Energy 53 (2013) 93e105

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Novel approach for decentralized energy supply and energy

storage of tall buildings in Latin America based on renewable
energy sources: Case study e Informal vertical community
Torre David, Caracas e Venezuela
Jimeno A. Fonseca*, Arno Schlueter
Architecture and Sustainable Building Technologies e SuAT, Institute of Technology in Architecture e ITA, Faculty of Architecture e DARCH,
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich e ETHZ, Switzerland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper analyzes the concept of a decentralized power system based on wind energy and a pumped
Received 5 September 2012 hydro storage system in a tall building. The system reacts to the current paradigm of power outage in
Received in revised form Latin American countries caused by infrastructure limitations and climate change, while it fosters the
8 February 2013
penetration of renewable energy sources (RES) for a more diversified and secure electricity supply. An
Accepted 9 February 2013
Available online 16 March 2013
explicit methodology describes the assessment of technical, operational and economic potentials in a
specific urban setting in Caracas/Venezuela. The suitability, applicability and the impacts generated by
such power system are furthermore discussed at economic, social and technical level.
Keywords:
Renewable energy sources
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Decentralized power system
Wind power
Pico pumped hydro storage
Tall buildings
Peak shaving

1. Introduction electricity constitutes an important element to achieve the United

Nations’ millennium development goals seeking to satisfy better
Developing economies struggle to set better standards of living standards of living and alleviation of extreme poverty; whereas the
and higher levels of industrialization as direct paths to get out of absence of electricity economically alters the path of socioeconomic
poverty, electricity is the medium and the most necessary com- development for these nations. Shanghvi, 1991 [2] estimated an
modity to make this happen [1]. Demand growth and climate average reduction per year between 1 and 3% of the gross domestic
change have imposed an unbearable pressure on current electricity product (GDP) in several developing countries due to recurrent
networks, challenging these societies to provide more secure al- power outage. Recently, Bangladesh lost 3.5% of its GDP due to
ternatives of energy supply [2]. Changes have to be carried out continuous cut-offs of electricity in 2010 [6], and Venezuela lost
quickly, the configuration of future power systems under the 3.3% of its GDP in 2010e2011 [7], representing monetary loses for
framework of sustainable development will depend on how long more than $81 thousand millions and an unsatisfied demand of
the penetration of renewable energy sources (RES) is into traditional 21,300 GWh.
systems [3]. Alternatives to facilitate this transition are required and Power systems in developing countries are characterized as
a vast amount of opportunities are time to time attainable. having some of the lowest emissions levels [8] but in contrast, they
A reliable electricity supply is widely known to be essential for are some of the most unreliable and vulnerable to power outages. On
developing economies. Electricity represents a source for economic one hand, slow investment and development of power infrastructure
growth in addition to a mean of assuring a better quality of life [4]. in relation to rapid demand growth [9] has led to extended electricity
According to Kozulj et al., 2009 [1] and Kaygusuz, 2012 [5], access to shortage, especially during peak demand periods. Recent cases in
Dhakar city/Bangladesh [6,10], and Caracas/Venezuela [11], are
among the examples of massive power outage during these periods
* Corresponding author. ETH Zürich, Building HPZ, Floor G, Schafmattstrasse 32, of time. On the other hand, climatic conditions have made these
CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland. Tel.: þ41 44 633 81 21.
systems even more susceptible to shortage.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.A. Fonseca).

0360-5442/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.02.019
94 J.A. Fonseca, A. Schlueter / Energy 53 (2013) 93e105

The existing configuration of most power systems in these the need for high power capacities from the grid, and inherently
countries’ installed capacity relies on hydropower generation, a decreasing the energy demand from the central power system per
source of electrical production quite vulnerable to atmospheric year.
phenomena induced by eventual climate change conditions. Long The complementarity of wind power generation with the cur-
and intensive dry seasons reduce the water levels needed to power rent power system of Venezuela is an opportunity. The integration
the dams of these systems, which constitute 66e83% of total gen- of this RES contributes to the diversification of the national power
eration capacity in developing countries located in the tropics such grid and an improvement in resilience. On the other hand, decen-
as Venezuela, Colombia, Peru and Brazil [3]. The insufficiency of tralized systems can be facilitators for the necessary penetration of
hydropower systems to work properly during long dry seasons has RES in the near future.
caused regular electrical crises. Cases described by different ana- Our research states the possibility to foster decentralized wind
lysts in Latin-America (Venezuela [12], Colombia [13], Philippines power systems as part of a novel but promising attempt to mitigate
[14], Brazil [15]) and in Asia (Pakistan [16], Laos [17]) underline how the problems of power shortages caused by Venezuela’s highly
this pattern has been repeated during El Niño events [18] in the vulnerable electricity grid without reverting to the use of fossil
1990s and more recently during the 2009e2010. According to the fuels.
IPCC, 2012 [19], El Niño events are likely to be more frequent and The urban environment constitutes the setting in which this
intense in the future as a consequence of climate change. transition can be fostered by implementing such decentralized
Specifically, The Venezuelan power system meets all those systems. Urban typology of most cities in developing countries fa-
characteristics. According to Bautista, 2012 [20], dependency on cilitates the exploitation of wind energy, as well as it constitutes a
hydropower as a primary source for electrical generation (66% of platform to easily balance vectors of energy production and con-
current electricity power mix) [3], and a low investment in infra- sumption due to its vicinity.
structure related to the growing demand makes Venezuelan elec- Advantages to both producers and consumers can be achieved
tricity system one of the most susceptible in Latin-America to by implementing such systems at a large scale in urban de-
power shortages. Frequent outages of electricity are present during velopments. Savings due to reduced consumption of base-load
dry seasons when low water levels lead to a general shutdown of during periods of high demand, user-autonomy, reliability, less
the main hydroelectric plant (el Gurí), and it is common that de- investment costs in infrastructure, and a more secure and flexible
mand peaks go beyond the installed power capacity. In addition, power system are among the foreseen benefits. However, high rates
the transmission line which supplies electricity to the main city of of investment are needed to produce energy from RES in decen-
Caracas, spreads over 2000 km long, a failure at any point of the line tralized systems using conventional technologies. We believe that
would leave the city without electricity for days. the use of low-cost technologies for energy production and storage
The vulnerability of the power system and major power outages offers alternatives that are economically more feasible, and thus the
are a national concern. The Venezuelan government has proposed a basis to foster the transition towards renewable energy sources in
series of radical strategies to reduce the high demand of electricity, developing countries.
as well as plans to diversify the predominant hydropower share in In this work we describe a novel and holistic approach to utilize
their electricity mix [21]. According to Bautista, 2012 [20], the new low cost technology for the on-site generation and storage of
set of policies abided by the government in the last 3 years after the electricity in a dense urban context. The approach is exemplified
energy crisis of 2009e2011, could lead to a future situation where using a case study in Caracas, Venezuela. In order to acknowledge
both energy consumption and hydropower utilization would the specific context of the site, the approach not only addresses
decrease, which in turn could lead to a rapid penetration of fossil technological, socioeconomic and environmental factors, but also
fuels (up to 80% of the electricity mix), diminishing the current the necessary integration and implications on urban and architec-
share of 66% renewable energy sources (large-hydropower) to a tural design of a power system for a building.
scarce 20% by mid-century. Better alternatives for clean, reliable
and feasible sources of energy supply need to be proposed in order 1.1. Case study
to create a promising scenario for the Venezuelan power genera-
tion sector form both economic and environmental points of view. By the end of 2004, more than 9798 tall buildings were being
Harvesting renewable energy sources (excluding traditional constructed in Latin America, for a total of 38,063 by the end of
large scale hydropower) is an alternative in the Venezuelan context 2011 [25]. Tall buildings (High-rise buildings and skyscrapers) are a
for diversification of the power system without reverting to the predominant architectural typology for the future. In cities such as
exploitation of fossil fuels for electrification. For instance, there are Caracas/Venezuela tall buildings are constructed at a rate of 1
widely confirmed synergies between wind power and hydropower percent per year. Currently 1104 high-rise buildings (50e100 m)
systems. Studies carried out in Venezuela [22], Colombia [23] and and 34 skyscrapers (>100 m) shape Caracas’ skyline [26]. This ur-
Brazil [15] revealed the seasonal complementarity of regimes of ban typology has been a response to the rapid urbanization and the
wind power generation compared to the predominant hydroelec- housing crisis that the country has been experiencing since the
tric production of every country. The analysis document high wind beginning of the century [27]. The case study selected can be
velocities present during dry seasons from April until October, the described as an alternative solution to this housing crisis in an
same period that water levels in the main dams are low; existing exemplary context.
facilities for wind power generation in those countries remained The Torre Confinanzas Complex (TCC) consists of a once aban-
unaffected during the complete cycle of El Niño/Southern Oscilla- doned set of five unfinished buildings (Fig. 4a) located in the
tion (ENSO) events. financial core of Caracas/Venezuela. Today the TCC hosts an
Regarding other means of power generation, an alternative to informal settlement of 3000 inhabitants/750 families self-
assure the security of power systems is the decentralized produc- organized in separate dwelling units (DU). The most prominent
tion of energy, taking advantage of the capacity of the demand to be building of the development is Building A, a 45 story, 190 m tall
regulated on site. According to Pepermans et al., 2005 [24], skyscraper, of which top 15 stories are still empty (Fig. 4a). A pro-
distributed generation represents a clear opportunity for standby gressive dismantling of the façade and inner spaces has been car-
capacity or peak use capacity (peak shaving); strategies consisting ried out over the last 5 years. The community, characterized by low-
on the generation of peak loads at the local level, thereby reducing income status and sub-standard living conditions, but nonetheless
 J.A. Fonseca, A. Schlueter / Energy 53 (2013) 93e105 95

having a strong character, has struggled to raise its standard of

living and to gain the general acceptance of the city’s society.
In an admirable effort, the inhabitants of the TCC have organized
an improvised infrastructure of electricity, water and mobility. Only
this infrastructure makes living in the abandoned complex even
possible. Its maintenance and operation creates jobs and identifi-
cation. Improvements are only possible by acknowledging the
community, by asking the inhabitants to contribute with their
knowledge, power and ingenuity. Realizing and integrating the
environmental potentials at the site, the existing architecture and
its verticality as well as the strong community of inhabitants opens
up a path toward a livable and sustainable present and future,
currently hindered by power and water outage of in its wider
context.1
Fig. 1. Resources consumption of Torre Confinanzas, Venezuela and EU-27. Elaboration
1.1.1. Existing electricity and water systems based on MPPEE [30], Odysee, 2009 [31] and Eurostat, 2010 [32], (Inserted with the
The electricity infrastructure consists of a self-constructed author’s permission, Schlueter et al., 2012 [33]).
connection to the local grid and a local distribution in the com-
plex. Although every DU is connected to the local network, the
system is susceptible to overloading and power outage during peak feasibility of technology and shape of the TCC limit the suitability of
periods and dry seasons, as described above. this source for power generation. According to the environmental
Current water infrastructure in the TCC is comprised of a limited data of the weather station La Candelaria in Caracas [35], the city of
pumping and distribution system connected to the central grid and Caracas is often cloudy at the same time when peak solar radiation
operates once or twice a week. The improvised water system inside is expected, Cloud cover causes scattering and thus diffusion of
the complex lacks the infrastructure required for continuous radiation as it reduces the amount of solar radiation from
operation and distribution. Additionally, it is susceptible to inter- 1600 kWh/m2 year available at regional level to around 1000 kWh/
mittent outages during dry seasons, when water is scarce in the m2 year. A simulation carried out in the software Autodesk
grid. In 2011 the country and the city of Caracas were subjected to a Ecotect,2 showed a low range of solar insolation (300e1000 kW/
25 percent deficit of water [28]. m2 year) on the surfaces of the TCC and only a few available
zones for solar harvesting, which are limited to the roofs of Building
1.1.2. Demand of resources A and partially those of the buildings B and P. It was noted that both
The demand of resources of the TCC (Fig. 1) is equivalent to one vertical and horizontal areas are overcast by Building A, especially
third of the Venezuelan average and only one forth of the average during noon in the months of June, July and August, when solar
for the European Union. The low water demand is attributed to radiation is at its annual high.
restrictions in the supply system and water outages. The low Another limitations in solar energy harvesting is the low
electricity consumption is due to power shortages and lack of high positioning of photovoltaic technologies in the Venezuelan market
energy-demanding appliances for cooling purposes such as HVAC [3], which makes their installation and maintenance difficult in
systems, domestic hot water heaters, and dishwashing machines the context of Caracas. The costs expected in relation to produc-
that in contrast, are existent in households with a higher income in tion capacity are far higher than those of wind energy technolo-
the region [29]. The rather low amount of emissions is due to low gies; as is demonstrated further at the end of this document in
electricity and heating energy consumption and the large fraction Fig. 11.
of renewables in the electricity power mix of Caracas. The composition of the TCC complex offers primarily vertical
The demand of resources in TCC follows typical fluctuations surfaces, which are not as suitable for harvesting solar energy as
relative to the behavior of inhabitants in adjoining nations with a horizontal surfaces at Caracas’ latitude. The height of the tower
similar income status and cultural characteristics. Under this (190 m) and the good exposure of large surfaces to constant winds
assumption, the demand patterns of the TCC can be approximated over 4 m/s (60% of the time) are a good potential for wind energy
to the consumption profile of resources for the average low-income harvesting, especially, on the Northern and Eastern facades.
communities of Medellin/Colombia, a city sharing environmental, The dynamic behavior of wind energy source in contrast to solar
social and cultural characteristics with Caracas Fig. 2. energy Fig. 3, facilitates the direct supply of energy during night-
The demand patterns present three peak periods usually in the time, representing an opportunity to level the night peak of the
morning, at noon and in the evening, where 40% of all the resources demand without necessitating an increased energy storage.
are consumed and the highest needs in terms of power are attained. Moreover, in contrast to solar energy, wind energy can be generated
The already low demand of electricity in the TCC is expected to by simple low cost technologies, highly accessible to the users, and
be reduced by at least 10% in the near future as result of the strict requiring less maintenance.
energy saving policies of the Venezuelan government [30]. Due to these facts, a wind power system is suitable for an
installation at the facades of the Torre Confinanzas. The scale and
1.1.3. Renewable energy sources context of the TCC, suggest the conformation of a pico wind power
Solar and wind energy are the main renewable energy sources system that requires a low technical knowledge for its construction
available at the TCC. The geographic location of Venezuela close to and non-specialized work force, which is available in the commu-
the equator means solar isolation on the surface can attain values nity. This property facilitates the social acceptance and integration
between 4 and 6 kW/m2. However, factors such as microclimate, necessary for the use of infrastructure at low cost and with high
involvement.

1
For more information: http://ciudadevolutiva.com/tag/torre-confinanzas/.
2
[Spanish]. For more information: http://usa.autodesk.com/ecotect-analysis/.
96 J.A. Fonseca, A. Schlueter / Energy 53 (2013) 93e105

1.2.1. Pico wind power system

The proposed energy system for peak power supply (Fig. 4a)
consists of a wind power generation system installed as a com-
plementary element to the open façades of Building A. At this scale,
the system is sized to cope with the daily peak load in the TCC
(Fig. 2) and to be connected to the existing electricity grid. Its
installation as part of a new image of Building A aims at exploiting
the wind energy and human potentials of the site.

1.2.2. Pumped pico hydro storage

Water supply is one of the most essential needs of the TCC’s
community. In a twofold approach the water supply of the in-
habitants is updated to store and to generate energy. The pumped
Fig. 2. Normalized functions of demand of resources in the Torre Confinanzas com-
pico hydro storage can be installed, operated and maintained
plex. Based on average daily profiles of residential units estimated by the Universidad mainly by the inhabitants themselves. This will not only provide a
nacional de Colombia, 2006 [29] and CORPOEMA, 2010 [34]. more constant water supply throughout the year, but also, it will
allow the storage of energy and water during dry seasons.
The water system employs a simple yet intelligent principle
1.2. Power system concept
(Fig. 4b). An array of water tanks on different floors of the tower is
filled using pumps driven by the electricity surplus during periods
Renewable energy sources are an alternative to reduce the
of high availability of wind. Water is pumped up to reservoirs
amount of energy generated from fossil fuels (approximately one
positioned at a higher level than the occupancy location; at the
third of the total electricity mix), but more importantly, to facilitate
same time that the reservoir is filled up, the daily demand of water
a constant supply of electricity during peak periods, when the
is supplied by the system. On demand, these reservoirs supply pico
electricity grid often breaks down (Fig. 2). These sources are con-
hydro turbines arranged in parallel that convert the potential en-
strained to time, usually lacking capacity when the major peaks
ergy of the falling water into electricity again. In this way a portion
take place (Fig. 3). In order to shift surpluses of energy and mitigate
of the electrical demand needed at peak times can be supplied from
the intermittency of the sources, storage of electricity is necessary.
stored wind energy.
Converting electrical energy into mechanical energy using a pum-
The pumped pico hydro storage system is planned to accumu-
ped hydro storage system is an opportunity in the context of the
late enough water to sustain the TCC during a 4-day long water
TCC; it can be combined with existing water infrastructure and the
outage. The system is configured to provide an update to the
skills of the inhabitants to build and maintain such a system.
existing infrastructure for fresh water supply, providing the
Based on the concept presented by Schlueter et al., 2012 [33],
necessary continuous flow of water for the inhabitants while
two circuits for generation and storage (Fig. 4b) allow the response
regulating its consumption based on the capacity of the interme-
to a further occupation of Building A once better infrastructure is
diate storage tanks presented in Fig. 5.
developed. This is a probable scenario in a country with a current
In order to host the necessary piping and electrical infrastruc-
housing deficit of more than 2.7 Million of dwelling units [27].
ture, Building K will be extended in height to form an infrastructure
Different authors have recognized the complementarity of
backbone for the tower complex.
wind-based power systems and pumped-hydro storage as an
alternative for either centralized [36e39] or decentralized pene-
tration of clean sources of energy [40,41] along Turkey, Greece, 2. Methodology
Spain and Venezuela [20]. In the setting of tall buildings, Ovy et al.,
2012 [10], presents a novel approach for electrification of high-rise 2.1. Sizing of generation system
buildings in Dhaka city/Bangladesh. While it differs drastically
from the scheme proposed by this research, it highlights the The peak load supply (Selepl
) Eq. (1) represents the amount of
complementarity of wind and mechanical hydraulics as power energy necessary to cover the peaks of demand plus an additional 8
sources in tall buildings. percent, which represents the direct wind energy that cannot be
stored and the related losses to cycles of charge and discharge. It is
assumed during the calculation process that this power load is
equal to the demand in average periods of Dt ¼ 1 h.
X
24
Sele ele
pl ¼ 1:08$Dpl ¼ 1:08$ f ðtÞDt  Em $T (1)
t¼1

In Eq. (1), Sele

pl
is the peak load supply in kWh, Dele
pl
is the total
demand during peak period in kWh, T is the total daily hours (24 h),
Em is the minimum demand supply in kW << where for the point
P(t1,Em), f00 (t1)>0 and f0 (t1) ¼ 0 >>, f(t) is the demand profile
function provided as a list of normalized values of the average daily
demand of energy (Fig. 2).
Qualitative and quantitative aspects of the available energy
sources were obtained from environmental data of the weather
station La Candelaria in Caracas [35]. Prevailing wind velocities and
Fig. 3. Normalized functions (energy vs daytime) of renewable energy sources on site.
directionally were identified at 15 m above ground (10 km/h, NE),
Based on average daily profiles described in the data base U.S. Department of energy the wind logarithmic law suggested by Cook, 1990 [42] Eq. (2) was
[35] and in CORPOEMA, 2010 [34]. then used to estimate the profile of wind velocities in the building.
 J.A. Fonseca, A. Schlueter / Energy 53 (2013) 93e105 97

Fig. 4. (a) Concept for pico e wind power turbines on facades with prevailing wind orientation and extension of building K as backbone for networking of adjacent buildings. (b)
Concept for pumped pico hydro storage on unoccupied floors and division in two main circuits for operation. (Inserted with the author’s permission, Schlueter et al., 2012 [33]).

Average velocities were grouped in zones of 0.1 m/s differences as the generation of electricity. Due to its size and configuration, TA can
explained in Table 1. be fastened in all the available facades as part of the architectonic
composition of the building, a tradeoff in average efficiency (28%) is
  foreseen from this system according to the manufacturer.5 On the
h
ln 2 other hand, Technology B (TB) consists on a traditional small hori-
V2 z
¼  0 (2) zontal axis wind turbine (B z 1.5 m) with a rated power of 300 W at
V1 h1
ln 10 m/s; its size and free span restrictions limit its applicability to the
z0
top unoccupied floors. Both technologies have equal cut-in speed
In Eq. (2), V1 is the reference wind speed in m/s, V2 is the wind z4 m/s and cutout speed z12e15 m/s.
speed at height h2 in m, h1 is the r height of reference ¼ 15 in m, h2 The maximum power output of each technology Tk in the zone
is the height at wind speed V2 in m, and z0 is the roughness Zi was obtained from Eq. (3) where wind power generation Pk,i
length ¼ 1.63 in m. is shown in terms of power density Pdk,i according to Burton
In order to identify the potential facades of the building where et al. [43].
wind turbines could be installed, a simulation was carried out with
the toolkit Wind tunnel in the software Autodesk Project Vasari4 for
!
Pk;i rANet
k
Vi3
the TCC every 15 m in height, obtaining the zones where useful Pdk;i ¼ ¼ nk $ (3)
wind velocities were likely to be present more than 60% of the time Agross
k
2Agross
k
for a standard year. For Building A of the TCC these zones ranged
from the floors 6 to 30 on the eastern façade and from the floors 16 In this equation, Pdk,i is the power density of technology Tk in the
to 45 on the northern façade. zone Zi in kW/m2, ANet k
is the net area of the wind propeller of
Once the available zones for wind power generation were iden- technology Tk in m2, Agross k
is the net area plus free span area
tified, a technical and economical assessment of potential technol- necessary in m2, r is the air density in the zone Zi z 1.2 in kg/m3, nk
ogies was carried out. Two technologies were analyzed; Technology is the rated average efficiency of technology Tk, and Vi is the rated
A (TA) consists of racks of small pinion-shaped horizontal axis wind average velocity for zone Zi in m/s.
propellers (B z 25 cm) interlocked horizontally to produce me- According to Lopez et al., 2011 [44], the technical potential of a
chanical work. In contrast to single wind propellers, this technology technology can be obtained from Eq. (4). A slight modification was
only uses one rotor with a rated power of 50 W at 10 m/s for multiple done to this equation in order to consider the relative generation
propellers, transferring the energy collected to one single point for capacity of every zone, allowing zones with more area but less
energy available to be compared Eq. (5).

3
After Cook, 1990 [42], this value refers to a roughness length ‘class 4’, charac-
5
teristic of large cities with high buildings and skyscrapers. For more information: http://www.motorwavegroup.com/new/motorwind/
4
For more information: http://labs.autodesk.com/utilities/vasari/. houses.html.
98 J.A. Fonseca, A. Schlueter / Energy 53 (2013) 93e105

Fig. 5. Schematics for pumped pico hydro storage. The figure describes the two main circuits to operate in the tower. Pipelines for fresh water supply and intermediate storage tanks
are calculated to operate by gravity at a minimum pressure of 50 kPa. Daily operation implies an intake of 115 m3 of fresh water for all the inhabitants in the tower under a two
phase development scenario.

Ek;i ¼ CFk;i $Ai $Pdk;i $8760 h (4) values for yearly operation. This high value compensates the low
average efficiency considered in both technologies (nk).
Suitable zones for energy generation had to be identified. These
Ek;i zones consisted on areas where the maximum energy potential
Gk;i ¼ (5)
Ai exists. In this case, those areas refer to the top of building A where
the highest wind velocities are present. It was considered during
In these equations, Ek,i is the potential annual energy generation the analysis that the technology represents part of the façade of the
of technology Tk in Zone Zi in kWh/m2 per year. Gk,i is the relative building, leading to prefer the distribution of the system over all the
energy generated with the technology Tk in the zone Zi in kWh/m2 building facade rather than clustering it in one single zone. The
per year, Ai is the total area available in the zone Zi in m2, and CFk,i is formula to assess each technology Tk relative potential in a deter-
the capacity factor of technology Tk in the zone Zi. mined Zone Zi is described in Eq. (6), where RGk,i is the relative
For this calculation the capacity factor was assumed to be equal potential of technology Tk in zone Zi in %, and n is the total number
to the frequency of wind velocities in the prevailing wind direction. of zones analyzed. Positive values in this formula indicated a po-
For the northeast direction, this value was about 50% of the time, tential over the average of all the zones and negative values the
which can be considered a good approximation in terms of average opposite (Table 1). This potential is related to the size, supply load
 J.A. Fonseca, A. Schlueter / Energy 53 (2013) 93e105 99

Table 1 Table 2
Assessment of average velocities, relative potentials and potential technical energy Technical and economical variables of technologies assessed for a scenario with a
generation for every zone. The red line represents the threshold for operation of the peak supply load of Sele
pl
¼ 347 MWh=year.
wind power technologies z Cut-in speed z 4 m/s, Cut-out speed z 15 m/s is out of
range. The green line represents the threshold where technology Tb can be imple- Ta Tb
mented as part of the architectural composition of site. This table can be read: e.g. for Technical aspects
technology Ta zone 9 will produce 48%(61%) ¼ 109% more energy per unit of area Pk (W) 50 300
than zone 2. nk () 0.28 0.36
Agross
k
(m2) 0.38 18.5
Zi () Floor Height Vi RPA,i RPB,i GA,i GB,i
range () range (m) (m/s) (%) (%) (kWh/ (kWh/ ANet
k
(m2) 0.29 2.5
m2 m2 Economical aspects
year) year) Units for Sele
pl
3027 135
TI per unit ($/un) 336 5.760
9 41e45 168.9e190 8 48 6 336 158
TI (Millions of $) 0.98 0.75
8 36e40 147.8e168.9 7.8 37 0 310 150
INST (TI%) 2 10
7 31e35 126.7e147.8 7.5 25 7 283 140
O&M (TI%/yr) 3 10
6 26e30 105.6e126.7 7.3 12 0 252 0
LEC ($/kWh) 0.35 0.42
5 21e25 84.4e105.6 6.9 3 0 219 0
4 16e20 63.3e84.4 6.5 20 0 182 0
3 11e15 42.2e63.3 6 38 0 139 0
2 6e10 21.1e42.2 5.1 61 0 88 0 between base load supply and peak load supply, denominated the
1 1e5 0e21.1 3.3 0 0 0 0 target for peak shaving, Tpsh, which is equal to the limit Em stated in
Eq. (1).
For every daily time interval (t ¼ 1 h), a calculation of the po-
and the physical constraints in terms of positioning, and operating
tential energy that can be stored was performed using Eq. (8). This
velocities of each technology.
potential energy was considered the energy surplus that otherwise
Pn will be supplied below the target Em, and that would increase the
i¼1 Gk;i
Gk;i  volatility of the network.
RGk;i ¼ Pn n $100; cGk;i s0 (6)
i ¼ 1 Gk;i  
n Esurplus;t ¼ Dnet
t  Sele
pl;t  Tpsh > 0 (8)

Following the technical assessment, an economic assessment In Eq. (8), Esurplus,t is the amount of energy for ct where
was carried out by relating the levelized electricity cost (LEC) Dnet > Tpsh in kWh, Dnet is the demand of energy in t in kWh, Sele is
t t pl;t
Eq. (7), and the turnkey investment cost (TI) [45] of every tech- the peak load supply in t in kWh, and Tpsh is the target for peak
nology in an scenario where the most suitable zones (those rated shaving ¼Em in kW.
with positive relative potential RGk,i) are considered to supply the The results in Fig. 3 show that the surplus of energy during off-
needs of energy described in Eq. (1) for the next 20 years. peak periods was equal to 1.5 times the energy deficit Eq. (9)
(energy necessary to cover the peak of the demand Eq. (10)) for the
Pn Ik;t þ Mk;t þ Ik;t
defined value of Tpsh. This relationship proportionately established the
t¼1
ð1 þ rÞt number of hours that the pumping/turbine cycle would be turned on,
LEC ¼ (7)
Pn Ek;t considering that the pumps and turbines work at optimum flow-head
t ¼1
ð1 þ rÞt range, maximum power and continuously during a period of mini-
mum 1 h, maximizing their efficiency during operation.
In the Eq. (7), LEC is the levelized electricity cost in $/kWh, Ik,t is
the investment expenditures of the technology k in the year t in $, P6 pm ele
Mk,t is the expenditures due to operation and maintenance (O&M)
Esurplus t ¼ 1 pm Spl;t
1:5z ¼ P10 pm ¼ 6hours =4hours (9)
of the technology k in the year t in $, Fk,t is the electricity generated Edeficit Sele
t ¼ 7 pm pl;t
by the technology k in the year t in kWh, r is the Internal return rate
z0.1, and n is the lifetime of the system z20 in years.  
For this analysis, O&M and Installation costs (INST) were Edeficit;t ¼ Dnet ele net
t  Spl;t  Tpsh < 0 ct; where Dt > Tpsh (10)
considered a percentage of the total direct costs composed pri-
marily by equipment (wiring, inverters, wind turbines, and control The calculation of total head losses and the subsequent total
units). For the case study TCC, both O&M and INST costs are low in dynamic head of the pumps and turbines for every interval of time
comparison to other cases due to inclusion of the community’s own Dt during off-peak and on-peak periods respectively was per-
work force into these activities. Results of the analysis can be formed according to [46,47]. The energy equations used in this
appreciated furthermore in Table 2 and Fig. 11. process are described according to [48] for operation during charge
Once the selection of technology was carried out, the size of the in Eq. (11), and during discharge in Eq. (12), where Epele is the total
system corresponded to the number of units (of the technology) electric energy consumed in kWh, Ppele is the total electric pump
necessary to satisfy the Sele . The profile of wind power generation power in kW, HT,p is the total dynamic head of the pump in m, Qp is
pl
was provided as a list of normalized values of the average daily the water flow pumped in m3/s, np is the pump efficiency, g: is the
wind energy generated for a project of 9 MW in the Venezuelan’s specific gravity of water ¼ 9.81 in kN/m3, and dt is the time interval
gulf with similar weather conditions of the case study [34] (Fig. 3). of continuous operation (1 h).
For the sake of simplicity, the generation of energy in the TCC was  
approximated to this average profile. Epele ¼ Ppele $Dt=n ¼ Qp HT;p g $Dt=n (11)

2.2. Sizing of energy storage system  

ETele ¼ n$PTele $Dt ¼ n$ QT HT;T g $Dt (12)

The size of the energy storage system was based on the energy In Eq. (12), ETele is the total electric energy generated in kWh, PTele
flow necessary to regulate the demand profile up to a threshold is the total electric turbine power in kW, PTnet is the total turbine
100 J.A. Fonseca, A. Schlueter / Energy 53 (2013) 93e105

power in kW, HT,t is the total dynamic head of the turbine in m, QT is Table 4
the water flow in m3/s, and np is the turbine efficiency. Characteristics of pumped pico hydro storage system in circuits 1 and 2, under a two
phase development scenario.
The characteristics of piping, head losses, average efficiencies,
inputs and outputs of energy and storage capacity assumed during Circuit 1 Circuit 2
the analysis are presented in Table 5. The operation of both pumps Storage capacity (kWh) 65 20
and turbines was considered to be continuous during a Dt ¼ 1 h. As Energy for charging (MWh/yr) 69 24
Energy for discharging (MWh/yr) 23 8
a result a high efficiency of this equipment was assumed.
Overall efficiency () 0.32 0.33
The sequence of operation of both pumps and turbines was Location in zone Zi () 1e6 7e9
determined throughout the optimization of the Eqs. (13)e(16).

ele
Ep;t ele
/Esurplus;t zPp;t $Dt (13)
1 Q 1  i$N 2 Q 2
STOc;t ¼ STOc;t1 þ i$Np;t P;t p;t P;t

ele ct; 12 pm < t  6 pm (18)

Np;t ¼ Esurplus;t =Ep;t (14)
STOc;t¼0  1 m3

ele
ET;t el
/Edeficit;t zPT;t $Dt (15) 1 Q 1 þ i$N 2 Q 2
STOc;t ¼ STOc;t1  i$NT;t T;t T;t T;t
ct; 6 pm < t  10 pm (19)
ele
NT;t ¼ Edeficit;t =ET;t (16)
STOc;t¼0  1 m3

In these equations, Ep;tele is the electric energy surplus stored in t

ele is the power necessary in t in kW, N 6X
pm X
10 pm
in kWh, Pp;t p,t is the number of 2 2 2 2
ele is the electrical energy deficit supplied in t STOT ¼ i$ Qp;t Np;t  i$ QT;t NT;t (20)
pumps operating in t, ET;t
t ¼ 12 pm t ¼ 6 pm
in kWh, PT;t ele is the power necessary in t in kW, and N
T,t is the
number of turbines operating in t. In these equations, STOc,t: Storage capacity during t in m3,
Separate piping for turbines and pumps were considered so that STOc,t1: Storage capacity during t1 in m3, i$NP;t
1 Q 1 is the amount
P;t
a constant and regulated flow can be guaranteed and the energy of water required by circuit 1 during t while charging, i$NT;t1 Q 1 is
T;t
stored becomes not higher than that defined by the Eq. (8). Further the amount of water required by circuit 1 during time t while dis-
research will allow to optimize the operation cycle of this system 2 Q 2 : Defines the total amount of water required by
charging. i$NP;t P;t
either by reducing or increasing the power capacity of every pump 2 Q 2 is the amount of water
circuit 2 during t while charging, i$NT;t T;t
or turbine, in order to minimize the number of units required to required by circuit 2 during t while discharging, and i is the time of
balance daily profiles of energy supply and demand. charge/discharge (¼3600) in seconds.
While sizing the storage system, it has to be guaranteed that the
amount of water pumped to the top is more or equal to the total 3. Results
amount of water falling down at the end of the cycle. This aspect
was a challenging task, because the amount of energy to store is not The next results were calculated following the methodology
equal to the amount of energy to supply at every interval of time, described above and considering the opportunities regarding de-
requiring control of the amount of flow necessary only to cover mand reduction in the context of the TCC presented in Section
those energy needs without exhausting the storage first. After the 1.1.2.
analysis, this value is equal to the storage capacity required for the
bottom reservoir STOb of the circuit 1 in Fig. 4.
The storage capacity of the reservoir located in the center of the 3.1. Technical feasibility
building STOc depends on the pumping rate of the bottom of the
tower and the water flow required for operating the two circuits of Tables 3e6 represent the design values of the peak load power
storage. In other words, the amount of water stored by the first system related to the infrastructure elements necessary for its
circuit of the tower is the intake for storage STOT in a higher level of operation. Due to the complexity of the system and the uncertainty
the second circuit at a same interval of time. about the future occupancy, it is assumed that an infrastructural
Eqs. (17)e(20) describe the behavior during time of the three development in two stages able to cope with present and future
storage units to be located in Building A. Based on these equations peak demands should be considered. Fig. 5 presents a scheme of the
the storage needs were easily estimated. pumped pico hydro storage system and a conceptual configuration
of the water supply network of Building A. This structure will
6X connect the 5 existent buildings to the system of energy generation
pm X
10 pm
STOb ¼ i$ 1
Qp;t 1
Np;t  i$ 1
QT;t 1
NT;t (17) and water supply.
t ¼ 12 pm t ¼ 6 pm

Table 5
Characteristics of pumping system for pumped pico hydro storage in circuits 1 and 2.
Table 3
Characteristics of pico wind power system in circuits 1 and 2, under a two phase Circuit 1 Circuit 2
development scenario. Electric rated pump power Ppel (kW) 3.8 2.8
Number of identical pumps in parallel Np () 12 5
Circuit 1 Circuit 2 Operation flow Qp (m3/s) 2e2.5 2e2.5
Peak power generated (kW) 76 27 Diameter of main pumping line Dp (mm) 50 50
Energy produced (MWh/yr) 377 131 Efficiency np () 0.8 0.8
Number of wind units () 4280 1101 Total dynamic head of pressure HT,p (m) 123 104.4
Location in zone Zi () 5e6 7e9 Static head of the system Hst (m) 98 81
 J.A. Fonseca, A. Schlueter / Energy 53 (2013) 93e105 101

Table 6
Characteristics of electricity generation system for pumped pico hydro storage in
circuits 1 and 2.

Circuit 1 Circuit 2
Electric rated turbine power PTel (kW) 1.4 1.1
Number of identical turbines in parallel NT () 16 7
Operation flow QT (lt3/s) 2.5e3 2.5e3
Diameter of main injection nozzle DT (mm) 10 10
Efficiency nT () 0.7 0.7
Total dynamic head of pressure HT,T (m) 74 74
Static head of the system Hst (m) 98 81

3.1.1. Load balancing/peak shaving

Taking into consideration the energy losses in the system, 24% of
the yearly energy demand is supplied out of a total 30% of the en-
Fig. 7. Comparison of cases of daily operation cycle of storage in circuits 1 and 2.
ergy demand generated. The low efficiency of the pumped pico
hydro storage accounts for a total loss of 25% of the annual energy
generated. Under the assumptions explained in 2.1 and 2.2, a A first case consists of the implementation of the wind power
“shaved profile” of the energy demand is represented in Fig. 6. system and the pumped pico hydro storage system in Building A.
The installation is provided in zones 5 and 6, where the highest
3.1.2. Sensitivity cases wind potential of all the occupied zones exists according to Table 1.
The cases described in Fig. 8 simulate the possible daily vari- A second case differs from the conditions of the first one through a
ability of energy supply and demand in the TCC. It is considered an subsequent implementation of the power system in the most
oscillation of 10% of these two energy vectors for the analysis. suitable zones (zones 7, 8 and 9 in the top of Building A), providing
It can be concluded that the storage capacity required is reduced the generation capacity necessary to meet the demands of a future
by 5e7% when either the demand or supply of energy decreases in occupancy of 40%. A third case consists of the homogenous con-
10% (Fig. 7). In this case, the number of turbines and pumps struction of the wind power system on the most suitable zones of
necessary (Fig. 9) are also reduced by 5e7%. On the other hand, the Building A (zones 6, 7, 8, 9), meeting the current occupancy. In
target for peak shaving (Fig. 6) has to be increased by 5% if the contrast, a fourth case consists of the most efficient configuration of
supply of energy decreases in 10% in order to balance the system. In the wind power system; being located in zones 6, 7, 8 and 9, and
contrast, this value has to be decreased by 18% in the case that the meeting the demands of a possible future growth of 40%. A fifth
demand of energy is 10% less as expected (Fig. 8). The energy bal- case has been planned in order to compare the costs of incurring a
ance of the system is necessary in order to avoid the volatility of the higher demand of energy as the result of an occupancy increase of
local network, facilitating as a result the deployment of the 100% in the TCC. Zones 6, 7, 8 and 9 are considered for this last
renewable energy source at a macro level into the grid. situation. The results of the economic analysis are shown in Fig. 10.
It can be inferred that the system operation will depend on the Among the options for future development, the fourth case is
threshold of peak shaving, value that describes the amount of en- the most promising solution to promote in the TCC. The initial in-
ergy to store and to deliver to the system. In the same way, it is vestment cost remains proportional to the number of inhabitants,
recognized that the pumped hydro storage system is flexible and the cost of energy is one of the lowest compared to other cases
enough to be easily operated in the days when flows of energy under the same assumptions of prices.
supply or demand are either high or low; this will depend directly Albeit the rate of investment can be quite high in comparison to
on the number of pumps and turbines that be turned on or off the average income per family in the TCC ($414/month) a financing
according to this threshold number. plan can be organized to a certain extent using crowdfunding as a
mechanism of joint investment for mutual benefit [49]. The
3.2. Economic feasibility possible 4500 inhabitants of the complex could be able to finance
the initial investment cost which represents close to 25% of their
3.2.1. Sensitivity cases yearly income, obtaining not only benefits in terms of security of
Five possible cases for the transformation of the TCC towards energy and water supply, but also indirect advantages in terms of
using wind energy over the next 20 years are economically internal jobs for maintenance and operation of infrastructure.
analyzed. This analysis includes estimations about occupancy, de-
mand growth and implementation stages.

Fig. 8. Comparison of cases of daily operation cycle of peak and base load supply in
Fig. 6. Peak shaving with the suggested decentralized power system at local level. circuit 1.
102 J.A. Fonseca, A. Schlueter / Energy 53 (2013) 93e105

Fig. 9. Comparison of cases of daily operation cycle of pumping and turbine systems in
circuits 1 and 2.
Fig. 11. Economic comparison per each kWh generated from pico e wind power
system Ta and Tb and PV-panels in case 3. Solar insulation on site TCC ¼ 1000 kWh/
It can be concluded that the TCC should be occupied 40% more in m2 year. Price Pv/m2 ¼ USD 700. Inverter/W ¼ USD 0.711. Wiring/m2 of Pv ¼ USD 0.95.
the next 20 years in order to achieve low energy prices, internal Installation (% direct costs) ¼ 5, yearly O&M (% direct costs) ¼ 10.

funding alternatives and a 100% utilization of the TCC in relation to

the existing Venezuelan’s housing crisis. constant collision between the Caribbean and South American plates.
Despite this condition, Caracas has not registered a considerable
3.2.2. Generation systems earthquake since 1967. Further seismic events are unpredictable.
Power availability of the source and the cost of technology All the structures at the TCC were designed to meet the re-
implementation play important roles into the levelized electricity quirements of the Venezuelan standard Covenin 1756-8082 and the
generation costs of different systems. In comparison to solar American Concrete Institute code ACI 318-83.
photovoltaic systems, wind energy systems are able to generate The analysis of the seismic response in buildings is directly
energy at a third of the price for the case study analyzed (Fig. 7). correlated to the distribution and proportion of the deadweight
These systems assessed under the case number 3, represent the loads actuating in the structure. Considering that most of the
only economically feasible alternative in the site. deadweight loads foreseen in the structure were never constructed
(floor finishings and partitions), it is possible to compare the weight
3.2.3. Storage systems that water tanks can add to the structure at different heights to
The efficiency of technologies and O&M costs (in the case of those deadweight loads. Water storage increases the effect that
pumped pico hydro storage system) play a major role in the lev- common deadweight loads have over the structure; inertia of the
elized electricity generation cost of storage systems. While pumped fluid while oscillating at different rates of acceleration induces this
pico hydro storage system costs are twice as high as other elec- effect. An arbitrary þ30% of restriction in weight for water is used
trochemical energy storage systems (Fig. 12), the energy storage for this comparison as shown in Table 7.
accounts only for 14% of the entire costs of the power system. As it can be inferred from Table 7 that the weight of the water
Therefore, by choosing another alternative such as racks of lead- tanks does not threaten the correct response of the structure after
acid batteries or Vanadium-redox, general savings of 7% could be seismic events. Without any doubt it will alter the natural fre-
expected. Nevertheless, this benefit could be considered negligible quency and periods of oscillation of the structure, however, if we
in comparison to the benefits that the pumped hydro system pro- assume that once the tower is fully occupied, a total homogenous
vides in terms of synergies among water, energy and population. distribution of loads is achieved, those parameters will not change
considerably.
4. Discussion

4.1. Structural risk

Caracas is located in a moderate-high seismic zone (grade 5 on a

scale of 7) [50] where a quaternary fault lies as the result of the

Fig. 12. Economic comparison per each kWh generated from pico e pumped hydro
storage, a lead acid battery 2200 cycles and an all Vanadium battery in case 4. TI and
LEC of pico pumped hydro storage are calculated according to prices of 234 USD/HP
pump, 850 USD/HP turbine, 5 USD/m main piping, 125 USD/m3 of storage tanks,
Installation (% direct costs) ¼ 10, and yearly O&M (% direct costs) ¼ 5. LEC of Vanarium-
redox are estimated according to prices of 420 USD/kW and 230 USD/KWh (incl.
electrolyte, tanks, pumps, controller), Installation (% direct costs) ¼ 15, and yearly O&M
Fig. 10. Levelized electricity generation costs and turnkey investment cost for different (% direct costs) ¼ 15. TI and LEC of lead acid battery are estimated according to a price
possible cases of future development in the Torre Confinanzas. Both wind power and of 300 USD/kWh, Installation (% direct costs) ¼ 15, and yearly O&M (% direct
pico hydro system costs are considered in the analysis. costs) ¼ 10.
 J.A. Fonseca, A. Schlueter / Energy 53 (2013) 93e105 103

Table 7 Betz, 1966 [51]. This condition will create in contrast a gentler breeze
Comparison for seen deadweight load and water tanks loads added to the structure, in higher floors of the building if the generation system is installed in
based on values of Covenin 1756-8082 and ACI 318-83.
the facades. The size of the system is dimensioned to cover the peak
Deadweight load per floor supply load, which represents roughly 30% of the total supply load.
Type Load (kg/m2) Floor area (m2) Deadweight As a result, the wind power systems would cover just a small part of
load (ton/floor)
Typical floor finishing 100 1600 1600
the available front area, giving the liberty to every DU to choose
Brick-partitions 300 1600 4800 whether to install it or not as soon as a minimum quantity of energy
6400 can be generated. Noise-related impacts are a concern for the
Deadweight load water tanks application of the proposed technology A; however, in comparison to
Type Load (kg/m3) Capacity (m3) Deadweight
existing roof-fans and the noisy environment at the location, it is
load (ton)
Water storage 1000 280 280 assumed to not have major effects in the current comfort conditions.
Water tanks in concrete 1.037 280 290
(e ¼ 0.15) 4.3. Visual impact and identity
570

The improvements of the TCC infrastructure influence its ar-

chitecture and its appearance (Fig. 13). The façade-based wind
In terms of structural statics, the water tanks should not be power system adds another colorful and individual element to the
located in a configuration that exceeds the vertical loads per unit of facades, satisfying both the stated desire for a more conventional
area considered during design. The summation of deadweight loads appearance of the building and eliminating the negative stigma of
and live loads for offices use from ACI 318-83 ¼ 200 kg/m2, the marginalized conditions of the self-constructed ‘barrios’ (slums). In
tanks should not apply a punctual load higher than 600 kg/m2. The addition to the wind power systems, the coloring of the makeshift
configuration of tanks following this restriction, will lead to locate façade elements creates a colorful and playful exterior, constituting
water tanks connected in series in several floors. an exterior identity to proudly present to the surrounding city. The
extension of Building K to constitute the backbone for infrastruc-
4.2. Comfort ture and vertical mobility, visualizes the dynamic flow of media,
people and goods during day and nighttime. It is a vertical beam
While wind propellers are installed in a free open surface they that connects the city quarter inside of the TCC, and provides the
will retain some of the current flow, 59.3% maximum according to path for the access to services.

Fig. 13. Possible Architectural Intervention. (a) North e east facades. (b) West façade. (c) Wind power system scheme for façade. (Inserted with the author’s permission, Schlueter
et al., 2012 [33]).
104 J.A. Fonseca, A. Schlueter / Energy 53 (2013) 93e105

4.4. Applicability Acknowledgments

Tall buildings are a prevailing typology in Latin America, far We would like to thank Anja Willmann and Barnim Lemcke for
apart from the suitability assessment of energy potentials of site, their contribution to graphics and research. We also thank Dino
and other requirements regarding façade composition, structural Rossi for his helpful comments, and Hubert Klumpner and the Ur-
and energy requirements. Wind and hydropower combined con- ban Think thank team for their involvement in the case study and
stitutes a strategy that might be implemented in other locations at provision of background information.
the regional level.
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