality transmission of signals at very high speed.
b. These are not affected by electromagnetic interference, so noise and distortion is very less.
c. Used for both analog and digital signals.
Disadvantages:
a. It is expensive
b. Difficult to install.
c. Maintenance is expensive and difficult.
d. Do not allow complete routing of light signals.

Unbounded/Unguided Transmission Media

Unguided or wireless media sends the data through air (or water), which is available to anyone who has a
device capable of receiving them. Types of unguided/ unbounded media are discussed below:
a. Radio Transmission
b. Microwave Transmission

Computer Networks
Data Communication and network have changed the way business and other daily affair works. Now, they rely
on computer networks and internetwork. A set of devices often mentioned as nodes connected by media link is
called a Network. A node can be a device which is capable of sending or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network like a computer, printer etc. These links connecting the devices are called
Communication channels. Computer network is a telecommunication channel through which we can share our
data. It is also called data network. The best example of computer network is Internet. Computer network does
not mean a system with control unit and other systems as its slave. It is called a distributed system A network
must be able to meet certain criteria; these are mentioned below:
a. Performance - It can be measured in following ways:
i. Transit time: It is the time taken to travel a message from one device to another.
ii. Response time: It is defined as the time elapsed between enquiry and response.
b. Reliability - It decides the frequency at which network failure take place. More the failures are, less is
the network's reliability.
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c. Security - It refers to the protection of data from the unauthorized user or access. While travelling
through network, data passes many layers of network, and data can be traced if attempted. Hence
security is also a very important characteristic for Networks.
Configuration in Computer Networks
Network is a connection made through connection links between two or more devices. Devices can be a
computer, printer or any other device that is capable to send and receive data. There are two ways to connect
the devices:

Point-To-Point Connection
It is a protocol which is used as a communication link between two devices. It is simple to establish. The most
common example for Point-to-Point connection (PPP) is a computer connected by telephone line. We can
connect the two devices by means of a pair of wires or using a microwave or satellite link.
Example: Point-to-Point connection between remote control and Television for changing the channels.

Multipoint Connection
It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection two or more devices share a single link.
There are two kinds of Multipoint Connections:
a. If the links are used simultaneously between many devices, then it is spatially shared line configuration.
b. If user takes turns while using the link, then it is time shared (temporal) line configuration.

Types of Networks

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Local Area Network (LAN)

It is also called LAN and designed for small physical areas such as an office, group of buildings or a factory.
LANs are used widely as it is easy to design and to troubleshoot. Personal computers and workstations are
connected to each other through LANs. We can use different types of topologies through LAN; these are Star,
Ring, Bus, Tree etc.
LAN can be a simple network like connecting two computers, to share files and network among each other
while it can also be as complex as interconnecting an entire building.
LAN networks are also widely used to share resources like printers, shared hard-drive etc

Applications of LAN
a. One of the computers in a network can become a server serving all the remaining computers called
clients. Software can be stored on the server and it can be used by the remaining clients.
b. Connecting locally all the workstations in a building to let them communicate with each other locally
without any internet access.
c. Sharing common resources like printers etc are some common applications of LAN.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It is basically a bigger version of LAN. It is also called MAN and uses the similar technology as LAN. It is
designed to extend over the entire city. It can be means to connecting a number of LANs into a larger network
or it can be a single cable. It is mainly hold and operated by single private company or a public company.

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Wide Area Network (WAN)

It is also called WAN. WAN can be private or it can be public leased network. It is used for the network that
covers large distance such as cover states of a country. It is not easy to design and maintain. Communication
medium used by WAN are PSTN or Satellite links. WAN operates on low data rates.

Wireless Network
It is the fastest growing segment of computer. They are becoming very important in our daily life because wind
connections are not possible in cars or aeroplane. We can access Internet at any place avoiding wire related
troubles.. These can be used also when the telephone systems gets destroyed due to some calamity/disaster.
WANs are really important now-a-days.

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Inter Network
When we connect two or more networks then they are called internetwork or internet. We can join two or more
individual networks to form an internetwork through devices like routers gateways or bridges.

Advantages of network
a. It enhances communication and availability of information - Networking, especially with full
access to the web, allows ways of communication that would simply be impossible before it was
developed. Instant messaging can now allow users to talk in real time and send files to other people
wherever they are in the world, which is a huge boon for businesses. Also, it allows access to a vast
amount of useful information, including traditional reference materials and timely facts, such as news
and current events.
b. It allows for more convenient resource sharing -This benefit is very important, particularly for larger
companies that really need to produce huge numbers of resources to be shared to all the people. Since
the technology involves computer-based work, it is assured that the resources they wanted to get across
would be completely shared by connecting to a computer network which their audience is also using.
c. It makes file sharing easier- Computer networking allows easier accessibility for people to share their
files, which greatly helps them with saving more time and effort, since they could do file sharing more
accordingly and effectively.
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d. It is highly flexible- This technology is known to be very flexible, as it gives users the opportunity to
explore everything about essential things, such as software without affecting their functionality. Plus,
people will have the accessibility to all information they need to get and share.
e. It is an inexpensive system -Installing networking software on your device would not cost too much,
as you are assured that it lasts and can effectively share information to your peers. Also, there is no
need to change the software regularly, as mostly it is not required to do so.
f. It increases cost efficiency- With computer networking, you can use a lot of software products
available on the market which can just be stored or installed in your system or server, and can then be
used by various workstations.
g. It boosts storage capacity -Since you are going to share information, files and resources to other
people, you have to ensure all data and content are properly stored in the system. With this networking
technology, you can do all of this without any hassle, while having all the space you need for storage.

Disadvantages of network
a. It lacks independence - Computer networking involves a process that is operated using computers, so
people will be relying more of computer work, instead of exerting an effort for their tasks at hand.
Aside from this, they will be dependent on the main file server, which means that, if it breaks down, the
system would become useless, making users idle.
b. It poses security difficulties - Because there would be a huge number of people who would be using a
computer network to get and share some of their files and resources, a certain user’s security would
be always at risk. There might even be illegal activities that would occur, which you need to be careful
about and aware of.
c. It lacks robustness - As previously stated, if a computer network’s main server breaks down, the
entire system would become useless. Also, if it has a bridging device or a central linking server that
fails, the entire network would also come to a standstill. To deal with these problems, huge networks
should have a powerful computer to serve as file server to make setting up and maintaining the network
easier.
d. It allows for more presence of computer viruses and malware - There would be instances that stored
files are corrupt due to computer viruses. Thus, network administrators should conduct regular check-
ups on the system, and the stored files at the same time.
e. Its light policing usage promotes negative acts - It has been observed that providing users with
internet connectivity has fostered undesirable behavior among them. Considering that the web is a
minefield of distractions—online games, humor sites and even porn sites—workers could be tempted
during their work hours. The huge network of machines could also encourage them to engage in illicit
practices, such as instant messaging and file sharing, instead of working on work-related matters. While
many organizations draw up certain policies on this, they have proven difficult to enforce and even
engendered resentment from employees.
f. It requires an efficient handler - For a computer network to work efficiently and optimally, it requires
high technical skills and know-how of its operations and administration. A person just having basic
skills cannot do this job. Take note that the responsibility to handle such a system is high, as allotting
permissions and passwords can be daunting. Similarly, network configuration and connection is very
tedious and cannot be done by an average technician who does not have advanced knowledge.
g. It requires an expensive set-up - Though computer networks are said to be an inexpensive system
when it is already running, its initial set up cost can still be high depending on the number of computers
to be connected. Expensive devices, such as routers, switches, hubs, etc., can add up to the cost. Aside

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from these, it would also need network interface cards (NICs) for workstations in case they are not built
in.

Computer network components

a) Hub
b) Switches
c) Cables and connectors
d) Router
e) Modem
Network Interface Card
A network interface controller (NIC, also known as a network interface card, network adapter, LAN adapter or
physical network interface and by similar terms) is a computer hardware component that connects a computer
to a computer network. The card translates computer data into electrical signals it sends through the network;
the signals are compatible with the network so computers can reliably exchange information. Because of the
popularity of the Internet and networks in general, virtually all desktop and notebook PCs have some form of
interface card included. You can add a network card to bare-bones computers which don't have one.

Types of network cards

Network Interface Card

In order to connect to a network, computer system uses a Network-Interface-Card (NIC). It manages or

controls the wired & wireless connection for to exchange the information with other PC ’s & the internet. It
includes electronic-circuitry, which is required or necessary to communicate using a wired-connection or
wireless connection. It functions as a mediator between your computer system & data network. Example:
When you visit a web site then PC passes the site information to the network-card, which then converts the

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address into electrical-impulses. Network-cables get these impulses to a web server on the internet. The card
receives the signals & turns them into data that your system displays or present. It provides or supplies the
computer with a faithful, full time connection to a network. PC & workstations on Local-Area-Network
contain a network interface card, which is specifically designed for the LAN transmission-technology.

Wireless network interface card for desktop

Wireless network interface card is a device, which enables wireless connections. It is built for laptop &
desktop computer systems. There are ‘three-types’ of this card:
a. Wi-Fi adapters: It provides connectivity to the Wi-Fi By using this; you can add wireless connectivity
to old laptops without built in Wi-Fi card & increase the speed of wireless connections for the laptops
by using newer Wi-Fi adapter. The latest generation of Wi-Fi is ‘802.11ac”.
b. Cellular-adapters: It provides 3g & 4g wireless internet connection to your system & they are used on
laptop computers but can also work for desktop. There are two-different versions of this adapter: USB
cellular-adapter & PCMCIA adapter.
c. Bluetooth-adapters: It provides short-range wireless connectivity to laptop & desktop computers. They
can be used for wireless connection with mouse, keyboard, and smartphones.

Functions of network interface card

The function of Network Interface Card is to allow computers to connect to networks & they are required in
order to access the internet & local-networks & can function with custom-network types as well. One Network
card can handle number of Ethernet-connections by attaching a switch or router to it. Many organizations or
enterprises & server grade routers are full-servers attached to the switches. Two or more NIC’s can be used to
provide more throughputs. Ethernet-cables are easy to use & configure & can provide better throughput in
certain areas. By using this card to your system or desktop would allow you to connect your computer to both a
router & network-attached storage-device by using separate Ethernet-cables & share or access the device with
other computer systems on the network? It also allows transmitting data on a network quickly or efficiently.
Modern cards can transmit the data up to one-gigabit per second while older cards transmit data at 10 or 100
megabit per second.

How to install and configure network interface card

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a.First, you have to install a network-card either PCI or USB. If you use PCI then you have to open
computer-case & push PCI network card into empty PCI-slot. If you using USB then you have to put it
into an empty USB-port.
b. Install device driver, windows will detect it automatically that you installed a new hardware. After the
installation, you will see a network-card is displays under windows-> device-manager (start->control
panel->system & security-> device manager).
c. Now go to the Network Sharing Center & you will see the computer name is connected to a network
& access to the internet. It indicates that your card is installed correctly. Now check your local-area
connection & you will get an icon.
d. Double-click on LAN which display your LAN status (connection duration, speed, number of bytes
sent & received). Click on Details if you want to see the details of connection.
e. Close the Network-connection details. Click on properties->internet protocol version 4-> properties.
You can see everything is set to automatic.
Topology
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals.
Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass information
between workstations.
Bus network

A bus network topology is a network architecture in which a set of clients are connected via a shared
communications line, called a bus. There are several common instances of the bus architecture, including one
in the motherboard of most computers, and those in some versions of Ethernet networks.
Features of Bus Topology
a. It transmits data only in one direction.
b. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages
a. Easy to implement and extend.
b. Well-suited for temporary or small networks not requiring high speeds (quick setup).
c. Cheaper than other topologies.
d. Cost effective; only a single cable is used.
e. Easy identification of cable faults.
f. Reduced weight due to fewer wires.
Disadvantages
a. Limited cable length and number of stations.
b. If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network goes down.

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c. Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run.

d. Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy traffic.(shared bandwidth)
e. Proper termination is required (loop must be in closed path).
f. Significant Capacitive Load (each bus transaction must be able to stretch to most distant link).
g. It works best with limited number of nodes.
h. It is slower than the other topologies.
Ring network
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a
single continuous pathway for signals through each node - a ring. Data travels from node to node, with each
node along the way handling every packet.

Features of Ring Topology

a. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to
pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
b. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between
each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
c. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in them.
Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
d. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through each
node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages
a. Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to transmit
b. Performs better than a star topology under heavy network load
c. Can create much larger network using Token Ring
d. Does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the computers
Disadvantages
a. One malfunctioning workstation or bad port in the MAU can create problems for the entire network
b. Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network
c. Network adapter cards and MAU's are much more expensive than Ethernet cards and hubs
d. Much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load

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Star network
Star networks are one of the most common computer network topologies. In its simplest form, a star network
consists of one central switch, hub or computer, which acts as a conduit to transmit messages. Thus, the hub
and leaf nodes, and the transmission lines between them, form a graph with the topology of a star. If the central
node is passive, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an echo of its own transmission,
delayed by the two-way transmission time (i.e. to and from the central node) plus any delay generated in the
central node. An active star network has an active central node that usually has the means to prevent echo-
related problems.

Features of Star Topology

a. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
b. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
c. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
a. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
b. Hub can be upgraded easily.
c. Easy to troubleshoot.
d. Easy to setup and modify.
e. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
a. Cost of installation is high.
b. Expensive to use.
c. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
d. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

Mesh topology
In this type of topology, every node has a dedicated point to point link to every other node in the network. This
means each link carries traffic only between the two nodes it. There are two techniques to transmit data over
the Mesh topology, they are:
a. Routing - In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing
logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has
information about the broken links, and it avoids those nodes etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-
configure the failed nodes.

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b. Flooding - In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes; hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and it’s very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load
over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

a. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion as
mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
b. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

a. Fully connected.
b. Robust.
c. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

a. Each connection can carry its own data load.
b. It is robust.
c. Fault is diagnosed easily.
d. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

a. Installation and configuration is difficult.
b. Cabling cost is more.
c. Bulk wiring is required.

Tree Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical
topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

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Features of Tree Topology

a. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
b. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

a. Extension of bus and star topologies.
b. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
c. Easily managed and maintained.
d. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

a. Heavily cabled.
b. Costly.
c. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
d. Central hub fails, network fails.

Hybrid topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in an office
in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will
result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).

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Features of Hybrid Topology

a. It is a combination of two or topologies
b. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

a. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
b. Effective.
c. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
d. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

a. Complex in design.
b. Costly.

Internet
Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information over the web. However, It can be
defined in many ways as follows:
a. Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected computer networks.
b. Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
c. Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
d. IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a computer location.
e. A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP Address so that user can
locate a computer by a name.
f. For example, a DNS server will resolve a name http://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP
address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.
g. Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

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Evolution
The concept of Internet was originated in 1969 and has undergone several technological & Infrastructural
changes as discussed below:
a. The origin of Internet devised from the concept of Advanced Research Project Agency Network
(ARPANET).
b. ARPANET was developed by United States Department of Defense.
c. Basic purpose of ARPANET was to provide communication among the various bodies of government.
d. Initially, there were only four nodes, formally called Hosts.
e. In 1972, the ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located at different countries and thus
became known as Internet.
f. By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP protocols, DNS, WWW, browsers,
scripting languages etc.,Internet provided a medium to publish and access information over the web.
Advantages:
a. Information on almost every subject imaginable.
b. Powerful search engines
c. Ability to do research from your home versus research libraries.
d. Information at various levels of study. Everything from scholarly articles to ones directed at children.
e. Message boards where people can discuss ideas on any topic. Ability to get wide range of opinions.
People can find others that have a similar interest in whatever they are interested in.
f. The internet provides the ability of emails. Free mail service to anyone in the country.
g. Platform for products like SKYPE, which allow for holding a video conference with anyone in the
world who also has access.
h. Friendships and love connections have been made over the internet by people involved in love/passion
over similar interests.
i. Things such as Yahoo Answers and other sites where kids can have readily available help for
homework.
j. News, of all kinds is available almost instantaneously. Commentary, on that news, from every
conceivable viewpoint is also available.
Disadvantages:
a. There is a lot of wrong information on the internet. Anyone can post anything, and much of it is
garbage.

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b. There are predators that hang out on the internet waiting to get unsuspecting people in dangerous
situations.
c. Some people are getting addicted to the internet and thus causing problems with their interactions
of friends and loved ones.
d. Pornography that can get in the hands of young children too easily.
e. Easy to waste a lot of time on the internet. You can start surfing, and then realize far more time has
passed than you realized. Internet and television together of added to the more sedentary lifestyles
of people which further exacerbate the obesity problem.
f. Internet has a lot of "cheater" sites. People can buy essays and pass them off as their own far more
easily than they used to be able to do.
g. There are a lot of unscrupulous businesses that have sprung up on the internet to take advantage of
people.
h. Hackers can create viruses that can get into your personal computer and ruin valuable data.
i. Hackers can use the internet for identity theft.
j. It can be quite depressing to be on the internet and realize just how uneducated so many people
have become in today's society.

Intranet
Intranet is defined as private network of computers within an organization with its own server and firewall.
Moreover, we can define Intranet as:
a. Intranet is system in which multiple PCs are networked to be connected to each other. PCs in intranet
are not available to the world outside of the intranet.
b. Usually each company or organization has their own Intranet network and members/employees of that
company can access the computers in their intranet.
c. Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
d. Each computer in Intranet is also identified by a IP Address, which is unique among the computers in
that Intranet.

Advantages
a. Intranets offering workforce productivity which can help user to find and observe information very fast.
User may also use applications according to their roles and tasks. Through web browser a user can get
access to entire contents of any website from anywhere or any time. Intranet also increase the ability of
employee’s by performing their job confidently very fast, and accurately.
b. Intranet permits business companies to share out information to employees according to their need or
requirements. Employees may also link to appropriate data at their expediency.

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c. The best advantage offered by intranet is communications within an organization or business company,
landscape or portrait. Intranets are helpful to converse planned initiative that has an international reach
all through the organization. The well-known examples of transportation are chat, email, and blogs. A
actual world example of Intranet is Nestle had a number of food processing plants.
d. The most significant advantage of Intranet is Web publishing which permits burdensome corporate
knowledge to be continued and effortlessly access all through the company using Web technologies and
hypermedia. The familiar examples of web publishing consist of training, news feed, company polices,
documents, and employee manual. Intranet can be accessed general internet standards such as CGI
applications, Flash files, and Acrobat files. Each unit can bring up to date the online copy of a
document and intranet always provides the most recent version to employees.
e. Intranet offering business operations and administration solutions because it also is used as a platform
of mounting and organizing applications across the internet world.
f. Another advantage of Intranet is time saving because there is no need to maintain physical documents
such as procedure manual, requisition forms, and internet phone list.
g. Now intranet facilitates their user o view and gets information and data via web browser. Intranet also
saves the money of any organization on printing, publishing and overall maintenance.
h. Through Intranet common corporate culture every user can view the similar information.
i. Intranet offer improve teamwork through which teamwork is enabled and all certified users can get
access to information.
j. Intranet providing cross platform capability for UNIX, Mac, Windows.
k. Intranet offering their user to write applications on their browser without cross-browser compatibility
issues.
l. Intranet is a Web-based tool that permits users to produce a customized site according their
requirements. You can pull all Internet actions and most wanted contented into a single page which
make easier to access.
Disadvantages of Intranet
a. Intranet has great features for interconnected manners but has some disadvantages too
b. Management does need to stop control of specific information, this problem can be minimized but with
appropriate prudence.
c. The other disadvantage of Intranet is security issue
d. Intranet gathered everything in one location which is really good but if it is not prearranged then you
will spoil everything.
e. The cost of intranet is very high but has lots of advantages after implementing.

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Introduction to Windows
Microsoft Windows is a multitasking operating system developed by Microsoft Corporation which uses
Graphical User Interface to interact with the users. Microsoft was originally named “Traf-O-Data” in 1972,
was renamed as “Micro-soft” in November 1975, then “Microsoft” on November 26, 1976. Microsoft
entered the marketplace in August 1981 by releasing version 1.0 of the operating system Microsoft DOS (MS-
DOS), a 16-bit command-line operating system. Bill Gates and Paul Allen founded Microsoft and windows
operating system has been its primary product.
Below is how Microsoft windows evolved over time:
a) Windows 1.0 – Nov 1985
b) Windows 2.0 – Dec 1987
c) Windows 3.0 – May 1990
d) Windows 95 – Aug 1995
e) Windows 98 – June 1998
f) Windows ME – Sep 2000
g) Windows XP – Oct 2001
h) Windows Vista – Nov 2006
i) Windows 7 – July 2009
j) Windows 8.0 – Oct 2012
k) Windows 8.1 – Oct 2013
l) Windows 10 – July 2015

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Main Components of Windows

a) Configuration and maintenance
b) User interface
c) Applications and utilities
d) Windows Server components
e) File systems
f) Core components
g) Services
h) DirectX
i) Networking
j) Scripting and command-line
k) Kernel
l) NET Framework
m) Security
n) Deprecated components and apps
o) APIs

Desktop
It is the very first screen that you will see once the windows start. Here you will see “My Computer”, “My
Documents”, “Start Menu”, “Recycle Bin”, and the shortcuts of any applications that you might have
created.

Taskbar
At the bottom, you will see a row which is known as the taskbar. It has the currently running applications, you
can also pin applications that you frequently use by using an option Pin to Taskbar”.

Start Menu
This is located in the bottom left corner of Windows OS GUI. This is the place where the user can search for
any setting and for any application for their use. Users can uninstall or repair applications from the control
panel. The user can do a lot of activities just by searching through the start menu.

My Computer
When you double click on “My Computer” menu, it will let you navigate between your different computer
drives and the control panel tools. You can see and manage the contents that are inside your drive.

Recycle Bin
When you delete an item from any of your drives by making use of “delete” button or even by simply
clicking right clicking and selecting “delete” option, it is not deleted completely, instead, it is moved to
“Recycle Bin” folder of Windows. You can recover your content if you have deleted it by mistake from here
or if you choose to delete the items from here, it will get deleted permanently. Should you wish to delete the
item in first go itself without moving it to recycle bin, you can use the key “Shift+Del”

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Features of Windows:
a) Windows Search -We can have numerous files and contents located on our system and sometimes we
may run out of memory about the exact location of our file. Windows Search is a search function
included with Windows that allows the user to search their entire computer
b) Windows File Transfer- We may have the need to transfer in or transfer out the files and contents from
our machine to other devices such as other computers or mobiles and tablets. We can do this by using
an Easy Transfer Cable, CDs or DVDs, a USB flash drive, wireless Bluetooth, a network folder, or an
external hard disk.
c) Windows Updates - Windows includes an automatic update feature with the intended purpose of
keeping its operating system safe and up-to-date.
d) Windows taskbar - At the bottom most part of your windows, you will see a row which is known as
the taskbar. It has the currently running applications, you can also pin applications that you frequently
use by using an option Pin to Taskbar”. The taskbar is the main navigation tool for Windows
e) Remote Desktop Connection- This feature of windows allows you to connect to another system and
work remotely on another system.

Advantages of Windows
a) Desktop as well as tablet-friendly OS
b) Switch between applications is very easy
c) Not much technical knowledge is required to operate windows
d) Windows OS is the dominant OS and enjoys more than 90% of Market share
e) MS OS have a great support community and it also has the largest number of applications
f) Microsoft provides a powerful set of Enterprise focused Operating System, Applications and the
services making it the most dominant player in the OS market.
g) More gaming

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Disadvantages of Windows
a) There are privacy and security concerns and incidents and they are widespread. Linux OS is by far most
secure OS ever built.
b) Cost for upgrade
c) Windows OS attracts a large number of virus programs due to its largest market share and easy to
breach paradigm
d) Windows OS is not that much of touch-friendly

Word processing
Word processing describes the process of creating or editing a document using a word processor, such
as Microsoft Word, Google Docs, or OpenOffice Writer. For example, with a word processor, a student could
create a book report and then print it, save it to a disk, display it on the screen, or send it over e-mail. Also, a
person looking for a job could create a résumé using a word processor, then e-mail or print and mail it to job
recruiters.

Advantages
a) Easily correct any mistakes which are made
b) Can save multiple versions of documents and easily sort them so that you can go back to
previous versions of the same document
c) Spell and grammar checking
d) Format the text and general page layout so that you can make the page look more appealing or
easier to read
e) Mail merge from a database so that you can easily send out letters to multiple people at a time
f) Copies can easily be made, which saves on printing and it is much easier to do

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Disadvantages
a) Data can sometimes be lost due to data corruption. On the other hand, this could happen to
somebody hand writing a letter because something could happen to the paper such as a pen
leaking. Also, this shouldn’t really be a problem because regular backups should be made and
the user should save at regular intervals of times
b) Some symbols aren’t easily accessible, which makes typing in different languages that use a
different alphabet is difficult. Also, some complex mathematical equations would be easier to
hand write
c) Requires a computer to edit or view documents which may sometimes not be there, especially
when on the go

Word Processor
A word processor is a type of software application used for composing, editing, formatting and printing
documents. Word processors have a variety of uses and applications within the business environment, at home
and in educational contexts.
Word processors have the following main functionalities:
a) Insert
b) Copy
c) Cut and paste
d) Delete
e) Find and replace
f) Print
g) Word wrap

Examples of word processor programs

a) Abiword.
b) Apple iWork - Pages.
c) Apple TextEdit - Apple macOS included word processor.
d) Corel WordPerfect.
e) Google Docs (online and free).
f) LibreOffice -> Writer (free).
g) Microsoft Office -> Microsoft Word.
h) Microsoft Works

The Word interface

When you open Word for the first time, the Start Screen will appear. From here, you'll be able to create a new
document, choose a template, and access your recently edited documents. From the Start Screen, locate
and select Blank document to access the Word interface.

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Click the buttons in the interactive below to learn more about the Word interface.

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Working with the Word environment

All recent versions of Word include the Ribbon and the Quick Access Toolbar, where you'll find commands
to perform common tasks in Word, as well as Backstage view.
The Ribbon
Word uses a tabbed Ribbon system instead of traditional menus. The Ribbon contains multiple tabs, which
you can find near the top of the Word window.

Each tab contains several groups of related commands. For example, the Font group on the Home tab
contains commands for formatting text in your document.

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Some groups also have a small arrow in the bottom-right corner that you can click for even more options.

Showing and hiding the Ribbon

If you find that the Ribbon takes up too much screen space, you can hide it. To do this, click the Ribbon
Display Options arrow in the upper-right corner of the Ribbon, then select the desired option from the drop-
down menu:

 Auto-hide Ribbon: Auto-hide displays your document in full-screen mode and completely
hides the Ribbon from view. To show the Ribbon, click the Expand Ribbon command at the top
of screen.

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 Show Tabs: This option hides all command groups when they're not in use, but tabs will remain
visible. To show the Ribbon, simply click a tab.
 Show Tabs and Commands: This option maximizes the Ribbon. All of the tabs and commands
will be visible. This option is selected by default when you open Word for the first time.
To learn how to add custom tabs and commands to the Ribbon, review our Extra on Customizing the Ribbon.
Using the Tell me feature
If you're having trouble finding a command you want, the Tell Me feature can help. It works just like a regular
search bar. Type what you're looking for, and a list of options will appear. You can then use the command
directly from the menu without having to find it on the Ribbon.

The Quick Access Toolbar

Located just above the Ribbon, the Quick Access Toolbar lets you access common commands no matter
which tab is selected. By default, it shows the Save, Undo, and Redo commands, but you can add other
commands depending on your needs.
To add commands to the Quick Access Toolbar:
1. Click the drop-down arrow to the right of the Quick Access Toolbar.

2. Select the command you want to add from the menu.

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3. The command will be added to the Quick Access Toolbar.

The Ruler
The Ruler is located at the top and to the left of your document. It makes it easier to adjust your document
with precision. If you want, you can hide the Ruler to create more screen space.
To show or hide the Ruler:
1. Click the View tab.

2. Click the checkbox next to Ruler to show or hide the Ruler.

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Backstage view
Backstage view gives you various options for saving, opening a file, printing, and sharing your document. To
access Backstage view, click the File tab on the Ribbon.

Click the buttons in the interactive below to learn more about using Backstage view.

Document views and zooming

Word has a variety of viewing options that change how your document is displayed. You can choose to view
your document in Read Mode, Print Layout, or Web Layout. These views can be useful for various tasks,
especially if you're planning to print the document. You can also zoom in and out to make your document
easier to read.

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Switching document views

Switching between different document views is easy. Just locate and select the desired document view
command in the bottom-right corner of the Word window.
 Read Mode: This view opens the document to a full screen. This view is great for reading large
amounts of text or simply reviewing your work.

 Print Layout: This is the default document view in Word. It shows what the document will look
like on the printed page.

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 Web Layout: This view displays the document as a webpage, which can be helpful if you're
using Word to publish content online.

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Zooming in and out

To zoom in or out, click and drag the zoom control slider in the bottom-right corner of the Word window. You
can also select the + or - commands to zoom in or out by smaller increments. The number next to the slider
displays the current zoom percentage, also called the zoom level.

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Spreadsheets

1. A spreadsheet is a document made of columns and rows of cells that can be used to sort and manipulate
data. Each cell is designed to hold one piece of data, such as numbers, letters, and/or formulas that
reference other cells. The data can then be arranged, formatted, graphed, and referenced in other
documents
2. A spreadsheet or worksheet is a file made of rows and columns that help sort data, arrange data easily,
and calculate numerical data. What makes a spreadsheet software program unique is its ability to
calculate values using mathematical formulas and the data in cells. A good example of how a
spreadsheet may be utilized is creating an overview of your bank's balance.
3. Spreadsheets are grid-based files designed to organize information and perform calculations with
scalable entries. People all around the world use spreadsheets to create tables for any personal or
business need.
4. A Spreadsheet is a ledger sheet that lets the user enter, edit, and manipulate numerical data.
5. A Spreadsheet usually consists of a series of rows & columns in which data entries can be made.

COMPONENTS OF A SPREADSHEET
a) Workbook- A Workbook is a file in a spreadsheet package that contains one or more worksheets. The
worksheets are made up of rows & columns in which you work and store your data. A Workbook
allows the user to organize various kinds of related information in a single file.
b) Database - Spreadsheet programs such as Excel have special features, which can be used to manage
data values entered in the cells of the spreadsheet. These features, which are found on the Data menu,
were incorporated in Excel but they belong to Database Management System software. Examples of
such features include: Filtering of records, use of Forms, calculating of Subtotals, data validation,
Pivot tables and Pivot chart reports.
c) Graphs/Charts -A Chart is a graphical/pictorial representation of data in a worksheet. Charts are used to
summarize data in a worksheet in a pictorial form.
d) They enable the users to present complex data elements from a worksheet in a simple format that they
can understand. Examples of charts are: Pie charts, Line graphs, Bar charts, Histograms, Column
charts, etc.

Types of Spreadsheets:
1. Manual spreadsheet -A Manual spreadsheet is ledger book with many sheets of papers divided into
rows and columns for entering/writing data. The data is entered manually using a pen or pencil.
2. Electronic Spreadsheet- A computer program that looks like the manual ledger sheet with rows &
columns for entering data that can be manipulated mathematically using of formulae.

Advantages of Electronic Spreadsheets over Manual Worksheets.

1. Has a large worksheet for data entry & manipulation as compared to manual worksheet
2. Has inbuilt formulae called Functions that are non-existent in manual worksheets. These functions enable
the user to quickly manipulate mathematical data.
3. Uses the power of the computer to quickly carry out operations.
4. Has better formatting & editing qualities than the manual worksheet.

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5. Utilizes the large storage space available on computer storage devices to save & retrieve documents.
6. Can easily be modified in its form, while a manual spreadsheet involves a lot of manual calculations & are
very difficult to amend.
7. The user can very quickly & efficiently perform complicated computations using the information stored in
an electronic spreadsheet.
8. It is accurate in its calculations & allows automatic recalculation on formulae.
I.e., when one value/figure is changed, the result of the formula is automatically adjusted by the computer
so as to correspond with the different input. For a manual spreadsheet, changing one value means rubbing
the result & writing the correct one again.
9. It offers graphical representation of data leading to comprehensive decisions.
10. Replaces the pencil & paper approach of the manual operations of the worksheet.
I.e., it enables the user to produce neat work because; all the work is edited on the screen and a final copy is
printed. With a manual spreadsheet, neatness & legibility of the work depends on the writer ’s hand-
writing skills.
11. It improves on the capabilities & speed of the Calculator.

Examples of spreadsheet programs

a) Google Sheets - (online and free).
b) iWork Numbers - Apple Office Suite.
c) LibreOffice -> Calc (free).
d) Lotus 1-2-3 (discontinued).
e) Lotus Symphony - Spreadsheets.
f) Microsoft Excel.
g) OpenOffice -> Calc (free).
h) VisiCalc (discontinued).

Application areas of spreadsheets (Areas where Spreadsheets are used)

1. Accounting.
Spreadsheets provide an easy & streamlined means of financial management. They are mostly used by
Accountants to record their daily transactions & also keep financial records.
For example; a spreadsheet can be used to do the following:
 Record sales & purchases.
 Calculate profits.
 Produce Invoices, and also compile financial statements.
 Prepare budgets.
 Assist the management of an organization to monitor the current state of payments from customers in
relation to goods delivered.
 Detect aged debtors (i.e., those people who have owed you money for more than the period allowed in
your terms of business.
 Track the value of assets over time (i.e., Appreciation and Depreciation).
Note. Most spreadsheet programs come with inbuilt functions such as SUM, AVERAGE, PRODUCT, etc,
which enable the Accountant to carry out his/her daily accounting tasks easily.

2. Data management.
A spreadsheet enables information to be produced easily and kept up-to-date.

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For example;
 It enables the user to create, edit, save, retrieve and print worksheet data & records.
 It enables data to be arranged neatly in tabular structure.
 Related data can be typed on the same worksheet. If the data is on different worksheets, the
worksheets can be linked so that the data can be accessed easily.
Some of the data management functions include:
 Sorting (i.e., arranging worksheet records in a particular order so as to easily access the data items).
 Filtering (i.e., displaying only the records that meet a given condition).
 Use of Forms to enter & view records.
 Use of Total/Subtotal function.
3. Scientific Applications.
Spreadsheet programs can be used by Scientists & Researchers to compile & analyse their results.
4. Statistical analysis / Mathematical operations.
Spreadsheets provide a set of data analysis tools that can be used to develop complex statistical analyses.
In addition, some of the tools generate charts.
Examples of statistical functions include:
 AVERAGE – used to calculate the mean of a set of values.
 MEDIAN – used to give the value in the middle of a set of values.
Such mathematical operations can be used by:
- Teachers to compile their students’ marks and produce results.
- Clerks & Secretaries to enable them easily create tables of figures and manipulate them quickly as
required
5. Forecasting (What if analysis).
The automatic recalculation feature makes it possible to use the “What if” analysis technique.
What if analysis is a feature in a spreadsheet that is used to find out the effect of changing certain values
in a worksheet on other cells.
It involves changing the value of one of the arguments in a formula in order to see the difference the
change would make on the result of the calculation.
This method can be used for financial forecasting, budgeting, cost analysis, etc.

Common features of Electronic spreadsheets

The following are the typical facilities provided by electronic spreadsheets:
1. Have the ability to create, edit, save & retrieve worksheets.
2. Have inbuilt functions & formulae which can be used to perform calculations.
3. Allows Automatic recalculation, i.e., when you change one value, the rest of the values in the
spreadsheet are automatically recalculated by the computer to correspond with the different input. This
enables you to play “what if” games with your system.
4. Have the ability to Sort and filter data (i.e., arrange data in a predefined order).
5. Have a Data validation facility, which ensures that the correct data is entered into the Spreadsheet.
6. Have a Chart facility that can be used to draw line graphs, Bar charts, histograms, etc.
7. Have the ability to format data (both text & numeric data) using predefined formats.
8. Some Spreadsheets have a SOLVER facility that is used to uncover the best uses of scarce resources so
that desired goals can be achieved.
9. Have the ability to adjust Column widths & Row heights automatically.
10. Have the ability to hide and unhide rows & columns, and also freeze panes.
11. They enable printing of worksheets within the shortest time possible.

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12. They have pre-designed Templates for automating tasks.

A Template is a document that acts as a blueprint or outline for other documents of the same type. It
contains the standard text, graphics & formatting that will be used in all documents of this type.
This means that, all formulas and formatting for similar workbooks such as Invoices can be saved as
templates and then be used to automate the task without having to create the workbook again
13. Have the ability to summarize data using Consolidation and Pivot tables.
Consolidation allows the merging of several worksheets into a summary sheet, while still keeping the
original worksheets intact. Consolidation adds together cells with the same co-ordinates in the various
worksheets.

Pivot tables can be used to cross-tabulate large amounts of data.

Differences between an Electronic Spreadsheet and a Calculator
An electronic spreadsheet: -
1. Has more memory than calculator.
2. Is able to perform complex logical operations, but a calculator cannot.
3. Uses the large storage capacity of the computer that a calculator does not have.
4. Has a large working area that a calculator does not have.

The Excel Start Screen

When you open Excel for the first time, the Excel Start Screen will appear. From here, you'll be able to create
a new workbook, choose a template, and access your recently edited workbooks.
 From the Excel Start Screen, locate and select Blank workbook to access the Excel interface.

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The parts of the Excel window

Some parts of the Excel window (like the Ribbon and scroll bars) are standard in most other Microsoft
programs. However, there are other features that are more specific to spreadsheets, such as the formula
bar, name box, and worksheet tabs.
Click the buttons in the interactive below to become familiar with the parts of the Excel interface.

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Working with the Excel environment

The Ribbon and Quick Access Toolbar are where you will find the commands to perform common tasks in
Excel. The Backstage view gives you various options for saving, opening a file, printing, and sharing your
document.
The Ribbon
Excel uses a tabbed Ribbon system instead of traditional menus. The Ribbon contains multiple tabs, each
with several groups of commands. You will use these tabs to perform the most common tasks in Excel.
 Each tab will have one or more groups.

 Some groups will have an arrow you can click for more options.

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 Click a tab to see more commands.

 You can adjust how the Ribbon is displayed with the Ribbon Display Options.

Certain programs, such as Adobe Acrobat Reader, may install additional tabs to the Ribbon. These tabs are
called add-ins.
To change the Ribbon Display Options:
The Ribbon is designed to respond to your current task, but you can choose to minimize it if you find that it
takes up too much screen space. Click the Ribbon Display Options arrow in the upper-right corner of the
Ribbon to display the drop-down menu.

There are three modes in the Ribbon Display Options menu:

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 Auto-hide Ribbon: Auto-hide displays your workbook in full-screen mode and completely
hides the Ribbon. To show the Ribbon, click the Expand Ribbon command at the top of screen.

 Show Tabs: This option hides all command groups when they're not in use, but tabs will remain
visible. To show the Ribbon, simply click a tab.

 Show Tabs and Commands: This option maximizes the Ribbon. All of the tabs and commands
will be visible. This option is selected by default when you open Excel for the first time.
The Quick Access Toolbar
Located just above the Ribbon, the Quick Access Toolbar lets you access common commands no matter
which tab is selected. By default, it includes the Save, Undo, and Repeat commands. You can add other
commands depending on your preference.
To add commands to the Quick Access Toolbar:
1. Click the drop-down arrow to the right of the Quick Access Toolbar.
2. Select the command you want to add from the drop-down menu. To choose from additional
commands, select More Commands.

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3. The command will be added to the Quick Access Toolbar.

How to use Tell me:

The Tell me box works like a search bar to help you quickly find tools or commands you want to use.

1. Type in your own words what you want to do.

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2. The results will give you a few relevant options. To use one, click it like you would a command
on the Ribbon.

Worksheet views
Excel has a variety of viewing options that change how your workbook is displayed. These views can be useful
for various tasks, especially if you're planning to print the spreadsheet. To change worksheet views, locate the
commands in the bottom-right corner of the Excel window and select Normal view, Page Layout view,
or Page Break view.

 Normal view is the default view for all worksheets in Excel.

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 Page Layout view displays how your worksheets will appear when printed. You can also add
headers and footers in this view.

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 Page Break view allows you to change the location of page breaks, which is especially helpful
when printing a lot of data from Excel.

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Backstage view
Backstage view gives you various options for saving, opening a file, printing, and sharing your workbooks.
To access Backstage view:
1. Click the File tab on the Ribbon. Backstage view will appear.

Click the buttons in the interactive below to learn more about using Backstage view.

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